Chapter 13: Moral Development, Values, and Religion,

proactive strategies

important parenting strategy = averting potential misbehavior by children before it takes place -young children: use diversion (ex. distract their attention or moving them to alternative activities) -older children: talk with them about values that the parents deem important *helps children and teens resist temptations that will arise outside of the parental context

moral personality

includes moral thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; the idea that there is a set of characteristics or traits that constitute a moral personality -include moral identity, moral character, moral exemplars

moral identity

individuals have moral notions and commitments that are central to their life; behaving in a way that violates their moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk -moral responsibility is central to their identity; engage in moral metacognition, moral self-monitoring and moral self-reflection -increases in the adult years -service-learning and community opportunities as a way of improving this in youth

integrative approach

integrative approach to moral education that encompasses both the reflective moral thinking and commitment to justice advocated in Kohlberg's approach, and developing virtues as advocated in the character education approach -Child Development Project: students given multiple opportunities to discuss other students' experiences (inspiring empathy and perspective taking) and participate in exercises that encourage them to reflect on their own behaviors in terms of values (ex. fairness) -coached in ethical decision making and guided to become more caring individuals

internalization process: cognitive

internalize the ability to reason through moral issues and dilemmas; movement from fully external motives to fully internal

religion and cognitive development

involve Piaget's cognitive developmental stage: more so than in childhood, teens think abstractly, idealistically, and logically -increase in abstractness lets teens consider various ideas and ask what their beliefs really are -increase in idealistic thinking provides a foundation for thinking about whether religion provides the best route to a better, more ideal world -increased logical thinking gives teens the ability to develop hypotheses and systematically sort through different answers to spiritual questions -religion as a part of identity development

moral character

involves having the strength of your convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles -without this, people may wilt under pressure or fatigue, fail to follow through or become distracted and discouraged, fail to behave morally *importance of moral motivation- prioritizing moral values over personal values

autonomous morality

last stage of Piaget's moral theory; children become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in judging an action, they consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences -recognize that punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing and that, even then, it is not inevitable

overt

minor aggression followed by fighting and violence

covert

minor covert acts, such as lying, followed by property damage and moderately serious delinquency, then serious delinquency

moral performance

moral behavior determined by motivation and the rewards and incentives to act in a specific way

care perspective

moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others

religion and sexual activity

most churches discourage premarital sex; the degree of teen and emerging adult religiousness is an important determinant of sexual behavior and attitudes

altruism and volunteerism in older adults

older adults more likely to behave in altruistic ways and to value contributions to the public good than younger adults were -volunteering as an adult associated with life satisfaction, less depression and anxiety, lower risk of cognitive impairment

religion

organized set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that increase individual connection to a sacred or transcendent other

relational quality

parents introduce mutual obligations of close relationships that involve warmth and responsibility -parents must engage in positive caregiving and guiding children to become competent beings -children must respond appropriately to parents' initiatives and maintain a positive relationship with parents -importance of early secure attachment

moral exemplars

people who have lived exemplary lives; have moral personality, identity, character, and a set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment -study these people to characterize the ideal endpoint of moral development and see how people got there -more advanced in moral reasoning, further along in developing an identity, more likely to be in close relationships

today's child developmentalists believe

positive feelings (empathy, sympathy, admiration, self-esteem) and negative feelings (anger, outrage, shame, and guilt) contribute to children's moral development -provide natural base for children's acquisition of moral values, motivating them to pay close attention to moral events -moral emotions interwoven with cognitive and social aspects of development (ex. have parents who are more likely to label emotion and mental states frequently)

altruism

purest forms of prosocial behavior are motivated by this; an unselfish interest and voluntary effort in helping another person -most likely evoked by empathy for an individual in need or a close relationship between the benefactor and the recipient

basic processes of moral behavior

reinforcement, punishment, and imitation as how individuals learn certain responses -depends on the consistency and timing of administration -modeling depends on the characteristics of the model and the cognitive skills of the observer *behavior is situationally dependent -- cannot find a completely honest or completely dishonest child -ask whether child has developed the skills to resist temptation and exercise self-control

