Chapter 14

Global rates of mental illness

WHO researchers surveyed 85,000 people in 17 countries from almost every continent. On average, the lifetime rate of mental illness was found to be about one and three. 2007

BPD and behavior

"Cutting" or other acts of self mutilation, threats of suicide, and suicide attempts are common, especially in response to perceived rejection or abandonment. As many as 10% of those who meet the BPD criteria eventually commit suicide, an extremely high percentage that is about 50 times the suicide rate for the general population.

Symptoms of major depressive disorder - Behavioral symptoms

Dejected facial expression Makes less eye contact; eyes downcast Smiles less often Slowed movements, speech, and gestures Tearfulness or spontaneous episodes of crying Loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities, including sex Withdrawal from social activities

Do cultural factors affect the outcome of schizophrenia?

Despite less access to mental health care, people with schizophrenia often have a better outcome in the developing world. WHO found that recovery after a single episode of psychosis occurred in just 3% of cases in the US but in 54% of the cases in India. WHO suggests that people in the developing world might be more accepting of mental illness and are more likely to have extended family support systems than people in the developed world. Other studies have qualified these findings though. For example, for people with schizophrenia living in the developing world, a decline in symptoms did not coincide with improved life functioning.

binge eating disorder

People with this engage in binging behaviors. But they do not engage in purging or other behaviors that with their bodies of excess food. People with this experience the same feelings of distress, lack of control, and shame that people with bulimia experience.

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Repeated episodes of major depressive disorder are as predictable as the changing seasons, especially the onset of autumn and winter, when there is the least amount of sunlight. The evidence is contradictory. It is more common among women and among people who live in the northern latitudes.

Physical consequences of bulimia nervosa

Repeated purging disrupts the bodies electrolyte balance, leading to muscle cramps, irregular heartbeat, and other cardiac problems, some potentially fatal. Stomach acids from self-induced vomiting erode tooth enamel, causing tooth decay and gum disease. Over time, frequent vomiting can damage the gastrointestinal track.

The difference between schizophrenia, schizoid personality disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder

Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes. Schizoid personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive detachment from social relationships; emotionally cold and flat; indifferent to praise or criticism from others; preference for solitary activities; lacking in close friends. Schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by odd thoughts, speech, emotional reactions, mannerisms, and appearance; Impaired social and interpersonal functioning; often superstitious.

Causes of eating disorders, a complex picture

Eating disorders involve decreases in brain activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Disrupted brain chemistry may also contribute to the fact that eating disorders frequently co-occur with other psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder, substance abuse disorder, personality disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and anxiety disorders. While chemical imbalance may cause eating disorders, researchers are also studying whether they can result from eating disorders.

cyclothymic disorder

Emailed her but chronic form of bipolar disorder. People experience moderate with frequent mood swings for two years or longer. The mood swings are not severe enough to qualify as either bipolar disorder or major depressive disorder. Often, people with this disorder are perceived as being extremely moody, unpredictable, and inconsistent.

What causes generalized anxiety disorder?

Environmental, psychological, and genetic as well as other biological factors are probably involved. For example, a brain that is "wired" for anxiety can give a person a head start for developing GED in later life, but problematic relationships and stressful experiences can make the possibility more likely. Signs can be evident from a very early age, such as a child with a very shy temperament who constantly feels overwhelming anxiety in new situations or when separated from his parents. In some cases, these children develop this in adulthood.

What are the 3 personality disorders clusters?

1. The odd, eccentric cluster: paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality. Disorder, schizotypal personality disorder. 2. The dramatic, emotional, erratic cluster: antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder 3. And anxious, fearful cluster: avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Dramatic, emotional, erratic cluster

1. Antisocial personality disorder: blatantly disregard or violates the rights of others; impulsive, irresponsible, deceitful, manipulative, and lacking in guilt or remorse. 2. Borderline personality disorder: intense, unstable relationships, emotions, and self image; impulsive; desperate efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment; feelings of emptiness; self-destructive tendencies. 3. Histrionic personality disorder: exaggerated, overly dramatic expression of emotions and attention seeking behavior that often includes sexually seductive or provocative behaviors. 4. Narcissistic personality disorder: grandiose sense of self importance; exaggerates abilities and accomplishments; excessive need for admiration; post for, pretentious, lacking in empathy.

Anxious, fearful cluster

1. Avoidant personality disorder: extreme social inhibition and social avoidance due to feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism, rejection, or disapproval. 2. Dependent personality disorder: excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive, clinging behaviors; fears of separation; in the inability to assume responsibility. 3. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: rigid preoccupation with orderliness, personal control, rules, or schedules that interferes with completing tasks; unreasonable perfectionism.

Depressive disorders and bipolar disorders - Persistent depressive disorder

1. Chronic depressed feelings that are off and less severe than those that a company major depressive disorder

What are the two categories of dissociative disorders?

1. Dissociative amnesia, which can occur either with or without dissociative fugue 2. Dissociative identity disorder, which was previously called multiple personality disorder

Explaining depressive disorders and bipolar disorders

1. Family, twin, and adoption studies suggest that some people inherit a genetic predisposition, or a greater vulnerability, to depressive and bipolar disorders. They have consistently found that it tends to run in families, although bipolar disorder has much stronger genetic roots than major depressive disorder. 2. Differences in the activation of structures in the brain. One study found that people who were depressed showed increased activation in certain parts of the brain when trying to get rid of negative words and they're working memory. People who are not depressed shows similar activation, an indication of effort, when getting rid of positive words.

Depressive disorders and bipolar disorders - Major depressive disorder

1. Loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities 2. Despondent mood; feelings of emptiness, worthlessness, or excessive guilt 3. Preoccupation with death or suicidal thoughts 4. Difficulty sleeping or excessive sleeping 5. Diminished ability to think, concentrate, or make decisions 6. Diminished appetite and significant weight loss

Stress and depressive and bipolar disorders

1. Major depressive disorder and chronic stress lead to remarkably similar changes in the Nuro chemistry of the brain. 2. Major depressive disorder is often triggered by traumatic and stressful events. Exposure to recent stressful events is one of the best predictors of episodes of major depression disorder. 3. Finally, research has uncovered links between cigarette smoking in the development of major depressive disorder and other psychological disorders.

Depressive disorders and bipolar disorders - Cyclothymic disorder

1. Moderate, recurring mood swings that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder

Depressive disorders and bipolar disorders - Bipolar disorder

1. One or more manic episodes characterized by euphoria, high energy, grandiose ideas, flight of ideas, inappropriate self-confidence, and decreased need for sleep 2. Usually one or more major depressive episodes 3. In some cases, they rapidly alternate between symptoms of mania and major depressive disorder

odd-eccentric cluster

1. Paranoid personality disorder: pervasive but unwarranted distrust and suspiciousness; assumes that other people intend to deceive, exploit, or harm them. 2. Schizoid personality disorder: pervasive detachment from social relationships; emotionally cold and flat; indifferent to praise or criticism from others; preference for solitary activities; lacking in close friends. 3. Schizotypal personality disorder: add thoughts, speech, emotional reactions, mannerisms, and appearance; impaired social and interpersonal functioning; often superstitious.

binge eating disorder - summary

1. Recurring episodes of binge eating 2. The inability to control or stop the excessive eating behavior 3. Not associated with recurrent episodes of purging or other methods to prevent weight gain

Bulimia nervosa - summary

1. Recurring episodes of binge eating, which is defined as an excessive amount of calories within a two hour period 2. The inability to control or stop the excessive eating behavior 3. Recurrent episodes of purging, which is defined as using laxatives, diuretics, self-induced vomiting, or other methods to prevent weight gain

Depressive disorders and bipolar disorders - Seasonal affective disorder

1. Recurring episodes of depression the follow a seasonal pattern, typically occurring in the fall and winter months and subsiding in the spring and summer months

anorexia nervosa - summary

1. Severe and extreme disturbance in eating habits and calorie intake 2. Body weight that is significantly less than what would be considered normal for the person's age, height and gender, and refusal to maintain a normal body weight 3. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat 4. Distorted perceptions about the severity of weight loss and a distorted self-image, such that even an extremely emaciated person may perceive her self as fat

Most common compulsions

1. Washing - The urge to repeatedly wash yourself or clean your surroundings. It may involve an elaborate, lengthy ritual. Often linked with contamination of session. 2. Checking - this is done repeatedly to make sure that a simple task has been accomplished. Typically occurs in association with pathological doubt. These rituals may take hours. 3. Counting - the need to engage in certain behaviors a specific number of times or to count to a certain number before performing some action or task. 4. Symmetry and precision - need for objects or actions to be perfectly symmetrical or in an exact order or position. Need to do or undo certain actions in an exact fashion.

The prevalence of schizophrenia

200,000 new cases are diagnosed in the US annually. Approximately 1 million Americans are treated for this. No society worldwide is immune to this disorder. A review of almost 200 studies concluded that the global rates were close to 4%.

Understanding/Preventing Suicide - Statistics

800,000 people annually worldwide. 40,000 in the US. For each suicide, it is estimated that 25 people have attempted suicide, a total of about 1 million attempts a year in the US alone. In any given year, 500,000 people in the US require emergency room treatment as a result of attempted suicide. Worldwide, the rate decreased about 9% between 2000 and 2012. Not so in the US. Between 1999 and 2014, the suicide rate increased by about 24%, among all age groups and both men and women. Annually, twice as many people die in the US from suicide is from homicide. In 2013, suicide was the 10th leading cause of death, while homicide ranked 16th. Women outnumber men by 3 to 1 in suicide attempts. But men outnumber women by more than 4 to1 in suicide deaths, primarily because men tend to use more lethal methods, such as shooting and hanging. It is the second leading cause of death for young people ages 15 to 24, counting for 20% of annual deaths in this age group. Worldwide, suicide is a leading cause of death among people 15 to 29, second only to traffic fatalities. The rate of adolescents and young adults is still below that of older adults. The highest suicide rate consistently occurs in the oldest segments of our population, those aged 75 and above. There is no increase in the number of suicides during the winter holidays. There are consistent seasonal variations though. In the US, suicide rates are lower during the fall and winter months in higher during the spring and summer months.

