chapter 14: personality
define self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
2 ends of the spectrum for neuroticism
also called emotional stability/instability - calm, secure, self-satified - anxious, insecure, self-pitying
define personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
what is a Freudian slip?
an unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings.
Freud believed that defense mechanisms are unconscious attempts to distort or disguise reality, all in an effort to reduce our ________________.
anxiety
projection
attributing ones' own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person a women who dislikes her boss thinks she likes her boss and her boss doesn't like her
who did Maslow study to create his hierarchy of needs?
he studied healthy, creative people
"The thief thinks everyone else is a thief" (an El Salvadoran saying).
projection
________________ tests ask test-takers to respond to an ambiguous image by describing it or telling a story about it.
projective
aim to provide this "psychological X-ray" by asking test-takers to describe an ambiguous image or tell a story about it. The clinician may presume that any hopes, desires, and fears that people see in the ambiguous image are projections of their own inner feelings or conflicts.
projective test
this test provides a psychologist with information on one's implicit motives.
projective test such as TAT or Rorschach inkblot test
personality assessment methods of psychodynamics
projective tests and therapy sessions
theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.
psycho-dynamic theories
Personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses (the id), a reality-oriented executive (the ego), and an internalized set of ideals (the superego).
psychoanalytic theory
Emotional disorders spring from unconscious dynamics, such as unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, and fixation at various developmental stages. Defense mechanisms fend off anxiety.
psychoanalytic theory- Freud
The dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shapes our personality.
psychodynamic theory
The unconscious and conscious minds interact. Childhood experiences and defense mechanisms are important.
psychodynamic theory- Alder, Horney, and Jung
A habitual drinker says she drinks with her friends "just to be sociable."
rationalization
Repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness.
reaction formation
self-serving bias
readiness to perceive ourselves favorably
Our traits interact with the social context to produce our behaviors.
social cognitive theory- Bandura
In general, neo-Freudians such as Adler and Horney accepted many of Freud's views but placed more emphasis than he did on...
social interactions
social psychology vs personality psychology
social psychology focuses on temporary, external influences on behavior while personality psychology focuses on enduring, inner influences
Neo- Freudians believed that ______ not _____ tensions in childhood are crucial for personality formation
social, not sexual
dreams, symbolic symptoms, and anxiety-defense mechanisms reflect what part of the structural model and why?
the ego the ego tries to help urges which avoiding punishment- it is thus a place where we work through conflicted feelings the ego finds a way to let the impulses of the id safely out
which part of freud's structural model is pragmatic- does what id feasible?
the ego uses secondary process of thinking to discriminate between reality and fantasy
what is the false consensus effect?
the idea that people are doing what you do. Refers to the tendency of people to overestimate the level to which other people share their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. it is a way to preserve your self image "Everyone speeds"
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.
who was the first person to focus clinical attention to the unconscious mind?
Sigmund Freud
Dunning-Kruger effect
"ignorance of one's own incompetence" most people who are over confident are incompetent, you do not realize what you do not know
4 reasons people are hard on themselves despite self-serving bias
(1) Sometimes self-directed put-downs are subtly strategic—they elicit reassuring strokes. Saying "No one likes me" may at least elicit "But not everyone has met you!" (2) self-disparaging comments prepare us for possible failure. The coach who extols the superior strength of the upcoming opponent makes a loss understandable, a victory noteworthy. (3) helps us learn from our mistakes.- "how could you be so stupid" (4) Self-disparagement frequently pertains to one's old self. Asked to remember their really bad behaviors, people recall things from long ago; good behaviors more easily come to mind from their recent past
What are three ways in which Freud's theory has been criticized?
(1) not scientifically testable and offering after-the-fact explanations (2) focusing too much on sexual conflicts in childhood (3) being based on the idea of repression, which has not been supported by modern research.
What are three big ideas that have survived from Freud's psychoanalytic theory?
(1) the importance of childhood experiences (2) the existence of the unconscious mind (3) our self-protective defense mechanisms.
describe the anal stage
- 18-16 months of age - Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
what are the 4 cognitive theories?