meaning in life

religion as an important factor in increasing one's exploration of the meaning in life -having a sense of meaning in life lead to clearer guidelines for living one's life and enhanced motivation to care of oneself and reach goals -higher level of meaning in life linked to well-being and physical health *quest for meaning in life involves the need for purpose, values, a sense of self efficacy (one can make a difference), and self-worth

pleasure seeking orientation

second stage of preconventional reasoning; reason that pursuing own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same *based on a equal exchange -- if they are nice to others, others will be nice in return

universal ethical principles

sixth and highest stage of moral development; person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights -conscience should be followed in situations of conflict between conscience and law

Viktor Frankl's Meaning in Life

spirituality, freedom, responsibility = most distinct human qualities -in middle adulthood, individuals face death more often, especially death of parents and older relatives; faced with less time, ask and evaluate questions of meaning in life, meaning-making coping especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss

immanent justice

the concept that if a rule is broken, the punishment will be meted out immediately -- a violation is connected automatically with its punishment -implies if something bad happens to someone, they must have transgressed earlier

preconventional level

the lowest level of moral reasoning; motives AND standards are external -stages = punishment orientation, pleasure seeking orientation -children under age 9; 95% of all 7 year olds are at this stage

reciprocity

the obligation to return a favor with a favor; people feel guilty when they do not reciprocate, and people may feel angry when other people do not -may motivate prosocial behaviors such as sharing

conventional level

the second level of moral reasoning; motives are internal, but standards are external (ex. standards set by laws, parents, teachers, but are internalized) -two stages = good boy/girl, authority orientation -early adolescence; 40% of all 10 year olds are at this stage -majority of adults here

social contract or utility and individual rights

fifth stage of moral development; individuals reason that values, rights, and principles transcend the law -evaluate the validity of laws and social systems based on the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values

heteronomous morality

first stage of Piaget's moral theory; children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people -judge rightness backed on considering the action's consequences, not the intentions (ex. breaking 12 cups unintentionally is worse than breaking 1 cup intentionally) -believe in immanent justice

punishment orientation

first stage of preconventional reasoning; moral thinking is tied to punishment (ex. young children think they must obey because they fear punishment for disobedience)

social conventional reasoning

focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus in order to control behavior and maintain the social system ex. arbitrary rules such as raising your hand in class before speaking -sanctions if we violate these conventions, although the rules can be changed by consensus -moral judgements based on social organization

moral reasoning

focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality; unlike social conventional rules, these moral rules are not arbitrary -- they are obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal (ex. rules pertaining to lying, cheating, stealing) -moral judgements based on concepts of justice; more serious if these rules are violated

authority orientation

fourth stage of moral development; moral judgements are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty (ex. teens may reason that in order for a community to work, it needs to be protected by laws that are followed)

merit

giving rewards for hard work

benevolence

giving special consideration to individuals in a disadvantaged condition

values clarification

helping people to clarify what their lives mean and what is worth working for -unlike character education, this encourages students to define their own values and understand the values of others -value-free

postconventional level

highest level of moral development; both motives AND standards are internal -two stages = social contract or utility and individual rights, and universal ethical principles -less than 20% of all people achieve this -every postconventional reasoner is a formal operator -not all formal operators are postconventional reasoners; formal operational thought is necessary but not sufficient for posconventional reasoning

spirituality

experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society

externalizing/undercontrolled pattern of behavior

children with serious conduct problems (5% of all children) who are impulsive, overactive, and aggressive and engage in delinquent actions

empathy

an affective response to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other person's feelings -contributes to child's moral development -has the cognitive component of perspective taking

juvenile delinquency

closely linked with conduct disorder; refers to actions taken by a teen in breaking the law or engaging in behavior that is considered illegal -only considered a juvenile delinquent when found guilty of a crime by a court -2% of all youth involved in juvenile court cases

conversational dialogue

conversations related to moral development -- can be planned or spontaneous and focus on topics such as past events (ex. prior misbehavior or positive moral conduct), shared future events (ex. going somewhere that may involve a temptation), and immediate events (ex. talking with the child about a sibling's tantrums)