Dissociative experience

A break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity becomes separated or divided.

Marcela del Sol

From Chile and living in Australia, was diagnosed with D ID in 2013 after a Trumatic car accident. She has seven personalities. She is highly functioning.

Eating disorders

A category of mental disorders characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior. These include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. They are characterized by severely disturbed, maladaptive eating behaviors. In the DSM-5, it is included in "eating and feeding disorders", which includes disorders of infancy and childhood. It can include extreme reduction of food intake, severe bouts of overeating, and obsessive concerns about body shape or weight. 90 to 95% of the people who experience an eating disorder are female. Despite this ratio, essential features of eating disorders are similar for males and females.

dissociative disorders

A category of psychological disorders in which extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function. The experiences are much more extreme or frequent and they severely disrupt every day functioning. Awareness, or recognition of familiar surroundings may be completely obstructed. Memories of pertinent personal information may be unavailable to consciousness. Identity may be lost, confused, or fragmented.

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

A dissociative disorder involving extensive memory disruptions along with the presence of two or more distinct identities or "personalities"; formerly called multiple personality disorder. Typically, each personality has his or her own name and is experienced as if it has his or her own personal history and self-image. These alternate personalities, often called alters or alter egos, may be of widely varying ages and different genders. They are not really separate people. But they constitute a "system of mind". The alters seem to embody different aspects of the individual's personality that, for some reason, cannot be integrated into the primary personality. The alternate personalities hold memories, emotions, and motives that are not admissible to the individual's conscious mind. At different times, different alter egos take control of the persons experience, thoughts, and behavior. Typically, the primary personality is unaware of the existence of the alternate personalities. However, the alter egos may have knowledge of each other's existence and share memories. Sometimes the experience of one alter are accessible to another alter but not vice versa.

dissociative amnesia

A dissociative disorder involving the partial or total inability to recall important personal information. It is usually amnesia for personal events and information, rather than general knowledge or skills. A person may not remember his wife's name but does remember how to read. In most cases, it is a response to stress, trauma, or an extremely distressing situation, such as combat, marital problems, or physical abuse.

Hallucinations

A false or distorted perception that seems vividly real to the person experiencing it. These distorted perceptions usually include voices or visual stimuli. The content is often tied to the person's delusional beliefs. For example, if harboring delusions of grandeur, hallucinating voices may reinforce her grandiose ideas by communicating instructions from God, the devil, or angels. These can be virtually impossible to distinguish from objective reality when an episode is severe. And when less severe, that person may recognize that the hallucination is a product of her own mind. Also, it can it becomes enormously difficult to concentrate, remember, and integrate important information while ignoring irrelevant information. This disorganized thinking is often reflected in the person's speech. Ideas, words, and images are sometimes strung together in ways that seem nonsensical to the listener.

Delusions

A falsely held belief that persists despite compelling contradictory evidence. Bizzarre and far-fetched notions. The person often becomes preoccupied with erroneous believes and ignores any evidence that contradicts them. Delusional thinking may lead to dangerous behaviors, as when a person responds to his delusional ideas by hurting himself or attacking others.

Nicotine effects on the brain

After cigarette smokers were injected with up to 2 mg of nicotine, researchers used fMRI to track the brain areas activated, which included the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the thalamus. These brain structures produce the reinforcing, mood-elevating properties of other abused drugs, including cocaine, and amphetamines, and opiates.

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder involving periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formally called manic depression. These always involve abnormal moods at both ends of the emotional spectrum. Episodes of incapacitating depression alternate with shorter periods of extreme euphoria. For the vast majority of people with this, a manic episode immediately precedes or follows a bout with major depressive disorder. However, a small percentage of people with bipolar disorder experience only manic episodes.

phobia

A persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. As long as the fear does not interfere with daily functioning, it would not rise to the level of a psychological disorder.

Diagnosis of major depressive disorder

A person must display most of the symptoms described for two weeks or longer. In many cases, there does not seem to be any external reason for the persistent feeling of depression. In other cases, a person's downward emotional spiral has been triggered by a negative life event, stressful situation, or chronic stress.

antisocial personality disorder (APD)

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others; such individuals are often referred to as psychopath or sociopaths. With this, the person has the ability to lie, cheat, steal, and otherwise manipulate and harm other people. And when caught, the person chose little or no remorse for having caused pain, damage, or lost Weathers. It says though the person has no conscience or sense of guilt. This pattern of blatantly disregarding and violating the rights of others is central feature of this disorder. A history of violence is not necessary. Some evidence that some succeed in high-status competitive jobs like business or politics. A noted lack of anxiety, especially those willing to harm others for their own benefit. 4% of population displays characteristics, with men far outnumbering women.

borderline personality disorder (BOD) - chaos and emptiness

A personality disorder characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, emotions, and marked impulsivity. Moods and emotions are intense, fluctuating, and extreme often out of proportion to the triggering incident, and seemingly uncontrollable. The person unpredictably swings from one mood extreme to another. Inappropriate, intense, and often uncontrollable episodes of anger are another hallmark of this disorder. This person has a chronic and pervasive sense of emptiness. Desperately afraid of abandonment, he alternately clings to others and pushes them away. Because the sense of identity is so fragile, he constantly seeks reassurance and self-definition from others. When it is not forthcoming, he may erupt in serious anger or abject despair.

Schizophrenia

A psychological disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes. One of the most serious psychological disorders. During an episode, people lose their grip on reality.

manic episode

A sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech. These episodes typically begin suddenly, and symptoms escalate rapidly. People are uncharacteristically euphoric, expansive, and excited for several days or longer. Although they sleep very little, they have boundless energy. The person's self-esteem is wildly inflated, and he exudes supreme self-confidence. Often, he has grandiose plans for obtaining wealth, power, and fame., Some of which are delusional, or false, beliefs. Words are often spoken so rapidly they are slurred. Attention is easily distracted by virtually anything, triggering a flight of ideas, in which thoughts rapidly and loosely shift from topic to topic. Once ability to function during a manic episode is severely impaired. Hospitalization is usually required, partly to protect people from the potential consequences of their inappropriate decisions and behaviors. They can run up a mountain of bills, disappear for weeks, become sexually promiscuous, or commit illegal acts. They can become agitated or verbally abusive when others question they are grandiose claims.

Disassociative fugue

A type of dissociative amnesia involving sudden and unexpected travel away from home, extensive amnesia, and identity confusion. Outwardly, the person appears completely normal. But the person is confused about her identity. She suddenly and inexplicably travels away from her home, wandering to other cities or even countries. Sometimes, she will adopt a completely new identity. These cases are thought to be associated with traumatic events or stressful periods. But it is unclear as to how this state develops or why a person experiences it rather than other sorts of symptoms, such a simple anxiety or depression. When the person "awakens" from the state, she may remember her past history but have amnesia for what occurred during this state.

Explaining Schizophrenia - abnormal brain structures

About half of the people with schizophrenia show abnormalities in brain structure or function. The most consistent finding has been the enlargement of the fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles, located deep within the brain. But researchers do not understand how this is related to schizophrenia. Other differences include a loss of gray matter tissue and lower overall volume of the brain. Researchers also have observed particular patterns of connections among brain structures, like showing lower levels of connectivity between regions of the temporal lobes that are responsible for learning and memory, and the parts of the brain responsible for hearing, language, and processing images. This decreased connectivity may account for memory problems often experienced. But none of this proves that brain abnormalities cause schizophrenia, as some people do not have brain abnormalities and the evidence is correlational. Is it the cause or consequence? Finally, these brain abnormalities can be seen in other mental disorders as well.

Prevalence of anxiety disorders

According to some estimates, they will affect about one in four people in the US during their lifetimes. Evidence of disabling anxiety has been found in virtually every culture studied, all the symptoms may vary from one cultural group to another. Most of these disorders are much more common in women than in men.

Evidence to support the viral infection theory

Alan Brown and his colleagues compared stored blood samples of 64 mothers of people who later developed schizophrenia with a matched set of blood samples from women whose children did not develop it. Both sets had been collected years earlier during the women's pregnancies. After the analysis for the presence of influenza antibodies, they found that women who have been exposed to the flu virus during the first trimester had a sevenfold increased risk of bearing a child who later develop schizophrenia. Similarly, researchers examined medical records from about 1.5 million births in Denmark between 1977 and 2002. Children whose mothers were hospitalized for an infection during pregnancy were about 30% more likely than other children to develop schizophrenia years later. A related finding is that schizophrenia and related symptoms occur more often than people who were born in the winter and spring, when upper respiratory infections are most common.

Eating disorders and culture

Although cases have been documented for at least 150 years, contemporary Western cultural attitudes toward fitness and dieting probably contribute to the increased incidence of eating disorders today. This seems to be especially true with anorexia, which occurs predominately in western or "westernized" countries.

Creativity, depressive disorders, and bipolar disorders

Although creative people, on average, have better mental health than others, the most creative people ("creative geniuses") are at higher risk for developing a mental illness than other people. Specifically, depressive and bipolar disorders occur more frequently among the most creative writers and artists than among the general population, leading some researchers to propose a biochemical or genetic link between depressive and bipolar disorders in the artistic temperament. Mark Twain, Ernest Hemingway, and poet Sylvia Plath had severe depression, and both Plath and Hemingway committed suicide.

Cultural differences related to major depressive disorder

Although depression occurs globally with similar symptom presentation across different countries, people often talk about it differently. People in Cambodia refer to their experiences as "the water in my heart has fallen", and the Haitian word for depression translates to "thinking too much". Differences in the language and understanding of depression must be taken into account when diagnosing and treating this disorder.