- Psychoanalytic (Freud) - Psychodynamic (Alder, Horney, and Jung) - Humanistic (Rogers and Maslow) - Trait (Allport, Esyneck (s), McCrae and Costa) - Social Cognitive (Bandura)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- a test introduced by Murray - provides a valid and reliable map of people's implicit motives a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
what is the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire?
- created by Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eyseneck - it analyzed answers showing that the extraversion and emotionality factors inevitably emerged as basic personality dimensions
criticism of Freud's view of the importance of childhood experience.
- development is seen as lifelong, not fixed in childhood - he may have overestimated parental influence on children- gender identity does not depend on a same-sex parent as one can become strongly masculine or feminine do so even without a same-sex parent present. - Freud's questioning could have created false memories of sexual abuse and enhanced his ideas of childhood sexual wishes and conflicts
2 ends of the spectrum for conscientiousness
- disorganized, careless, impulsive - organized, careful, disciplined
How did Murray use the projective test?
- had children engage in a frightening game called "murder" - later when shown images what the kids recalled seeing in the photos was malicious - this demonstrated that they projected their inner feelings into pictures
evidence that has supported Freud's reaction formation
- men who were more anti-gay experienced more blood flow to the penis while watching homosexual intercourse - people who unconsciously identify as homosexual—but who consciously identify as straight—report more negative attitudes toward gays
what are the effects of low self esteem
- negatie about oneself - over sensitive - judgemental - people down on themselves are down on others
describe the oral stage
- occurs from 0-18 months - Pleasure centers on the mouth—sucking, biting, chewing
describe the phallic stage
- occurs from 3-6 years old - Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings - boys develop both unconscious sexual desires for their mother and jealousy and hatred for their father who they consider a rival
describe the latency stage
- occurs from 6 years up until puberty - A phase of dormant sexual feelings
describe the genital stage
- occurs from puberty an onward - Maturation of sexual interests
what is generation me?
- people born between 1980 and 1990 - they expressed more narcissism
Freud's view of personality
- personality arises from conflict between pleasure seeking impulses and restraint brought upon by society's social controls - personality serves to strike a balance between expressing one's impulses in a way that brings satisfaction without bringing guilt or punishment - believed the personality was constructed into 3 parts: the id, ego, and superego
what is excessive optimism? How can it be harmful?
- positive thinking bias such as being over confident in our abilities and in our plans for the future - it can blind us to potential risks- for instance, if you are over confident in your ability to not smoke, you will more likely expose yourself to smokers and fail
2 ends of the spectrum for openness
- practical, prefers routine, conforming - imaginative, prefers variety, independent
research has supported which of Freud's findings?
- reaction formation - projection - unconscious defense against anxiety
2 ends of the spectrum for extraversion
- retiring, sober, reserved - sociable, fun-loving, affectionate
2 ends of the spectrum for agreeableness
- ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative - soft-hearted, trusting, helpful
how do the big 5 traits reflect differences in brain structure?
- size and thickness of parts of the brain correlates to different traits - for example, those who score high on conscientiousness tend to have a larger frontal lobe area that aids in planning and controlling behavior. Brain connections also influence the Big Five traits (Adelstein et al., 2011). People high in neuroticism (emotional instability) have brains that are wired to experience stress intensely
How does the case of Fraulein Elisabeth Von R. depict Freud's idea pf repression?
- went on date and her father got very sick - felt guilt as she never saw the man again and her father was now very sick - feels conflicted between guilt and desire - emotions are repressed and manifest themselves in physical pain in her thighs - traumatic event created a psychological-related symptom- something symbolic, meaningful and psychosomatic
characteristics of narcissist
-materialistic - desire fame - have inflated expectations - hook up more often without commitment - gamble - cheat more - more often men -forgive others less - take a game-playing approach to their romantic relationships - engage in sexually forceful behavio - crave adulation - active on social media - become enraged when criticized - had parents who told them they were superior to others - They typically make good first impressions, which wane over time as their arrogance and bragging gets old
what did Freud believed lurked in the unconscious
-wishes -fears -desires -fantasies - emotions
list the 6 types of defense mechanisms according to Freud
1- Regression 2- Reaction formation 3- Projection 4- Rationalization 5- Displacement 6- Denial
These are, Rogers believed, the water, sun, and nutrients that enable people to grow like vigorous oak trees:
1- acceptance 2- genuineness 3- empathy
What 3 things did Roger's growth-promoting social environment provide?