Electra complex

(for females) girls realize that their father has a penis that she wants, but their mother will be angry if she does so -can act like the mother and get close with her so that she does not get angry at her -take on the values of the mother

Oedipal conflict

(for males) every young male has the desire to perform sexual relations with his mother (subconsciously), BUT the father is stronger and bigger and will dismember him -can act like the father so the mother will like him -take on the values of the father

religion and spirituality in adulthood

-92% of Americans believe in God, 75% pray weekly -70% of U.S. adults are religious and consider spirituality a major part of their lives -women and Latinos and African-Americans show higher rates of religious participation -women participated more in organized and personal forms of religion, more likely to believe in a higher power, more likely to feel religion is an important dimension in life -strongly religious early adults became less so in middle age while others became more religious in middle age -- depends on the individual -less likely to be depressed, longer longevity, lower rates of drug use, better social connectedness, better coping methods for stress

causes of delinquency

-Erikson: teens with a negative identify may find support for their delinquent image among peers, reinforcing their negative identity -lower SES culture, child maltreatment; may feel they can gain attention and status by performing antisocial actions -living in communities with high crime rates leads to observations and modeling of criminal activities; quality schooling, educational funding, organized activities may be lacking here -parents less skilled in discouraging antisocial behavior/encouraging prosocial behavior, parental monitoring, family discord and inconsistent/inappropriate discipline -hostile sibling relationships and older sibling delinquency linked with younger sibling delinquency -having delinquent peers -lack of academic success, low self-control, low intelligence, lack of sustained attention

parenting moral context

-Piaget and Kohlberg thought parents do not provide unique or essential inputs to children's moral development -- peers play primary role -young children are actually moral apprentices striving to understand what is moral; assisted in this by the sensitive guidance of adult mentors -most important aspects of relationship between parents and children = relational quality, proactive strategies, conversational dialogue

gaps in moral development and faith explained

-assumptions regarding moral development according to Kohlberg (ex. applying an external standard if you don't steal just because of one of the ten commandments) -huge diversity of views about faith/God (2,000 religions in the world, most have deities) -diversity of people within faith communities (and their consistency) -definitions/measures of faith (ex. distal vs. proximal, religion vs. relationship -- religion looks at how often you attend church, pray, etc., not really socially) -belief/behavior interfaces; people don't always do what they believe or prioritize

Piaget: how do changes in moral development occur?

-become more sophisticated in thinking about social matters, especially about possibilities and conditions of cooperation -social understanding comes through the mutual give and take of peer relations *peer-peer relations are more likely to advance moral reasoning because the power is similar to the child's, plans are negotiated *parent-child relations are less likely to advance moral reasoning because rules are often handed down in authoritarian ways, the parents have the power and the child does not

developmental changes and pathways in adolescents/emerging adults

-crime and delinquency rates change from age 18 to 26 years old -early onset (before age 11) associated with more negative developmental outcomes than late-onset antisocial behavior -three developmental pathways associated with delinquency = authority conflict, covert, and overt

theories of morality

-different theories have different untestable assumptions -different theories focus on different things, tell you different things that are important to look at and be concerned about -different theories give you different explanations for outcomes -different theories have different implications for research -each has different strengths and supports and weaknesses -choose your favorite or most useful theory depending on the context and personal preference -science is NOT objective, it will interact with your personal values

prosocial behavior changes in childhood and adolescence

-examples of caring for others and comforting someone in distress occur even during preschool years -prosocial behaviors more often in adolescence due to advances in abstract, idealistic, and logical thinking, increased empathy and emotional understanding *leads to increased sympathy with people with abstract groups with whom they have little experience (ex. people in poverty), increase in volunteer opportunities

gender and prosocial behavior

-females across age groups engage in more prosocial behavior than males -largest difference in kind and considerate behavior -smallest difference in sharing

moral development and faith

-no consistent relationship between common measures of moral development and the development of and/or the expression of religious faith -in particular: no specific religion or denomination has members consistently scoring above non-religious people *why do these gaps exist?