Symptoms of DID

Always amnesia and memory problems. Frequent gaps in memory for both recent and childhood experiences. Commonly people "lose time" and are unable to recall their behavior or whereabouts during specific time period. Typically they have numerous psychiatric and physical symptoms, along with a chaotic personal history. Symptoms of major depressive disorder, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, sleeping disorders, and destructive behavior are also very common. Often, the patient has been diagnosed with a variety other psychological disorders before this.

bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by binges of extreme overeating, followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, or other inappropriate methods to purge the excess food and prevent weight gain. Intense preoccupation and dissatisfaction with their bodies are also apparent. However, people with this stay within a normal weight range or may even be slightly overweight. Another difference is that people usually recognize that they have an eating disorder. People can experience extreme periods of binge eating, consuming as many as 50,000 calories on a single binge.. They typically occur twice a week and are often triggered by negative feelings or hunger. During the binge, the person usually consumes sweet, high calorie foods. Typically, benches occur in secrecy, leaving the person feeling ashamed, guilty, and disgusted by her own behavior. After, she compensates by purging herself of the excess of food by self induced vomiting or by miss use of laxatives or enemas. Once she purchased, she often feels psychologically relieved. Some people don't purge themselves of the excess food but rather they use fasting and excessive exercise to keep their body weight within the normal range.

anorexia nervosa

And eating disorder characterized by excessive weight loss, and irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body self-perception. Three key features: 1. The person refuses to maintain a minimally normal body weight, usually through restricting calories by eating very little food, but also often by burning calories, such as with excessive exercise. BMI can drop to 12 or lower. 2. Despite being dangerously underweight, the person with this is intensely afraid of gaining weight or becoming fat. 3. She has a distorted perception about the size of her body. Although emaciated, she looks in the mirror and sees herself as fat or obese, denying the seriousness of her weight loss.

Anorexia and US culture, culture and human behavior

Anorexia incidents is highest in the US, western Europe, and other "westernized" cultures, where an unnaturally slender physique is the cultural ideal. In these cultures, self starvation is associated with an intense fear of becoming fat. There's a much higher incidence in women than in men, reflecting cultural beliefs about the importance of fitness for women. Body image issues and eating disorders can also rise in men, particularly some gay men as well as men who participate in sports with weight requirements.

Disruptions in brain chemistry

Antidepressants have been developed to treat major depressive disorder. Some researchers believe that increased levels in the brain of some neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine and serotonin, accompany an improvement in symptoms of depression among people taking the antidepressants. Abnormal levels of the neurotransmitter called glutamate may be involved in bipolar disorder. Lithium helps alleviate symptoms of both mania and depression by regulating the availability of glutamate. By doing so, lithium helps prevent both the excesses that may cause mania and the deficits that may cause depression.

Questions remaining on culture- bound syndromes?

Are they distinct disorders, or do they represent a culturally influenced expression of some more universal underlying pathology? When a disorder like anorexia nervosa appears to spread across cultures, is the increased incidence actually caused by media coverage? Or does it simply reflect an increase in the diagnosis of cases that already existed?

normal personality

Awareness, memory, and personal identity are associated and well integrated

Why can some ineffective mental health strategies appear effective when they are not?

Because the symptoms of many psychological disorders, especially those involving mild to moderate symptoms, diminished with the simple passage of time or with improvements in the persons overall situation.

Symptoms of major depressive disorder - Physical symptoms

Changes in appetite resulting in significant weight loss or gain Insomnia, early-morning awakening, or oversleeping Vague but chronic aches and pains Diminished sexual interest Loss of physical and mental energy Restlessness, fidgety activity

Explaining Schizophrenia - summary

Complex. Enormous individual variation. Genetic factors, the immune system, abnormal brain structures, abnormal brain chemistry, and psychological factors are implicated in schizophrenia.

Other important but not covered DSM-5 categories - disruptive, impulsive-control, and conduct disorders

Core features: varied group of disorders involving problems in the self-control of emotions and behaviors and that are manifested in behaviors that harm or violate the rights of others. Kleptomania: the recurrent failure to resist impulses to steal items that are not needed for personal use or for their monetary value. Pyromania: deliberately setting fires on more than one occasion, accompanied by pleasure, gratification, or relief of tension.

Family interaction patterns and eating disorders

Critical comments by parents or siblings about a child's weight, or parental modeling of disordered eating, they increase the urge than an individual develops an eating disorder. There's also evidence that other psychological characteristics may be risk factors. For example, having negative beliefs about oneself is associated with having an eating disorder. Also, researchers have found that a tendency towards perfectionism in childhood (traits like needing to complete school work perfectly and feeling a need to obey rules without question) was associated with a later diagnosis of anorexia. These diseases are about control, control of your life and of your body.

Culture-bound syndromes, culture in human behavior

Culture-specific disorders or culture-bound syndromes appear to be found only in a single culture. Hikikomori is a syndrome first identified in Japan in the 1970s, in adolescents and young adults. It involves a pattern of extreme social withdrawal. People become virtual recluses, often confining themselves to a single room in the parents' home, sometimes for years. They refuse all social interaction or engagement with the outside world and in some cases, do not speak even to the family members who care for them. They spend their time watching TV, playing video games, or surfing the Internet. Mostly young men. Some estimate there are 1 million in Japan. It has symptoms in common with western disorders, including social anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and agoaphobia. Its specific features are uniquely Japanese, reflecting social pressures and values. Some believe it is an extreme reaction to the pressures to succeed in school and to conform to social expectations that characterize Japanese culture. Also implicated is the almost symbiotic relationship that is in courage between mothers and children, especially sons, in Japan. Japanese parents are more tolerant of continuing dependency into adulthood than parents in other cultures might be.

Identical twins and schizophrenia

David and Stephen Elmore are identical twins, but Stephen has schizophrenia and David does not. In CT scans, Stephen's brain is slightly smaller, with less area devoted to the cortex at the top of the brain. He also has larger fluid-filled ventricles,. "The part of the cortex that Steven is missing serves as perhaps the most evolved part of the human brain. It performs complicated tasks such as thinking organized thoughts. This may help explain why paranoid delusions and hallucinations are characteristic of schizophrenia." Daniel Weinberger 1995

Antisocial personality disorder and personal gain

Deceiving and manipulating others for their own personal gain is the norm. Being able to look you in the eye and speak with complete confidence and sincerity, they will lie in order to gain money, sex, or whatever goal they are after. They are contemptuous about the feelings or rights of others, blaming the victim for his stupidity. Because they are consistently irresponsible, they often end up in the criminal justice system, develop alcoholism, or have difficulties holding a job. By middle to late adulthood, these tendencies tend to diminish.

Symptoms of major depressive disorder - Cognitive symptoms

Difficulty thinking, concentrating, and remembering Global negativity and pessimism Suicidal thoughts or preoccupation with death

Dissociation and possession

Dongria Kondh people, eastern India. Tribal dancing during a ceremony, which the community regards as sacred. Search dissociative trance in possession states are common in religions around the world. Within a religious context, they are not considered abnormal. In fact, such experiences may be highly valued.

rapid cycling

Experiencing four or more manic or depressive episodes every year. More commonly, bipolar disorder tends to occur every couple of years. It often happens when the individual stops taking lithium, a medication that helps control the disorder.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder

Extreme anxiety and intrusive thoughts are symptoms of both PTSD and OCD

phobophobia

Fear of acquiring a phobia

aphephobia

Fear of being touched by another person

bibliophobia

Fear of books

Catotrophobia

Fear of breaking a mirror

Understanding/Preventing Suicide - Risk factors and suicide

Feelings of hopelessness and social isolation Recent relationship problems or a lack of significant relationships Poor coping and problem-solving skills Poor impulse control and impaired judgment Rigid thinking or irrational beliefs A major psychological disorder, especially major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia Alcohol or other substance abuse Prior self-destructive behavior A family history of suicide Presence of a firearm in the home Exposure to bullying, including cyber bullying

Symptoms of major depressive disorder - Emotional symptoms

Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, helplessness, guilt, emptiness, or worthlessness Feeling emotionally disconnected from others Turning away from other people

diminished emotional expression

Flat effect. Emotional responsiveness and facial expressions are reduced, and speech is slow and monotonous.

How can you help prevent suicide?

If someone is truly intend on taking his or her own life, it may be impossible to prevent him or her from doing so. But if you know somebody who is at risk there are things you can do to help. The goal is to help your friend whether the immediate crisis so that he or she can be directed to a mental health professional. And it is important not to avoid or ignore a friend in crisis. 1. Actively listen as the person talks and vents her feelings. Expressed understanding and compassion, and prefer, if necessary to counseling or suicide prevention. 2. Do not deny or minimize the persons suicidal intentions. Ask if she wants to talk about her feelings. 3. Identify other potential solutions. List alternatives, helping him understand that other solutions exist. 4. Ask the person to delay his decision. Most are ambivalent, so if still intent on it, ask him to delay, even a few days. 5. Encourage the person to seek professional help. If possible, do not leave her alone. Advice of suicide hotline's or mental health associations.

Hong Kong and anorexia

In 1994, a 14-year-old schoolgirl, Charlene Hsu Chi-Ying, emaciated and weighing only 75 pounds, collapsed and died on a busy street in the heart of Hong Kong. Massive media coverage of this previously unknown illness. As understanding spread, and over the next decade, eating disorders in Hong Kong, Japan, and other Asian countries skyrocketed, and patients were much more likely to report a fear of being fat.

Unhealthy attitude about beauty

In China, very thin women are posting photos of themselves while holding an 8.3 inch wide piece of paper that completely blocks the view of their waist. This size of paper is called A4, and post with the hashtag #A4waist, generating thousands of comments.

How prevalent our dissociative disorders?

In the 1940s, a total of 76 reported cases were reported from the beginning of modern medicine in the 1700s. A few more cases were reported during the 50s and 60s. But in the 1970s there was a surge of dissociative disorder diagnoses. There is a controversy surrounding the "epidemic" of these disorders.

dissociative disorders - summary - dissociative amnesia

Inability to remember important personal information, too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness

personality disorders

Inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning that are stable over time and across situations and the deviate from the expectations of the individual's culture. Someone with this disorder has personality traits that are inflexible and maladaptive across a broad range of situations. The behavior goes well beyond that of a normal individual who occasionally experiences an emotional meltdown or who is grumpier, more aloof, or more self-centered than most people. They involve pervasive patterns of perceiving, relating to and thinking about the self, other people, and the environment that interfere with long-term functioning. And these maladaptive patterns of emotions, thought processes, and behavior tend to be very stable over time. Usually these disorders are evident during adolescence or very early adulthood. They are evident in about 10% of the general population. Despite the fact that the maladaptive personality traits consistently caused personal or social turmoil, people with these often blame others for their difficulties. Typically, they don't think there's anything wrong with him. They often do not seek help.

Anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder

Intense anxiety that disrupts normal functioning is an essential feature of these disorders.

The prevalence of major depressive disorder

It is among the most prevalent psychological disorders. In terms of its physical, psychological, and economic impact, it is one of the most devastating of any illness worldwide. In any given year, about 7% of Americans are affected by major depressive disorder. In terms of lifetime prevalence, many researchers have estimated that about 15% of Americans will be affected by this at some point in their lives. However, some researchers suspect that that number is too low. In a longitudinal study following more than 800 people for 30 years, from childhood through adulthood, about half the sample experienced an episode of major depressive disorder at some point, and the typical length of the episode was 11 weeks. Women are about twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with this. Women may be more vulnerable because they experience a greater degree of chronic stress in daily life combined with a lesser sense of personal control than men. This creates a vicious cycle that intensifies and perpetuates depressed feelings in women. Some reachers researchers suggest that it may not be gender but there may be a gender difference in how depression is expressed; men often experience different symptoms such as anger, substance abuse, and risk-taking, that aren't counted toward the diagnosis.

Classification system of personality disorders

It is problematic. Many people display the characteristics of more than one personality disorder, making diagnosis difficult. Some of the names can be confusing. For example, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder does not have OCD's characteristic obsessions and compulsions. Similarly, schizoid and schizotypal personality disorder's lack the psychotic features of schizophrenia. For the first time, DSM five includes a second approach to classify personality disorders. It involves assessing people on two dimensions: the severity scale, which assesses the degree of impairment in personality functioning; and a trait scale, which rates the person on pathological personality traits, such as the tendency to be antagonistic, emotionally unstable, impulsive, or manipulative. DSM-5 includes both the older and the newer approaches as a compromise between differences of opinion as to which is more useful.

Prevalence of BPD

It is the most commonly diagnosed personality disorder. Estimates suggest it affects about 6% of the population, or possibly some 18 million Americans. The researchers also found the highest prevalence among women, people in lower income groups, and native American men, while the lowest incidence was among women of Asian dissent.

explaining DID

It represents an extreme form of dissociative coping. Over 90% of patients report having suffered extreme physical or sexual abuse in childhood. So in order to cope with the trauma, the child "disassociates" himself or herself from it, creating alternate personalities to experience the trauma. The alternate personalities are created to deal with the memories and emotions associated with intolerably painful experiences. Feelings of anger, rage, fear, and guilt that are too powerful for the child to consciously integrate can be dissociate did into these alternate personalities. In effect, disassociation becomes a pathological defense mechanism that the person uses to cope with overwhelming experiences people but this is difficult to test empirically, And partly because memories of childhood are notoriously unreliable. And DID is usually diagnosed an adult it. Another problem with a traumatic memory explanation is that just the opposite effect occurs to most trauma victims; they are bothered by recurring and intrusive memories of the Trumatic event. In a study, more than 80% of young adults with a documented history of childhood sexual abuse remember the abuse. Those who didn't report it, reluctance to disclose it and being too young to remember the abuse seemed to be the most likely explanation.

antisocial personality disorder vs sociopath and psychopath

Jack Pemment: Sociopath - has a (grossly misguided) sense of morality (like nationalism gone awry). Psychopath - no sense of morality whatsoever. They do not have normal emotional responses, including adaptive responses to threats. Baskin-Sommers argues that there are 2 subtypes - the more traditional (hot and volatile) and those who tend to be more cold and callous. Recent brain activity (fMRI) shows that people with antisocial traits show activity related to impulsivity while those with psychopathic traits do not.

Does smoking cause psychological disorders? Critical thinking - part 1

Karen Lasser, 2000. She found that people with mental illness are twice as likely to smoke cigarettes as people with no mental illness. People with mental illness carry the additional burden of consuming nearly half of all the cigarette smoke in the United States. People with mental illness are also more likely to be heavy smokers, consuming a pack per day or more. What accounts for the correlation? Smokers often report that they experience better attention and concentration, increased energy, lower anxiety, and greater calm after smoking, probably due to the nicotine. A possible explanation is that people with a mental illness smoke as a form of self-medication. This explanation assumes that mental illness causes people to smoke.

Does smoking cause psychological disorders? Critical thinking - part 3 - smoking triggers mental illness?

Many recent studies have suggested that smoking triggers the onset of symptoms in people who are probably already vulnerable to the development of a mental disorder, especially major depressive disorder. 1. Studies focusing on adolescence found that cigarette smoking predicted the onset of depressive symptoms rather than the other way around 2. In studies of people with bipolar disorder, daily cigarette smokers had worse symptoms and lengthier hospitalizations than non-smoking patients with the disorder 3. In a study of people with schizophrenia, 90% started smoking before their illness began. Further, among adolescents boys, smokers for almost twice as likely as non-smokers to later develop schizophrenia. This suggest that smoking may precipitate an initial schizophrenic episode in vulnerable people. In fact, research suggests that even a mother smoking while pregnant can increase the chances of her child later developing schizophrenia.

Researchers thoughts behind personality disorders

Many researchers believe that these disorders reflect conditions in which "normal" personality traits are taken to an abnormal extreme. For example, it is normal to feel uneasy or sad when separated from a loved one. In this disorder, these responses reach pathological extremes. Instead, a person might experience intense feelings of desperation and intense anxiety. And rather than sadness, the person might experience unbearably intense feelings of abandonment and emptiness.

Major depressive disorder and seeking professional help

Many try to cope with the symptoms on their own. Left untreated, the symptoms can easily last six months or longer. When not treated, depression may become a recurring mental disorder that becomes progressively more severe. More than half of all people who have been through one episode of major depressive disorder can expect a relapse, usually within two years. With each recurrence, the symptoms tend to increase in severity and the time between major episodes decreases. But it is important to note that several effective treatments are available

Biosocial Developmental Theory of Borderline Personality Disorder

Marsha Linchan. This theory states that the disorder is the outcome of a unique combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Some children are born with a biological temperament that is characterized by extreme emotional sensitivity, a tendency to be impulsive, and the tendency to experience negative emotions. The disorder results when such a biologically vulnerable child is raised by caregivers who do not teach him how to control his impulses or help him learn how to understand, regulate, and appropriately express his emotions. In some cases, parents or caregivers actually shape and reinforce the child's pattern of frequent, intense emotional displays by their own behavior. For example, they may sometimes ignore a child's emotional outburst and sometimes reinforce them. A history of abuse and neglect is not necessary.

Does smoking cause psychological disorders? Critical thinking - part 2 - nicotine

Nicotine is a powered psychoactive drug. It triggers the release of dopamine and stimulates key brain structures involved in producing reward sensations, including the thalamus, the amygdala, and the nucleus accumbens. Nicotine receptors on different neurons also regulate the release of other important neurotransmitters, including serotonin, acetylcholine, GABA, and glutamate. Nicotine affects multiple brain structures and alters the release of many different neurotransmitters. The same brain areas in euro transmitters are also directly involved in many different psychological disorders.

Explaining Schizophrenia - psychological factors

No single psychological factor seems to emerge consistently as causing schizophrenia. But it seems that those who are genetically predisposed to develop it may be more vulnerable to the effects of disturbed family environments. Pukka Tienari Followed 150 adopted individuals who his biological mothers had schizophrenia, in Finland. It included a control group of about 180 adopted individuals who his biological mothers did not have schizophrenia. They found that the adopted children with biological mothers who had schizophrenia had a much higher rate of schizophrenia than the children in the control group. But this was true only when the children were raised in an in an adoptive home that included psychologically disturbed members. When raised in a psychologically healthy family, they were no more likely than the control group children to develop it. A healthy psychological environment may counteract a person's inherited vulnerability for schizophrenia; but if in a psychologically unhealthy family environment, it can act as a catalyst for the onset of schizophrenia, especially for those individuals with a genetic history of it.

The difference between obsessive compulsive disorder and obsessive compulsive personality disorder

Obsessive compulsive personality disorder is defined as rigid preoccupation with orderliness, personal control, rules, or schedules that interferes with completing tasks; unreasonable perfectionism. Obsessive compulsive disorder is characterized by the presence of intrusive, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental ask that an individual feels driven to perform (compulsions).

When does antisocial personality disorder begin?

Often seen in childhood or early adolescence. The child often has run-ins with the law or school authorities. This includes cruelty to animals, attacking or harming other children or adults, theft, setting fires, and destroying property. This pattern of behavior is called conduct disorder. The habitual failure to conform to social norms and rules often becomes the person's predominant life theme.

Is DID real?

One reason for skepticism is that reported cases sharply increased in the early 70s, shortly after books, films, and television dramas about multiple personality disorder became popular. Not only did the number of cases but also the number of alters showed a dramatic increase. To some psychologists, such findings suggest that patients with DID learned "how to behave like a multiple" from media portrayals of sensational cases or by responding to their therapists suggestions. Boysen and VanBergen reviewed many studies of people with this, and concluded that "in terms of keys symptoms of the disorder, people taught to simulate DID are largely indistinguishable from people actually diagnosed with DID." However, this is not the only disorder for which prevalence rates have increased over time. Obsessive compulsive disorder and PTSD has also increased over the past few decades, primarily because mental health professionals and become more aware of these disorders and more likely to screen for symptoms.

Genetic mutations and schizophrenia

One study of people with schizophrenia with no family history of the disease found that genetic mutations were much higher in the people with schizophrenia and in those without schizophrenia.

The course of schizophrenia

Onset typically occurs during young adulthood (18-25). About 1/4 of those who experience an episode recovered completely and never experienced another episode. Another 1/4 experience recurrent episodes but often with only minimal impairment in the ability to function. For the rest, it becomes a chronic mental illness, and the ability to function may be severely impaired. Those in this category face the prospect of repeated hospitalizations and extended treatment. The place is a heavy emotional, financial, and psychological burden on people with this disorder, their families, and society. But it does not mean that people cannot be successful.

The risk of developing schizophrenia among blood relatives

P 561. The collective results of about 40 studies show that the greatest risk occurs if you have an identical twin who has schizophrenia (48%) or if both of your biological parents have it (46%). With one parent or a non-identical twin, the rate is 17%. The rate decreases significantly with other relatives. And, because identical twins are only at a rate of 46%, it is obvious that environmental factors are also involved.