1- acceptance- valuing people despite failures (unconditioned positive regard). You can be yourself without the fear of losing other's esteem 2- genuineness- people are open with feelings and transparent and self-disclosing 3- empathy- to share and mirror the feelings of others. Listening and trying to understand others
social-cultural influences on personality
1- childhood experience 2- situational factors 3- cultual expectations 4- social support
criticisms of the humanistic perspective of Maslow and Rogers
1- concepts are vague and subjective. Consider Maslow's description of self-actualizing people as open, spontaneous, loving, self-accepting, and productive. Is this a scientific description? Or is it merely a description of the theorist's own values and ideals? 2- emphasis on individualism—trusting and acting on one's feelings, being true to oneself, fulfilling oneself—could lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, and an erosion of moral restraint- people are more concerned about themselves 3- it is naive—that it fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for evil. Encourages hopeful thinking but fails to realize threats
what are the 5 parts of the Big Five test?
1- conscientiousness 2- agreeableness 3- neuroticism 4- openness 5- extraversion
in what 3 ways to individuals and their environments interact?
1- different people choose different environments- interpersonal factors determine who/what we surround ourselves with 2- our personality shapes how we interpret and react to events- if you are an anxious person you likely will see the world as more threatening and be more prepared to deal with potential dangers 3- our personality helps create situations to which we react- how you view and treat people influences how they treat you
how can we become aware of our unconscious according to Freud?
1- first feelings are conflicted in unconscious 2- though therapy can lead to conscious examination of feelings 3- once are of feelings you ca act on them
biological influences on personality
1- genetically determined temperament 2- autonomic nervous system reactivity 3- brain activity
psychological influences on personality
1- learned responses 2- unconscious though processes 3- expectations and interpretations
how do many Social-cognitive theorists believe we learn many of our behaviors? What do they emphasize as key to understanding how situations affect our resulting behaviors?
1- through conditioning or 2- through observing and imitating others focus on bow mental processes affect our behavior- how one interacts with the environment
two ways to avoid the spotlight effect
1- understand the the spotlight effect exists- things that are very noticeable t you may be hardly noticeable to other people 2- expect others to empathize with you and not use harsh judgment
two ways to analyze personality
1- use of questionnaire to analyze self concept- they are asked to describe their actual vs ideal self. The closer the actual and ideal self the more positive one's self-concept 2- another approach is to use the life story approach in which people describe their unique life story which can show more of a complete picture of one's identity
How heritable are are the big 5 personality traits?
40% for each dimension of the big five traits can be attributed to genes
these two theorists focused on our potential for healthy personal growth. They studied people through their own self-reported experiences and feelings
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
who proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations?
Albert Bandura
who thought of the inferiority complex? He believed that much of our behavior is driven by efforts to conquer childhood inferiority feelings that trigger our strivings for superiority and power.
Alfred Alder
Trait Theory
Allport; Eysenck, H.; Eysenck, S.; McCrae; Costa We have certain stable and enduring characteristics, influenced by genetic predispositions. Scientific study of traits has isolated important dimensions of personality, such as the Big Five traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion).
social cognitive theory
Bandura Our traits interact with the social context to produce our behaviors. Conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns. Our behavior in one situation is best predicted by considering our past behavior in similar situations.
How did Neo-Freudians differ from Freud?
But they broke off from Freud in two important ways. First, they placed more emphasis on the conscious mind's role in interpreting experience and in coping with the environment. second, they doubted that sex and aggression were all-consuming motivations. Instead, they tended to emphasize loftier motives and social interactions.
who disagreed with Freud by saying the unconscious contains more than our repressed thoughts and feelings. He believed we also have a collective unconscious, a common reservoir of images, or archetypes, derived from our species' universal experiences.