summary of moral theories

-none of the theories are complete -focus on different aspects of morality *one common focus = internalization (morality shifts from external to internal); how morality gets internalized is different for each theory -different implications for research and applied foci -each theory has something to offer

social learning theory

-parent becomes secondary reinforcer; parents are associated with the deliverable (ex. food, clean diapers) -desire to gain reinforcement/approval -children internalize values through observation and behavioral shaping ex. Thomas and Mcgee Experimental Conditions: *practice first and preach second **consistency is a good and powerful shaper

positive role of religion in teens' lives

-parents' religiousness related to youths' religiousness during adolescence -attending religious services with their parents increases the positive influence of parenting on teens' psychological well-being -positively related to well-being, self-esteem, three Big Five factors (conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness), negatively associated with risk behavior and depression -more likely to adopt religion's message of caring and concern for people -negatively associated with risk behavior and depression

development of religion, spirituality

-societies use Sunday schools, parochial education, parental teaching to ensure people carry religious tradition -tend to adopt the religious teachings of our upbringing if securely attached to parents -religiousness declines from 14 to 20 years old (frequency of prayer, frequency of discussing religious teachings, frequency of deciding moral actions for religious reasons, overall importance of religion in everyday life) -emerging adults in less developed countries more likely to be religious

religion in older adults

-stable attendance in middle adulthood, increased in late adulthood, declined or increased later in adult years -stronger self-esteem, sense of meaning in life, optimism, satisfaction, stress resilience, better coping with facing death, accepting inevitable losses of old age -help older adults maintain social networks, receive social support -many are spiritual leaders in churches and communities -people over 65 are more likely than younger people to say religious faith is a significant influence in their lives, try to put religious faith into practice, attend religious services

Kohlberg's theory of moral development

-stages are universal -development from one stage to another is fostered by opportunities to take the perspective of others and to experience conflict between one's current stage and a higher stage -gave children a series of stories in which the characters faced moral dilemmas -made three levels of moral thinking each with two stages (preconventional, conventional, postconventional reasoning) *stages appeared somewhat later than he thought, rare for people to reason at higher stages

cheating

-students cheat when they are pressured to get high grades, there are time constraints, poor teaching (incompetent, unfair) and lack of interest -situation-specific (ex. more likely to cheat when they are not being closely monitored during a test) -personality traits like low conscientiousness and low agreeableness are more prone

evaluation of cognitive theory of morality

-support for developmental sequence -more support for LEVELS than STAGES -can move back and forth between stages, but not between levels

parental recommendations

-warm and supportive, use inductive reasoning, engage in authoritative parenting -not punitive and do not use love withdrawal as discipline -provide opportunities for the children to learn about others' perspectives and feelings -involve children in family decision making, in thinking about moral decisions -model moral behaviors and thinking, provide opportunities for children to do so -provide info about what behaviors are expected and why -foster an internal rather than external sense of morality -help children to understand and regulate negative emotion rather than becoming overaroused

influences on Kohlberg's stages

-when models present children with arguments slightly beyond their level of moral reasoning, it promotes advanced moral reasoning -peer interaction as a critical part of the social stimulation that challenged children to change moral reasoning

Piaget's theory of moral thought development

1. 4 to 7 years old: heteronomous morality 2. 7 to 10 years old: children in transition with some features of the first stage and some features of the second 3. 10 years old and up: autonomous morality

different prosocial behaviors in adolescents

1. altruism (ex. charity work in itself) 2. public (ex. helping others while they are being watched) 3. emotional (ex. help people when they are upset) 4. dire (ex. help people who are hurt badly) 5. anonymous (ex. prefer to donate money without anyone knowing) 6. compliant (ex. never wait to help others when they ask for it)

cognitive theory of morality

1. born morally pure -not born with a sense of right and wrong, but the preset is to be morally good 2. corruption comes from societal interaction -problem: where do the bad people come from? 3. moral decision making is the focus

social learning (behaviorist) perspective of morality

1. born neither good or bad, but with a tabula rasa (blank slate) upon which experience writes 2. know that NOT true for some aspects of development (like reflexes) but seems to be pretty good estimate of morality 3. you are maximally malleable; you can be changed and taught different things/ways 4. modeling -- kids watch people with high regard and attachment and emulate things they do, whether it's good or bad

milestones in development of empathy

1. early infancy- global empathy 2. 1-2 years- undifferentiated feelings of discomfort at another's distress grow into more genuine feeling of concern -infants still cannot translate realization of others' unhappy feelings into effective action 3. early childhood- become aware that every person's perspective is unique and that someone else may have a different reaction to a situation -allows the child to respond more appropriately to another's distress 4. 10-12 years- develop an emergent orientation of empathy for people who live in unfortunate circumstances