Other disorders that include anxiety as a symptom but are not considered anxiety disorders

PTSD and OCD

Schizophrenia: a wildfire in the brain, focus on neuroscience

Paul Thompson used high resolution brain scans to map brain structure changes in normal adolescents and adolescents with early onset schizophrenia. There were marked differences in the brain development of normal teens and teens with schizophrenia. Healthy teens showed a gradual, small loss of gray matter, about 1%, over the five-year study. This is due to normal pruning of unused brain connections that takes place during adolescents. Teens with schizophrenia showed a severe loss of gray matter that developed in a specific, wavelike pattern. It began in the period to lobes and come over five years, progressively spread forward to the temple in front of regents. Gray matter loss was more than 5% in the schizophrenic teens. The loss was directly correlated to the teenage patient's clinical symptoms. Psychotic symptoms increased the most in the participants who lost the greatest quantity of gray matter. Also, the pattern of loss mirrored progression of neurological and cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia. For example, more rapid gray matter loss in the temporal lobes was associated with more severe positive symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions. More rapid loss of gray matter in the frontal lobes was strongly correlated with The severity of negative symptoms, including flat affect and poverty of speech. When the final brain scans were taken, the patterns of gray matter loss were similar to those found in the brains of adult patients with schizophrenia. But the question still is, what sparks the cerebral forest fire in the schizophrenic brain?

Comorbidity

People are diagnosed with one disorder are also frequently diagnosed with an additional disorder. About 46% of the people with a mental illness have at least two at the same time.

Schizophrenia symptoms and culture

People in the US were more likely to experience auditory hallucinations that were dark and sometimes vicious, where is people in Ghana and India are more likely to report having a positive relationship with their voices. Themes considered delusional and one culture might be widely held beliefs in another culture. The international study on psychotic symptoms examine data from over 1000 people with schizophrenia and seven countries. 17% of the delusions that works Pearians with culturally specific. In Nigeria and Ghana there were relatively high rates of delusions that involved "being an angel or a profit", concepts that are Intercal part of these cultures. Even within a single culture, the content of delusions changes as a culture shifts. During World War II, delusions tended to center on Nazi soldiers. Recently, delusions are more likely to involve technology and media.

BPD and other disorders

People with BPD often also suffer from depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. And because they often lack control over their impulses, self-destructive, impulsive behavior is common, such as gambling, reckless driving, drug abuse, or sexual promiscuity.

Suicide, sleep and major depressive disorder

Pervasive negativity and pessimism are often manifested in suicidal thoughts or a preoccupation with death. Approximately 10% of those suffering attempt suicide. Many have abnormal sleep patterns. The amount of time spent in non-dreaming, deeply relaxed sleep is greatly reduced or absent. Rather than the usual 90-minute cycles of dreaming, the person experiences sporadic REM periods of varying lengths. Spontaneous awakenings occur repeatedly during the night. Very commonly, people awaken at 3 or 4, and then cannot get back to sleep, despite feeling exhausted. Less commonly, some people sleep excessively, sometimes as much as 18 hours a day.

The hallucinating brain

Pet scans show brain activity during a schizophrenic hallucination. It reveals activity in the left auditory and Fishel areas of the brain, but not in the frontal lobe, which normally is involved and organized thought processes.

Relationships and borderline personality disorder

Relationships are chaotic and unstable. They careen out of control as the person shifts from inappropriately idealizing the newfound lover or friend to viewing them with complete contempt or hostility. He sees himself, and everyone else, as absolute: ecstatic or miserable perfect or worthless. A consistent pattern of destruction to himself and others.

Explaining Schizophrenia - abnormal brain chemistry

Several hypothesis attribute schizophrenia to imbalances in neurotransmitters. The oldest is the dopamine hypothesis, which attributes schizophrenia to excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Two pieces of indirect evidence support this notion. First, antipsychotic drugs such as Haldol, Thorazine and Stelazine reduce or block dopamine activity in the brain. These drugs reduce schizophrenic symptoms, especially positive symptoms, in many people. Second, drugs that enhance dopamine activity in the brain, And such as amphetamines and cocaine, can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms in normal adults or increased symptoms in people who already have it. But there is evidence to contradict the dopamine hypothesis. Not all individuals who have schizophrenia experience a reduction of symptoms in response to the antipsychotic drugs that reduce dopamine activity in the brain. And for many patients, these drugs reduce some but not all schizophrenic symptoms, and tend to reduce positive symptoms more than negative symptoms.

Health effects of anorexia nervosa

Severe malnutrition disrupts body chemistry in ways that are very similar to those caused by starvation. Basal metabolic rate decreases, as to blood levels of glucose, insulin, and leptin. Other hormonal levels drop, including the level of reproductive hormones. In women, reduced estrogen may result in the menstrual cycle stopping. In men, decreased testosterone disrupts sex drive and sexual function. Because the ability to retain body heat is greatly diminished, people often develop a soft, fine body hair called lanugo.

Explaining Schizophrenia - abnormal brain chemistry - newer theory

Some parts of the brain, such as the limbic system, may have too much dopamine, what other parts of the brain, such as the cortex may have to little. There is increasing evidence that imbalances and other neurotransmitters, like glutamate in adenosine, are related to schizophrenia. The connection between neurotransmitters and schizophrenia symptoms remain unclear.

Explaining Schizophrenia - the immune system and the viral infection theory

Some researchers believe it is caused by exposure to an influenza virus or other viral infection during prenatal development or shortly after birth. Viruses can't spread to the brain and spinal cord by traveling along nerves. This exposure during prenatal development early infancy affects the developing brain, producing changes that make the individual more vulnerable to schizophrenia later in life. There's growing evidence to support this.

Causes of BPD

Some researchers believe that a disruption in attachment relationships in early childhood is an important contributing cause. Dysfunctional family relationships are common. Many patients report having experience neglect or physical, sexual, or emotional abuse in childhood.

Explaining Schizophrenia - genetic factors

Studies of families, twins, and adopted individuals have firmly establish that genetics play a significant role in many cases of schizophrenia. They have consistently shown that the more closely related a person is to someone who has it, the greater the risk that she will be diagnosed with it at some point in her lifetime. Adoption studies have consistently shown that if either biological parent of an adopted individual has it, the adopted individual is at greater risk to develop it. Finally, by studying families that display a high rate of it, researchers have consistently found that the presence of certain genetic variations seems to increase susceptibility to the disorder.

dissociative disorders - summary - dissociative amnesia with dissociative fugue

Sudden, unexpected travel away from home; confusion about personal identity or assumption of new identity

Adele

Suffers from debilitating anxiety. When touring, she has regular anxiety attacks that limit how often she plays two large audience. Escaping out of the fire exit and throwing up.

Symptoms of schizophrenia

Symptoms fall into two categories, positive and negative symptoms. It is diagnosed when two or more of these characteristics symptoms are actively present for a month or longer. At least one system must be delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech. Usually, it also involves a longer personal history, typically six months or more, of odd behaviors, beliefs, perceptual experiences, and other less severe signs of mental disturbance.

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Symptoms that reflect accesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false perceptions) and disorganized thoughts (and speech) and behavior.

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Symptoms that reflect defects or deficits in normal functioning, including flat affect, alogia (poverty of speech and/or speech content, blocking or latency of response) and avolition (the lack of motivation or ability to do tasks or activities that have an end goal, such as paying bills). These reflect an absence or reduction of normal functions, such is greatly reduced motivation, emotional expressiveness, or speech. These also include the inability to initiate or persist and even simple forms of goal-directed behaviors, such as bathing or engaging in social activities. Instead, the person seems to be completely apathetic, sometimes sitting still for hours at a time. These symptoms accentuate the isolation of the person, who may appear uncommunicative and completely disconnected from his or her environment.

Panic syndrome and other cultures

Syndromes resembling panic disorder have been reported in many cultures. The Spanish phrase ataque de nervios literally means attack of the nerves. It is a disorder reported in many Latin American cultures. In Puerto Rico, and among Latinos in the US, it has many symptoms in common with panic disorder, like heart palpitations, dizziness, and the fear of dying, going crazy, or losing control. However, the person experiencing this becomes hysterical. She may scream, swear, strike out at others, and break things. It typically follows a severe stressor, especially one involving a family member. Funerals, accidents, or family conflicts often triggers such attacks. Because it tends to elicit immediate social support from others, it seems to be a culturally shaped, acceptable way to respond to severe stress.

Hannah Upp and dissociative fugue

Teacher disappeared. Intensive search. Then was seen at an Apple store and Starbucks. Finally rescued when seen swimming almost a mile from shore, three weeks after the initial disappearance. She had no memories of the events following her disappearance and was disturbed by her amnesia and flight. She said, "how do you feel guilty and for something you didn't even know you did?"

Death of a loved one

The DSM-5 removed the special treatment for bereavement, which stated that an episode of major depressive disorder triggered by the death of a loved one was considered the disorder only if the symptoms persist for two months. The special status of two months was removed, and changed back to two weeks like the rest. The reasoning was that bereavement is like any other psychological event that might trigger a depressive episode, and thus should be treated the same. Ultimately, it is the symptoms, not the event, that define the disorder.

delusions of persecution

The basic theme is that others are plotting against or trying to harm the person or someone close to her.

Truman show delusion

The belief that your life is being filmed as a show. It is increasingly common.

The prevalence in course of bipolar disorder

The onset is typically in the person's early 20s. The extreme mood swings consistent and stop much more abruptly in the mood changes of major depressive disorder. The manic and depressive episodes of bipolar disorder tend to last anywhere from a few days to a couple of months. The cycling between manic and depressive episodes does not occur in minutes, or even hours. Far lesscommon than major depressive disorder. Among people who have had at least one depressive episode, only 9% are eventually diagnosed with bipolar disorder. And unlike major depressive disorder, there are no differences between the sexes in the rate at which bipolar disorder occurs. For all, the lifetime risk of developing bipolar disorder is about 1%. It is rarely diagnosed in childhood. In the vast majority And of cases, it is a recurring mental disorder.