Carl Jung
define collective unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.
what is the relationship between self-efficacy and self esteem on grades?
Children's academic self-efficacy—their confidence that they can do well in a subject—predicts school achievement. But general self-image does not
_______________ (Secure/Defensive) self-esteem is linked to angry and aggressive behavior. ______________ (Secure/Defensive) self-esteem is a healthier self-image that allows us to focus beyond ourselves and enjoy a higher quality of life.
Defensive; Secure
define projection
Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
what explains why some students are dumb-founded when they blow an exam?
Dunning- Kruger effect Our ignorance of what we don't know sustains our self-confidence, leading us to make the same mistakes we don't know what we don't know
Because we are unaware of what we don't hear, we may overestimate our hearing. If I fail to hear my friend calling my name, the friend notices my inattention. But for me it's a nonevent. I hear what I hear—which, to me, seems pretty normal. what is this an example of?
Dunning-Kruger effect
personality assessment methods of psychoanalysis
Free association, projective tests, dream analysis
psychoanalytic theory
Freud Emotional disorders spring from unconscious dynamics, such as unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, and fixation at various developmental stages. Defense mechanisms fend off anxiety. Personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses (the id), a reality-oriented executive (the ego), and an internalized set of ideals (the superego).
define psycho-analysis
Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.
He defined personality in terms of identifiable behavior patterns. He was concerned less with explaining individual traits than with describing them.
Gordon Allport
who believed that we can reduce many of our normal individual variations to two dimensions: extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability?
Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck
psychodynamic theory
Horney, Alder, and Jung The unconscious and conscious minds interact. Childhood experiences and defense mechanisms are important. The dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shapes our personality.
what is the Big Five?
If a test specifies where you are on the five dimensions (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion it has said much of what there is to say about your personality. has been used to understand personality disorder and dysfunction
who wanted to describe important personality difference and did so by sorting people according to Carl Jung's personality types, based on their responses to 126 questions? What test did they create?
Isabel Briggs Myers (1987) and her mother, Katharine Briggs, created the The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Who thought childhood anxiety triggers our desire for love and security? She also opposed Freud's assumptions that women have weak superegos and suffer "penis envy," and she attempted to balance his masculine bias.
Karen Horney
who laid the groundwork for today's positive psychology subfield?
Maslow and Rogers
Humanistic theory
Maslow and Rogers Rather than examining the struggles of sick people, it's better to focus on the ways healthy people may strive for self-realization. If our basic human needs are met, we will strive toward self-actualization. In a climate of unconditional positive regard, we can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive self-concept.
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.
personality assessment for social cognitive theory
Observing behavior in realistic situations
define rationalization
Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions
person-situation controversy
Our behavior is influenced by the interaction of our inner disposition with our environment. a genuine personality trait will exist over time and be observed in different situations
gene-envrionemt interaction. give an example
Our genetically influenced traits evoke certain responses from others, which may nudge us in one direction or another. In one classic study, those with the interacting factors of (1) having a specific gene associated with aggression plus (2) being raised in a difficult environment were most likely to demonstrate adult antisocial behavior
How well do personality test scores predict our behavior? Explain
Our scores on personality tests predict our average behavior across many situations much better than they predict our specific behavior in any given situation.
postive and negative effects of high self-esteem
People who feel confident in their abilities are often happier, have greater motivation, and are less susceptible to depression. Inflated self-esteem can lead to self-serving bias, greater aggression, and narcissism.
personality assessment for trait theory
Personality inventories
in what stage did Freud believe the Oedipus complex could be observed?
Phallic stage
personality assessment for humanistic theory
Questionnaires, therapy sessions
define displacement
Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
define denial
Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
What is not part of the contemporary view of the unconscious in regards to traumatic events.
Repressed memories of anxiety-provoking events
define regression
Retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
person-centered perspective
Roger's idea that people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies.
define reaction formation
Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
today's "common currency for personality psychology"—has been the most active personality research topic since the early 1990s and is currently our best approximation of the basic trait dimensions.
The Big Five
Through their use of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, what did the Eysenck's discover?