William Damon's sharing and fairness development

1. first three years- sharing done for nonempathetic reasons (ex. fun of social play, imitation) 2. 4 years old- combination of empathetic awareness and adult encouragement produces a sense of obligation to share -still do not think they should be as generous to others as they are to themselves 3. elementary school years- begin to express more complicated notions of what is fair -principles of equality, merit, benevolence to assess how goods should be distributed -equality the first principle use regularly -mid to late elementary: apply principles of merit and benevolence *parents set examples that children carry into their interactions and communication with peers, but day-to-day construction of fairness standards are done in collaboration and negotiation with peers

criticism of Kohlberg's theory

1. places too much emphasis on moral thought, not on moral behavior -moral reasons can sometimes be used as a disguise for immoral behavior 2. views moral thinking as deliberative, not unconscious/automatic 3. says emotion has a negative effect on moral reasoning -research shows emotion plays a major role 4. theory is not universal -higher-level moral reasoning more culture- -cohort effects 5. parent-child relationships play a bigger role than peer relationships in moral development 6. gender bias (Carol Gilligan)

meaning-making coping

drawing on beliefs, values, and goals to change the meaning of a stressful situation, especially in times of high stress levels like when a loved one dies -religion serves as a meaning system

do infants have moral awareness and engage in prosocial behavior?

1. when infants are given a choice between looking at two things, babies look longer at the more pleasant thing -characters who hinder or harm others are viewed more negatively by infants (as young as 4 months) -infants act to punish hinderers and rewards helpers 2. parental empathy influences the amount of sharing infants engage in and build on in the second year *infants and toddlers possess an intuitive sense of fairness used in evaluating observed behavior -presence of early foundation for moral awareness not anticipated in Piaget's and Kohlberg's theories

development of faith, religiousity, spirituality: orientation points

1. worldwide- religion and spirituality are seen as a major factor shaping the lives of people of all ages across cultures, classes, ethnicities 2. less emphasized in scientific literature than in people's lived experiences, but new scholarship emerging (not just in social sciences) 3. understood and articulated differently by adults and children, so it "develops"

development of faith is an area often avoided

1. yet, few people are casual about it -if you have had an identity crisis and then a commitment, it takes on importance -if it is real to you, it often becomes a core or life-organizing value; the meaning of life 2. diversity of beliefs all based on faith (not able to be proven) 3. no proof and highly personal, centrally important -perfect recipe for disagreement and offense -need great sensitivity, care, and tolerance to consider respectfully

psychoanalytic theory of morality

1. you are born morally corrupt (pure id) and have a tendency to be bad 2. society's job is to curb corruption -problem: where do the good people who are going to cure corruption come from? 3. focus = moral affect -feelings about morality, especially about guilt/remorse -after you act corrupt, how do you feel about that? *a strong superego makes you feel guilt and remorse

social cognitive theory of morality

Bandura emphasizes a distinction between an individual's moral competence and moral performance -relationships between the environment, the cognition (ex. resistance to self-control) and behavior *in developing a moral self, individuals adopt standards of right and wrong that serve as guides and deterrents of conduct -- self-regulatory process of monitoring conduct and regulating actions by the consequences they apply to themselves (want self-satisfaction, self-worth)

forgiveness

an aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when the injured person releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation -elementary schoolers more often swayed by peer pressure to forgive others -adolescents forgive people they like more than others they do not -adult women were more likely to forgive than men, adults more likely to forgive family members, more likely to extend it to people who are alive over dead