Bipolar disorder and pet scans

The pet scans record the brain activity of an individual with bipolar disorder as he cycled rapidly from depression to mania and back to depression over a 10 day period. The blue and green colors clearly show the sharp reduction in overall brain activity that coincided with the episodes of depression. The bright red, orange and yellow colors indicate high levels of activity in diverse brain regions during the intervening episodes of mania.

dissociative disorders - summary - dissociative identity disorder

The presence of two or more distinct identities, each with consistent patterns of personality traits and behavior; behavior that is controlled by two or more distinct, recurring identities; amnesia and frequent memory gaps

Understanding/Preventing Suicide - Why do people become suicidal?

The view of life has become progressively more pessimistic and negative. At the same time, this view of self-inflicted death as an alternative to life becomes progressively more acceptable and positive. Some people choose suicide to escape the pain of a chronic disease or the agonizing death of a terminal disease. Others because of feelings of hopelessness, depression, guilt, rejection, failure, humiliation, or shame. They see suicide as the only escape from their own unbearably painful emotions. Normally, the average person sees a range of possible solutions. In contrast, the suicidal person's thinking and perceptions have become rigid and constricted, and can see only two ways to solve the problem: a magical resolution or suicide. And death seems to be the only logical option.

Mild Dissociative Experiences

These are quite common and completely normal. For example, you become so absorbed in a book or movie that you lose all track of time. And driving, and not remembering how you got there. In these cases, you've experienced a temporary "break" or "separation" in your memory or awareness, a temporary mild dissociative experience.

delusions of grandeur

These involve the belief that the person is extremely powerful, important, or wealthy.

delusions of reference

These reflect the person's post conviction that other people's behavior in ordinary events or somehow personally related to her. For example, she is certain that billboards in advertisements or about her or contain cryptic messages directed at her.

delusions of being controlled

This involves the belief that outside forces (aliens, the government, or random people) are trying to exert control on the individual.

persistent depressive disorder

This is a chronic form of depression that is less severe than major depressive disorder. It may develop after some stressful event or trauma, such as the death of a parent in childhood. Although the person functions adequately, she has a chronic case of "the blues" that can continue for years.

Operant conditioning and phobias

This may also be involved in the avoidance behavior that characterizes phobias. In a phobia of dogs, one quickly learns that one could reduce anxiety and fear by avoiding dogs altogether. To use operant conditioning terms, the operant response of avoiding dogs is negatively reinforced by the relief from anxiety and fear that she experiences.

Global transmission of social trends and information about psychological disorders

This seems to be contributing to the spread of syndromes that were once limited to a particular culture. Chinese psychiatrist Sing Lee only learned about eating disorders during his training in the UK in the 1980s. Upon his return home to Hong Kong, he combed through hospital records and interviewed colleagues but could find very few occurrences of anorexia nervosa or other eating disorders in his native country. And, these few cases looked remarkably different from what he had seen in the UK. In Hong Kong, for example, young women with anorexia did not express a fear of being fat, attributing their extreme thinness to physical problems such as a bloated stomach or a poor appetite.

The development of PTSD

While exposure to a trauma is necessary, the Trumatic event does not produce PTSDN everyone. Many are remarkably resilient in the face of trauma and some even experience in outcome known as posttraumatic growth, A condition that occurs when people experience positive change, rather than negative outcomes, after experiencing a trauma. Positive changes can include stronger relationships with loved ones, and enhanced appreciation for life, or a deeper sense of religion or spirituality. Research suggests it can occur at the same time as posttraumatic stress. So someone who experiences a negative response to stress or trauma may also experience positive psychological outcomes in the long term.

Catatonia

a state of unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, and inability to communicate

The triple vulnerabilities model of panic - factors in the development of panic disorders

1. A hypersensitivity to the signs of physical arousal, an oversensitivity to physical sensations. The fluttering heartbeat or momentary dizziness that the average person barely notices signals disaster to the panic-prone. 2. A biological predisposition toward anxiety 3. A low sense of control over potentially life-threatening events

Why do some people develop PTSD and others not?

1. Biological evidence. A vulnerability to it can be inherited. 2. People with a personal or family history of psychological disorders are more likely to develop it when exposed to extreme trauma. 3. The magnitude of the trauma plays an important role. More extreme stressors are more likely to produce it. Frequency of exposure is a factor as well. When people undergone multiple traumas, the incidence of this can be quite high. One steady observed symptoms among journalists who never left the newsroom but were frequently exposed to traumatic images

What are the 4 categories of objects or situations that produce specific phobias?

1. Fear of particular situations, such as flying, driving, tunnels, bridges, elevators, crowds, or enclosed places 2. Fear of features of the natural environment, such as heights, water, thunderstorms, or lightning 3. Fear of injury or blood, including the fear of injections, needles, and medical or dental procedures 4. Fear of animals and insects, such as snakes, spiders, dogs, cats, slugs, or bats

Disorders involving intense anxiety (5)

1. Generalized anxiety disorder. This includes persistent, chronic, unreasonable worry and anxiety; general symptoms of anxiety, including persistent physical arousal 2. Panic disorder. Frequent and unexpected panic attacks, with no specific or identifiable trigger 3. Phobias. Intense anxiety or panic attack triggered by a specific object or situation; persistent avoidance of feared object or situation 4. Posttraumatic stress disorder. Anxiety triggered by intrusive, recurrent memories of a highly traumatic experience 5. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Anxiety caused by uncontrollable, persistent, recurring thoughts (obsessions) and/or urges to perform certain actions (compulsions)

Criticism of the DSM-5

1. Inclusion of some conditions that are "too normal" (extreme sadness related to bereavement) 2. Use of arbitrary cutoffs to draw the line between people with and without a particular disorder, and even between different diagnoses. 3. Considering all symptoms of a disorder to be equivalent when some are more severe. For example, among people with depression, both sleep problems and loss of energy are considered to be core symptoms even though loss of energy is more disruptive to daily functioning. 4. Gender bias 5. Possible bias resulting from the financial ties of many DSM-5 authors to the pharmaceutical industry, which might benefit from the expansion of mental illness categories or loosening of criteria for diagnoses. 6. Many critics believe that it blurs the distinction between every day normal unhappiness and "mental illness". If the threshold for diagnosing mental disorders is it too low, some critics argue, too many people will be diagnosed with a "mental disorder".

What are the three features that distinguish between normal anxiety and pathological anxiety?

1. Pathological anxiety is irrational. It is provoked by perceived threats that are exaggerated or nonexistent, and the exaggerated responses are out of proportion to the actual situation. 2. Pathological anxiety is uncontrollable. A person cannot shut off the alarm reaction, even when he or she knows it is unrealistic. 3. Pathological anxiety is disruptive. It interferes with relationships, job or academic performance, or every day activities.

What are the four clusters of symptoms characterized by PTSD?

1. The person frequently recalls the event, replaying it in his mind. Such recollections are often intrusive, meaning they are unwanted and interfere with normal thoughts. Recollections can even be triggered by unrelated events. After the Boston marathon bombing in 2013, almost 40% of a sample of military veterans in Boston who already suffered from PTSD reported increased emotional distress. 2. The person avoids stimuli or situations that tend to trigger memories of the experience 3. A person may experience negative alterations in thinking, moods, and emotions. He may feel alienated from others, blame himself or others for the traumatic event, and feel a persistent sense of guilt, fear, or anger. Some people are unable to recall key features of the traumatic event. 4. The person experiences increased physical arousal. He may be easily startled, experience sleep disruptions, have problems concentrating and remembering, and be prone to irritability or angry outbursts.

6 DSM-5 categories the chapter focuses on:

1. anxiety, posttraumatic stress, and obsessive-compulsive disorders; 2. depressive and bipolar disorders; 3. eating disorders; 4. personality disorders; 5. dissociative disorders; 6. schizophrenia

Most common obsessions

1. contamination - fear of this by dirt, germs, or other toxic substances. Often w/ cleaning or washing compulsion 2. pathological doubt - feeling uncertainty about having accomplished a simple task. Recurring fear that you have arms someone or violated the law. Typically accompanied by checking compulsion. 3. violent or sexual thoughts - Fear that you have harmed or will harm another person or have engaged or will engage in some sort of unacceptable behavior. May take the form of intrusive mental images or impulses.

What percent of the general population in the US experiences a specific phobia at sometime in their lives?

13 %. More than twice as many women as men suffer from specific phobia. And there are unusual phobias. Oprah Winfrey has been afraid of chewing gum since she was a child, when her grandmother left used gum around the house.

anxiety disorders

A category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is the main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in the person's cognitive, behavioral, or interpersonal functioning. They are unreasonably intense, frequent, persistent, and disruptive.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A disorder triggered by exposure to a highly traumatic event that results in recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive memories of the event; avoidance of stimuli and situations associated with the event; negative changes in thoughts, moods, and emotions; and a persistent state of heightened physical arousal. Long-lasting. Extreme traumas are events that produce intense feelings of horror and helplessness, such as a serious physical injury or threat of injury to yourself or to loved ones. Although not classified as an anxiety disorder, some of the same patterns of emotion, cognition, and behavior mark both PTSD and anxiety disorders.

Trypophobia

A fear of a certain pattern of holes. Researchers found similarities between the visual pattern that triggers fear and the markings on poisonous animals, like certain snakes or the poison dart frog. They speculate that an ability to quickly notice a poisonous creature gave people an evolutionary advantage, even if it sometimes led them to fear unless objects.

Should social media help to diagnose disorders? Critical thinking - harnessing?

A majority of people do not seek help on their own because of concerns about confidentiality or stigma. For example, data from Facebook might improve detection by providing a more accurate view of reallife behavior such as alcohol use. Social media sites also provide an inexpensive avenue for reaching people.

International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

A manual by the World Health Organization. The DSM-5 increasingly matches the disorders outlined in this manual. It is the international standard for diagnostic classifications, and mental health clinicians in the US are required to reference it's diagnostic codes when seeking reimbursement through health insurance companies.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

A mood disorder characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness, causing impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning.

Psychological disorder or mental disorder

A pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress, impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of life, or both. The pattern of behavioral or psychological symptoms must represent a serious departure from the prevailing social and cultural norms.

Are people with mental disorders more violent?