The Eysencks believed, and research confirms, that these personality factors are genetically influenced.
manifest content
conscious content, literal meaning
How did the humanistic theories provide a fresh perspective?
The humanistic theories sought to turn psychology's attention away from drives and conflicts and toward our growth potential. This movement's focus on the way people strive for self-determination and self-realization was in contrast to Freudian theory and strict behaviorism.
a test in which people view ambiguous pictures and then make up stories about them.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
why are the big 5 scientifically useful?
These factors may be: 1- objectively measured 2- they are relatively stable over the life span 3- they apply to all cultures in which they have been studied.
instead of simply using paper tests, how do social-cognitive psychologists predict behavior?
To predict behavior, social-cognitive psychologists often observe behavior in realistic situations. assessment center strategies allow people to be observed while they do work
maturity principle
We become more conscientious and agreeable and less neurotic we change throughout life, up to the age of 40 we are still maturing
how do personality inventories differ from projective tests?
Whereas most projective tests (such as the Rorschach) are scored subjectively, personality inventories are scored objectively.
what is unconditioned positive regard?
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.
define trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
define projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
while some critics think the humanistic perspective is self-fish, humanities psychologists counter them by saying...
a secure, nondefensive self-acceptance is actually the first step toward loving others. those who like themselves are less defensive towards others
what is factor analysis?
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters (factors) of test items that tap basic components of a trait like extraversion/introversion, and emotional stability/instability
empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.
terror-management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.
define the unconscious according to Freud and contemporary psychologists
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.
self-trancendance
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.
contemporary psychology and what we currently agree/disagree with in regards to Freud's theories
agree: - much of our mental life is unconscious. - we often struggle with inner conflicts among our wishes, fears, and values, and that childhood shapes our personality and ways of becoming attached to others. disagree: - do not believe sex is the basis of personality -"do not talk about ids and egos, and do not go around classifying their patients as oral, anal, or phallic characters." - developmental psychologists see our development as lifelong, not fixed in childhood.
reaction formation
behaving in a way that is exactly opposite of ones' true feelings someone who is very sad may act overly smiley and happy
identification
bolstering self esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group an insecure young man joins a fraternity to rise his self-esteem
trait theories
characteristic patterns of behavior (traits)
a common reservoir in the unconscious mind of images, or archetypes, derived from our species' universal experiences.
collective unconscious
what are the three types of consciousness? Which was Freud most interested in and why?
conscious- the things we are aware of preconscious- unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories that can be brought to consciousness unconscious - the part of the mind that we are not aware of- where Freud believed we store unaccepted feelings- where we keep things repressed, or forcibly block them from our consciousness because they would be too unsettling to acknowledge. Freud believed that without our awareness, these troublesome feelings and ideas powerfully influence us, sometimes gaining expression in disguised forms—the work we choose, the beliefs we hold, our daily habits, our upsetting symptoms.
Oedipus complex
cording to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. in women it is called Electra complex
If you can't check the person's past behavior, what is the next best thing to predict future behavior?
create an assessment situation that simulates the task so you can see how the person handles it
rationalization
creation of false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior student watches tv instead of studying- studying wouldn't help them improve anyway
what are the 2 types of self-esteem?
defensive and secure
contrast defensive and secure self-esteem
defensive- is is fragile. It focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failure and criticism feel threatening. Defensive people may respond to such perceived threats with anger or aggression secure- is less fragile because it is less contingent on external evaluations. To feel accepted for who we are, and not for our looks, wealth, or acclaim, relieves pressures to succeed and enables us to focus beyond ourselves. If you focus on relationships with others more than yourself you are more likely to have a better self-esteem
A partner denies evidence of his loved one's affair.
denial
A little girl kicks the family dog after her mother puts her in a time-out.
displacement
criticisms of Eysencks' introversion-extraversion and stability-instability dimensions
don't tell the whole story of one's personality- personality is more complex (a better method is the big 5)
how does ego use dreams to let off steam?
dreams = wish fulfillment- dimply unacceptable wishes in form of dream still, meaning must be hidden from the super ego, this is why there is symbolism. wishes are thus disguised and must be interpreted
helps the id but avoids punishment
ego
satisfies id's impulses in realistic way to bring long-term pleasure. Contains our partly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgments, and memories.