gratitude

an aspect of prosocial behavior; a feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in responses to someone doing something helpful or kind -linked to positive development in teens such as satisfaction with family, optimism, prosocial behavior

sympathy

an emotional response to another person in which the observer feels sad or concerned about the other person's well-being

internalization process: psychoanalytic

during the phallic stage; Oedipal vs. Electra complex -when you take on the value of your same sex parent, you form the superego *problems: -diversity of family forms -preoperational children can't articulate values -"transfer" studies less than convincing

character education

a direct education approach that involves teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others -need to engage in critical discussions of values, reflect on how to incorporate values in daily lives -reflects moral personality domain of moral development

service learning

a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community; teens engage in activities such as tutoring, helping older adults, working in a hospital, assisting in a child-care center, etc -goal is for teens to become less self-centered and more strongly motivated to help others -helps teens with extraversion, commitment, self-understanding, goal setting, self-esteem, higher grades *more often effective when: -students are given some degree of choice in the service activities -students are provided opportunities to reflect about their participation

conduct disorder

age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that occur often and violate family expectations, society's norms, the personal or property rights of others -show a wide range of rule-violating behaviors: swearing, temper tantrums, severe vandalism, theft, assault -onset in childhood associated with more cognitive impairment (especially in executive function), psychiatric symptoms, serious violent offenses than onset in adolescence -low childhood SES, low maternal closeness, history of harsh discipline associated with life course persistence and increased risk of substance abuse -linked to genetic inheritance of a difficult temperament, ineffective parenting, living in neighborhoods where violence is the norm

cognitive moral education

based on the belief that students should learn to value things as democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops -Kohlberg's theory as a foundation ex. high school students meet in a semester-long course to discuss a number of moral issues, instructor acts as a facilitator

values

beliefs and attitudes about the way things should be, involve what is important to -attached to religion, money, sex, education, helping others, family, friends, career, recognition, self-respect -influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions -measured with what people's goals are (ex. personal well-being, be financially well-off, promoting welfare of society)

integrative ethical approach

builds on the concept of expertise development within a supportive community; goal is to turn moral novices into moral experts by educating students on four ethical skills: ethical sensitivity, ethical judgement, ethical focus, ethical action

prosocial behavior

caring about the welfare and rights of others, feeling concern and empathy for them, and acting in ways that benefit others -encouraged by service learning

moral development

changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong -intra and inter-personal components

how does the superego and guilt develop?

children fear losing their parents' love and being punished for their unacceptable sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent -to reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affection, children identify with the same-sex parent -children then internalize the parent's standard of right and wrong and develop the superego -child turns inward hostility that was previously aimed externally at the same-sex parent, developing guilt -self-control replaces parental control

hidden curriculum

conveyed by the moral atmosphere that is a part of every school; moral atmosphere is created by school and classroom rules, moral orientation of teachers and administrators, and text materials, NOT by specific programs in moral education -teachers serve as models of ethical and unethical behavior -classroom rules and peer relations at school transmit attitudes about cheating, lying, stealing, consideration for others

Carol Gilligan

criticized Kohlberg's theory as being geared to Western men who stress justice ethics -Western women stress the ethics of care -results show small gender differences; adolescents and adults of both genders will reason based on care or justice -situation affects whether and which reason dominates

religiousness

degree of affiliation with organized religion, participation in prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, involvement in community of believers

equality

everyone is treated the same

social domain theory

there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains -children's and teens' moral, social conventional, and personal knowledge and reasoning emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience -key aspects of morality involve judgements about welfare, justice, and rights, as well as struggles that individuals have with moral issues in their social lives

good boy/girl

third stage of moral development; individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgement -children and teens often adopt their parents' moral standards -- seek to be thought as a good boy or girl

moral competencies

what individuals are capable of doing, what they know, their skills, their awareness of moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors -outgrowth of the cognitive-sensory processes

global empathy

young infant's empathic response in which clear boundaries between the feelings and needs of the self and those of another have not yet been established

authority conflict

youth on this pathway showed stubbornness prior to age 12, then moved on to defiance and avoidance of authority