A person with a mental disorder who is not suffering from extreme symptoms is no more likely than an average person to be involved in violent or illegal behavior. The exaggerated fear of violence from people with a psychological disorder contributes to the stigma of mental illness.

What are the most common symptoms of a panic attack?

A pounding heart, rapid breathing, breathlessness, and a choking sensation. Accompanying the intense, escalating surge of physical arousal or feelings of terror in the belief that one is about to die, go crazy, or completely lose control. It typically peaks within 10 minutes of onset and then gradually subsides. The physical symptoms are so severe and frightening that it's not unusual for people to rush to an emergency room, convinced they are having a heart attack.

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder in which the person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks. Frequency is highly variable and quite unpredictable. One may have several a month and another may go for months without an attack and then experience attacks for several days in a row. People are quite apprehensive about when and where the next attack will hit.

DMS-5

Abbreviation for the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition; the book published by the American Psychiatric Association that describes the specific symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for different psychological disorders. It provides codes for each disorder and includes the symptoms, the criteria that must be met to make a diagnosis, and the frequency, typical course, and risk factors for each disorder. It also includes issues related to gender and culture for each disorder. It provides professionals with a common language for labeling disorders and comprehensive guidelines for diagnosing them. It is the most comprehensive and authoritative set of guidelines available. It allows for psychological disorders to be standardized so that, ideally, patients could see different clinicians and receive the same diagnosis each time.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety; also called free-floating anxiety. People with this are constantly tense and anxious, and their anxiety is pervasive. They feel anxious about a wide range of life circumstances, sometimes with little or no apparent justification. The more issues about which a person worries excessively, the more likely it is that he or she suffers from this. Sadly, when one worry is removed, another quickly moves in to take its place.

agoraphobia

An anxiety disorder involving extreme fear of experiencing a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms in a public situation where escape is impossible and help is unavailable. Some fear falling, getting lost, or becoming incontinent in a public place where help might not be available and escape might not be possible. Crowds, stores, elevators, public transportation, or even traveling in a car may be avoided. Many with this are imprisoned by their fears, and never leave their homes.

social anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations. It is one of the more common psychological disorders and is more prevalent among women than men. It goes well beyond shyness at social gatherings, as the person is paralyzed by fear of social situations in which she may be judged by others. Eating a meal in public, making small talk in a party, or using a public restroom can be agonizing for the person with this. The core appears to be an irrational fear of being critically evaluated by others. It is fed by an exaggerated tendency to pay attention to negative information in social settings, such as noticing one person's unhappy expression rather than others' happy expressions. Some recognize that their fear is excessive and irrational. Even so, they approach situations with tremendous fear and anxiety. In some cases, they may suffer a panic attack. Those with social anxiety disorder may have low self-esteem in social situations but do not actually believe they are inferior or worthy of the outside judgments they fear (like avoidant personality disorder)

Child soldiers, the ravages of war

An estimated quarter million children serve as unwilling combatants in wars today, most of them kidnapped from their families and forced to serve as soldiers. They not only suffer torture and violence, they are also often forced to commit atrocities against others. They suffer very high rates of PTSD. One survey of former child soldiers in refugee camps in Uganda found that 97% of the children suffered from PTSD symptoms. Rehab centers have been established throughout Uganda and the democratic republic of Congo, where many of these children live, but more assistance is desperately needed. Role-playing is used to help children cope with the trauma of the violence that they saw or took part in.

specific phobia

An excessive, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety. Aka simple phobia. In some people, encountering the feared situation or object can provoke a panic attack. The incapacitating terror and anxiety interfere with a person's ability to function in daily life. Some recognize their fears are irrational or excessive, but still will go to great lengths to avoid the feared object or situation.

anxiety

An unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry. It often affects us during personal crises and every day conflicts. Although unpleasant, it is sometimes helpful. If there is a realistic threat, it is adaptive and normal. Anxiety about your grades may motivate you to study harder.

Terrorist attacks and PTSD

Because of their suddenness and intensity, these are particularly likely to produce PTSD in survivors, rescue workers, and observers. Four years after the bombing of the Murrah building in Oklahoma City, more than a third of the survivors suffered from PTSD. Seven years after, more than 1/4 still had it. Five years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, 11% of rescue and recovery workers met formal criteria for PTSD, a rate comparable to that of soldiers returning from active duty in Iran and Afghanistan. Among people who had directly witness the attacks, over 16% had PTSD symptoms 4 years afterwards.

The effects of anxiety

Both physical and mental. It put you on physical alert, preparing you to defensively "fight" or "free" potential dangers. It also puts you on mental alert, making you focus your attention squarely on the threatening situation. You become extremely vigilant. When the threat has passed, your alarm system shuts off and you come down. But even if the problem persists, you can normally put your anxious thoughts aside temporarily and attend to other matters.

Classic conditioning and panic disorder

Classic conditioning plays a role in both models of panic disorder. Both an oversensitivity to physical sensations and misinterpretations of physiological arousal can be conditioned. Example, a person makes May experience panic attacks following a neutral stimulus such as an increase in heart rate. Eventually, she might be conditioned to associate the increased heart rate with panic attacks. The increased heart rate is then a conditioned stimulus that leads to the conditioned response of panic.

Other important but not covered DSM-5 categories - substance-related and addictive disorders

Core features: characterized by a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms including that the individual continues using the substance or engaging in the behavior despite significant problems related to the substance or behavior. Substance use disorder: recurrent substance use that involves impaired control, disruption of social, occupational, and interpersonal functioning, and the development of craving, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms. Gambling disorder: persistent gambling that disrupts personal, family, and/or vocational pursuits.

Other important but not covered DSM-5 categories - somatic symptoms and related disorders

Core features: characterized by persistent, recurring complaints of bodily, or somatic, symptoms that are accompanied by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in response to these symptoms. Somatic symptom disorder: characterized by excessive worry or distress that is out of proportion to the seriousness of physical symptoms that are present. Illness anxiety disorder: excessive preoccupation with one's health and worry about illness despite the absence of serious physical symptoms.

Other important but not covered DSM-5 categories - neurodevelopmental disorders

Core features: includes a wide range of developmental, behavioral, learning, and communication disorders that are usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence. Symptoms of a particular disorder may vary depending on a child's age and development level. Autism spectrum disorder: onset of symptoms prior to age 3, characterized by: 1) deficits in social communication and social interaction and 2) restricted, repetitive behaviors, interest, and activities; diagnosed according to level of symptom of severity, ranging from "requiring support" to "requiring very substantial support." Tourette's disorder: answered prior to age of 18. Characterized by motor tics, such as recurring spasmodic movements of the head or arms, and vocal tics, such as recurring and sudden clicking, granting, or snorting sounds. Sometimes involves uncontrollable utterances of profane or obscene words.

Should social media help to diagnose disorders? Critical thinking - studies

Depressed people were more likely to use the "inkwell" filter that made their photos black-and-white on Instagram, then non-depressed people. Another study found that people who conducted google searches for phrases such as "how to kill yourself" or "painless suicide" are statistically at high risk of attempting suicide.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Disorder characterized by the presence of intrusive, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform (compulsions). Checking a door like 30 times yet not still sure the door is really locked. You know it is rational, but you feel compelled to check again. Oven turned off, coffee pot unplugged. People may experience either obsessions or compulsions. More commonly, both are present. Often they are linked in someway. For example, a man who obsessed with the idea that he might have lost an important document felt compelled to pick up every scrap of paper he saw on the street and in other public places.

Amathphobia

Fear of dust

Hypertricophobia

Fear of growing excessive amounts of body hair

Gamophobia

Fear of marriage

erythrophobia

Fear of red objects

triskaidekaphobia

Fear of the number 13

phonophobia

Fear of the sound of your own voice

Levophobia

Fear of things being on the left side of your body

Anemophobia

Fear of wind

ergophobia

Fear of work or responsibility

History of ICD

First addition in 1952. With each new addition, the number of distinct disorders has progressively increased, from fewer than 100 to more than 300 in recent additions, including DSM-5. Some disorders that are relatively well-known today, such as eating disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and social anxiety disorder, were not added until later editions. Some behavior patterns that were categorized as disorders in the early editions, such as homosexuality, have been dropped from later editions because they are no longer considered to be psychological disorders.

Phobia example, Antonio

He has a phobia of dogs. He works in a pizza parlor, making pizzas and taking orders. He could make more money if he took a job as a delivery person, but he won't even consider it because he's too afraid he might encounter a dog while making deliveries.

panic attack

He said an episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity.

What ethical guidelines should be considered in the use of social media and mental health?

How king psychologist ensure confidentiality for people whose information is gathered online? What requirements should guide the reporting of worrisome post? And how can psychologist address the public's privacy concerns? Until there are such guidelines, researchers now suggest using online tools only for research with participants who give consent. Adding a human step to the process may help as well. Both Instagram and Facebook have introduced new tools to help people who are suicidal, but they are triggered only when a friend, rather than a computer algorithm, raises an alert.

biological preparedness and phobias

Humans seem to be to acquire fears of certain animals or situations, such as snakes or heights, which were survival threats in human evolutionary history. People also seem to be predisposed to do to develop phobias toward creatures that arouse disgust, like slugs, maggots, and cockroaches. Instinctively, it seems many people find such creatures repulsive, possibly because they are associated with disease, infection, or filth. It may reflect a fear of contamination or infection that is also based on human evolutionary history.

Depressive and bipolar disorders, disordered moods and emotions

In these, disturbed emotions cause psychological distress and impaired daily functioning. Emotions violate the criteria of normal moods. In quality, intensity, and duration, a person's emotional state does not seem to reflect what is going on or in his or her life. A person may feel a pervasive sadness despite the best of circumstances, or be come extremely energetic and overconfident with no apparent justification. A.k.a. mood disorders or affective disorders.

How does the social stigma associated with psychological disorders affect people with disorders?

It can make people feel reluctant to seek the help of mental health professionals. Some believe we should use alternative means, such as social media, to reach people who may need help. People under the care of a mental health professional off and hide the fact, telling only their closest friends.

What is the number of psychological disorders in the DSM-5?

It describes more than 260 specific psychological disorders, plus numerous additional conditions, like child physical abuse and educational problems, for a grand total of 541 diagnostic categories.