ego
this part of the personality according to Freud serves as the personality "executive," mediating among the impulsive demands of the id, the restraining demands of the superego,
ego
According to Freud's view of personality structure, the "executive" system, the _________________, seeks to gratify the impulses of the _________________ in more acceptable ways.
ego; id
According to Freud's ideas about the three-part personality structure, the ____________ operates on the reality principle and tries to balance demands in a way that produces long-term pleasure rather than pain; the _____________ operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification; and the _____________ represents the voice of our internalized ideals (our conscience).
ego; id; superego.
social-cognitive theories
explore the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
we are both the products and the architects of our environments: Behavior emerges from the interplay of _______ and _________ influences.
external and internal influences
Dopamine and dopamine-related neural activity tend to be higher in ________
extraverts
________ seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low.
extraverts
PET scans have shown that a frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition is less active in ________ than in________
extraverts than in introverts
evidence that has supported Freud's projection
false consensus effect—the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. People who binge-drink or break speed limits tend to think many others do the same.
If a person continues to seek oral gratification by smoking or excessive eating, Freud would say that they psychosexual cycle would have been disrupted in the oral stage and has stuck with them in adult years. What is this an example of?
fixation
In the psychoanalytic view, conflicts unresolved during one of the psychosexual stages may lead to _____________ at that stage.
fixation
According to the psychoanalytic view of development, we all pass through a series of psychosexual stages, including the oral, anal, and phallic stages. Conflicts unresolved at any of these stages may lead to...
fixation at the stage
criticism of the social cognitive theory
focus so much on the situation that they fail to appreciate the person's inner traits.
despite changes in one's life, what has been observed about personality overtime?
for the most part as people grow older, their personality stabilizes. most people recognize they cannot change who they are
Freud believed ________ _________ would allow him to retrace that line, following a chain of thought leading into the patient's unconscious. There, painful unconscious memories, often from childhood, could be retrieved, reviewed, and released
free association
fixation at phallic stage
from too much or too little masturbation: can become self-centered, vain, arrogant, seek need for attention
this generation of people would must likely agree with the statement, "If I could rule the world it would be a better place."
generation me- born between 1980-1990
giving people random rewards is (beneficial/harmful)
harmful
If our basic human needs are met, we will strive toward self-actualization. In a climate of unconditional positive regard, we can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive self-concept.
humanistic theory
Rather than examining the struggles of sick people, it's better to focus on the ways healthy people may strive for self-realization.
humanistic theory - Maslow and Rogers
seeks immediate gratification. powered by drive to satisfy basic impulses like survival, reproduction, and aggression.
id
sexual, aggressive, unacceptable impulses
id
anal fixation
if toilet trained in a harsh way might become stubborn, rigid (anal retentive) OR conversely, messy, and disorganized (anal explosive)
oral fixation
if weaned too early, may become fixated indulge oral habits- seek symbolic forms of gratification (passive, dependent, demanding like a nursing infant)
define the self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
fixation
in personality theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. At any point in the oral, anal, or phallic stages, strong conflict could lock, or fixate, the person's pleasure-seeking energies in that stage.
what is free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. - often revealed unconscious memories from childhood
define repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. operates indirectly and unconsciously
Which two primary dimensions did Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck propose for describing personality variation?
introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability
displacement
involves diverting emotional feelings usually anger, from original source to submissive target girl scolded by parents takes anger out on you're brother
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
it counts the test-taker's preferences, labels them as indicating, say, a "feeling type" or "thinking type," and feeds them back to the person in complimentary terms. - it is used as a counseling and coaching tool but has been criticized as a job performance prediction as it lacks scientific evidence
repression
keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in unconscious traumatized soldier has no recollection of a near death experience
what is libido? which part of Freud's structural model exhibits libido?
libido= gratifying basic biological need id
what is the best way to predict someone's future behavior?