What is the prevalence of PTSD?

It is estimated that more than 5 million American adults experience it. More than twice as many women as men experience it children can also experience it. It has been observed in children living in a war zone in the middle east and children living in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina.

Culture and OCD

It is similar in different cultures but the content of the obsessions and compulsions tend to mirror the particular culture's concerns and beliefs. In the US, compulsive washers are typically preoccupied with obsessional fears of germs and infection. But in rural Nigeria and India, compulsive washers are more likely to have obsessional concerns about religious purity rather than germs.

Anxiety as a symptom

It occurs in many different psychological disorders. In the anxiety disorders, however, anxiety is the main symptom, although it is manifested differently in each of these disorders.

Author of DSM-5?

It was not written by a single person or even a small group of experts. It represents the consensus of hundreds of mental health professionals, mostly psychiatrists and clinicals psychologists, representing many different organizations and perspectives. It was developed over 12 years, with teams of mental health professionals conducting extensive reviews of the research findings for each category of mental disorder and conducting field trials (studies that examined how well it worked in clinical settings). There's also a website to allow both professionals and the public to provide feedback.

How prevalent are psychological disorders?

Kessler & colleagues. 2005. Conducted a nationally representative survey of more than 9000 Americans, ages 18 and older. It was called the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). It involved more than two years of face-to-face interviews throughout the country. Participants were asked if they experienced specific symptoms of psychological disorders during the previous 12 months and at any point in their lives. Also asked about possible risk factors associated with mental disorders, such as substance use. Results: 1 in 4 respondents (26%) reported symptoms of a disorder w/in the last 12 months, and almost 1 in 2 (46%) thus far in their lives.

What factors contribute to the unmet need for mental health treatment globally?

Lack of insurance, low income, and lack of access to mental health care. Also because of lack of awareness, fear of stigmatization, or a belief that treatment would not help. However, it seems clear that most people manage to whether psychological symptoms without becoming completely debilitated and needing professional intervention. When exclamation for this is that people use a variety of coping strategies, some more effective than others, to manage psychological symptoms.

Besides the DSM, what are other ways to understand psychological disorders?

Some researchers are using biological findings to understand what psychological disorders have in common rather than what makes them different. The NIMH is leading long-term efforts to develop a new diagnostic system based on these common factors rather than on traditional categories.

How often do people seek treatment for psychological disorders?

Most people in the US with symptoms received no treatment during the past year (59%). And, the treatment provided was off and in adequate, following short of established treatment guidelines. These trends are shared globally.

When do panic attacks typically happen?

Often after a stressful experience, such as an injury or illness, or during a stressful period of life, like changing jobs or during a period of marital conflict. Experiences of bereavement, separation from significant others, and interpersonal loss are among the experiences most often associated with triggering this. But sometimes they seem to come from nowhere.

How is the dividing line between normal and abnormal behavior determined?

Often by the social or cultural context in which a particular behavior occurs. For example, among traditional Hindus in India, certain dietary restrictions are followed as part of the mourning process. It would be a serious breach of social norms if an Indian widow ate fish, meat, onions, garlic, or any other "hot" foods within six months after her husband's death. A Catholic widow in the US would consider such actions absurd.

Explaining OCD

Once someone develops an anxious response, conditioning can reinforce it. The unpleasant feeling of anxiety can be temporarily relieved by giving into compulsive behaviors. Although it provides only short-term relief, the compulsive behavior is likely to be repeated because reinforcement has occurred. Evidence suggests the biological factors are involved. It has been linked with broad deficits in the ability to manage cognitive processes such as attention. This may, in turn, be linked to dysfunction in specific brain areas, such as those involved in the flight or fight response, and in the frontal lobes, which play a key role in our ability to think and plan ahead. Another implicated brain area is the caudate nucleus, which is involved in regulating movements. Deficiencies in the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin are also implicated. When treated with drugs that increase the availability of these substances in the brain, many patients experience a marked decrease in symptoms. Excess of the neurotransmitter glutamate.

History of PTSD

Originally it was primarily associated with the direct experience of military combat. There is a higher prevalence among veterans than non-veterans. However, it is now known that it can also develop in non-military personnel exposed to violent conflicts and that it is common among refugees. It can develop in survivors of other sorts of extreme traumas, such as natural disasters, physical or sexual assault, or terrorist attacks. Rescue workers, relief workers, and emergency service personnel, such as people working in Greece with refugees fleeing war in Syria and other countries, can develop the symptoms as well. Simply witnessing the injury of or death of others can cause it. Even trauma in the media, such as graphic images related to terrorism, war, or natural disasters on television, can cause it.

The catastrophic cognitions theory of panic disorder

People with panic disorder are not only oversensitive to physical sensations, they also tend to catastrophize the meaning of their experiences. A few moments of increased heart rate after climbing a flight of stairs is misrepresented as the warning signs of a heart attack. Such catastrophic misinterpretations simply add to the physiological arousal, creating a vicious circle in which the frightening symptoms intensify. They are victims of their own illogical thinking.

Obsessions

Repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that caused extreme anxiety and distress. Extreme versions of every day worries. These have little or no basis in reality and are often extremely far-fetched. One common theme is a pathological doubt about having accomplished a simple task, such as shutting off appliances. Irrational fear of dirt, germs, and other forms of contamination.

Compulsions

Repetitive behaviors or mental tasks that a person feels driven to perform in order to prevent or reduce anxiety and distress, or to prevent a dreaded event or situation. Typically, these are ritual behaviors that must be carried out in a certain pattern or sequence. They may be overt physical behaviors, such as repeatedly washing your hands, checking doors or windows, or entering and re-entering a doorway until you walk through exactly in the middle. They may be covert mental behaviors, such as counting or reciting certain phrases to yourself. Not doing these things causes extreme anxiety. If the person tries to resist performing the ritual, unbearable tension, anxiety, and distress result.Some of these bear little logical relationship to the feared consequences. For example, if a woman believes that if she doesn't get dressed according to a strict pattern, her husband will die in a car accident.

Magical thinking and OCD

Research suggests that many people with OCD, especially with checking Accounting compulsions, are particularly prone to superstitious or magical thinking. Even though the person knows her up sessions are irrational or her compulsions are absurd, she is unable to resist their force.

PTSD among US veterans

Some 300,000 veterans have been diagnosed with PTSD or major depressive disorder. This high rate and suicide may be related to unique aspects of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. "The majority of military personnel experience high-intensity guerrilla warfare and the chronic threat of roadside bombs and improvised explosive devices. Some soldiers endure multiple tours of duty, many experience traumatic injury, and more of the wounded survive than ever before." Karen Seal

What approaches of research is taking to understand general aspects shared by all psychological disorders?

Some have identified similar genetic risk factors and similar changes in the brain. Others, a general p factor that incorporates a wide array of symptoms that underlie all forms of mental illness. The p factor provides a measure of the overall severity of psychological disorders, and it relates to a cluster of risk factors including a family history of mental illness and early neurological problems, such as with language development.

Observational learning and phobias

Some people learn to be for the cup certain objects or situations by observing the fearful reactions of someone else who acts as a model in the situation. The child who observes a parent react with sheer panic to the site of a spider or mouse Nate imitate the same behavior response. People can also develop phobias from observing David media accounts of disasters, as when some people become afraid to fly after watching graphic TV coverage of a plane crash.

Cultural influences and social anxiety disorder

Taijin kyofusho, a disorder that usually affects young Japanese males. Similar to social anxiety disorder, it includes extreme social anxiety and avoidance of social situations. However the person with this is not worried about being embarrassed in public. Rather, reflecting the cultural emphasis of concern for others, the person with this fear is that his appearance or smell, facial expression, or body language will offend, insult, or embarrass other people.

Chart of the lifetime prevalence of psychological disorders

The bars in the graph add up to more than 100% because some people are diagnosed with more than one disorder.

Psychopathology

The scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders.

How is PTSD unusual?

The source of the disorder is the traumatic event itself, rather than a cause that lies within the individual. Even well-adjusted and psychologically healthy people may develop PTSD when exposed to an extremely traumatic event. Among Vietnam vets in the US, exposure to combat involvement in actions that harmed civilians or prisoners of war played a bigger role in the development of PTSD than a soldier's pre-existing psychological vulnerability.

Nonfictional accounts and stereotypes?

These stereotypes are reinforced. Studies in Canada and the US suggest that nearly half of news articles about mental illness put it in the context of violence or criminality. But there is evidence that people with severe mental disorders who are experiencing extreme psychological symptoms, such as bizarre delusional ideas and hallucinated voices, do display a slightly higher level of violence and illegal behavior then do "normal" people. Exaggerated in media.

Understanding psychological disorders

This includes consideration of their origins, symptoms, and development, as well as how behavior relates to cultural and social norms.

Classic conditioning and phobias

This may be involved in the development of specific phobias, as it can be traced back to some sort of traumatic event. For example, researchers recently demonstrated this by pairing something new, like in invented cartoon character named Spardi, with something frightening, like a picture of a woman being mugged at knifepoint. Participants rated Spardi as more frightening in these circumstances then when the character was paired with something pleasant, like a picture of a sunset. Or an adult being afraid of dogs because of being bitten by a dog as a child.

Samaritans radar

This was a short lived app that monitored friends' tweets. If a tweet included certain phrases like "tired of being alone" or "hate myself" the app would alert the user and offer guidance on how to provide help. Despite the public nature of the original tweets, critics had privacy concerns, worrying that the alerts would embolden "stalkers and bullies." The app was suspended after just nine days.

Should social media help to diagnose disorders? Critical thinking - ethics?

What if someone is identified as having psychological problems because of a false or exaggerated posting? Could such an identification violate someone's privacy in a way that is upsetting? Should organizations be required to gain consent before reviewing someone's social media for diagnostic purposes? Ethical guidelines must be developed.

Is there still a social stigma attached to suffering from a psychological disorder?

Yes, studies have found that people with major mental illness belong to the most stigmatized group in modern society. Particularly in popular media, people with psychological disorders are portrayed in highly negative, stereotyped ways. For example, as a helpless victim or as an unpredictable, dangerous, and violent evil villain. The Joker in Batman.