look at past behavior patterns in similar situations
manifest vs latent content in dreams according to Freud
manifest content- what the dream was about, what happened latent content- the censored expression of the dreamer's unconscious wishes (the meaning behind the manifest content)
people are more likely to be critical of their _________ self than their _______ self
more critical of distant past self than current self "when I was 18 I was a jerk"
criticism of Freud's idea of repression
more often, trauma increases memory retention- this is why highly emotional events can haunt people
what is the better-than-average effect?
most people see themselves as better than average for any subjectively assessed or socially desirable behavior
excessive self-love and self absorption
narcissism
what did researches find when people with normal self-esteem vs narcissists were criticized?
narcissist reacted more aggressively to criticism Researchers have concluded that "conceited, self-important individuals turn nasty toward those who puncture their bubbles of self-love
biggest criticism of Freud's theories
not based on scientific evidence Freud's theory rests on few objective observations, and parts of it offer few testable hypotheses.
define the id
one of the 3 parts of personality described by Freud a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
define the ego
one of the 3 parts of personality described by Freud mediates between the id and superego the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. - satisfies id's impulses in realistic way to bring long-term pleasure.
define superego
one of the 3 parts of personality described by Freud the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. - moral compass - focuses on how one should behave - it strives for perfection to produce positive feelings as oppose to guilt
self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness.
what are the 4 stages in Freud's psychosexual stages?
oral anal phallic latency genital
criticism of Freud's view of the importance of dreams as wish-fulfillment
other theories for dreaming like random impulses, memory consolidation, etc.
scores on a personality test best predict....
our average behavior across many situations
self-esteem
our feelings of high or low self worth
what is gender identity according to Freud?
our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two. Freud presumed that our early childhood relations—especially with our parents and other caregivers—influence our developing identity, personality, and frailties. - children identify with their same-sex parent which contributes to their gender identity
what is the spotlight effect?
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).
longer questionnaires covering a wide range of feelings and behaviors—assess several traits at once.
personality inventory
Bandura said "Behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental influences," he said, "all operate as interlocking determinants of each other" this person- environment interaction is called?
reciprocal determinism
denial
refusing to accept that a feeling is present or that an event occurred women has a hard time acknowledging her husband is dead preschoolers will convince themselves they didn't do something they wish they hadnt
A little boy reverts to the oral comfort of thumb sucking in the car on the way to his first day of school.
regression
Freud believed that we may block painful or unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, or memories from consciousness through an unconscious process called _______________.
repression
this underlies all other defense mechanisms. Because it is often incomplete, urges often appear as symbols in dreams or slips of the tongue in casual conversation
repression
list the defense mechanisms
repression projection displacement reaction formation regression rationalization identification denial really proud dads raise riled rats in December
regression
reversion to immature patterns of behavior adult has a temper tantrum when they don't get their way
if our ______ is positive, we tend to act and perceive the world positively. If it is negative—if in our own eyes we fall far short of our ideal self
self-concept
Athletes often privately credit their victories to their own prowess, and their losses to bad breaks, lousy officiating, or the other team's exceptional performance. what is this an example of?
self-serving bias
The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failure is called ____________ - __________ ___________.
self-serving bias
_______ reflects both an overestimation of the self and a desire to maintain a positive self-view
self-serving bias
this explains why people accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than for failures.
self-serving bias
how does the ego safely let out the muses of the id?
slips dreams- display unacceptable wishes in form of dream repression
Critics say that ______________ - _____________ personality theory is very sensitive to an individual's interactions with particular situations, but that it gives too little attention to the person's enduring traits.
social cognitive
Conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns. Our behavior in one situation is best predicted by considering our past behavior in similar situations.
social cognitive theory
Albert Bandura proposed the ____________ - _____________ perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of people with their environment. To describe the interacting influences of behavior, thoughts, and environment, he used the term _____________ ___________.
social-cognitive; reciprocal determinism
psychological-related symptom
something symbolic, meaningful and psychosomatic you may feel physical pain as a result of emotional trauma
The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the _____________ _____________.
spotlight effect
Which elements of traditional psychoanalysis have modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists retained, and which elements have they mostly left behind?
still rely on the interviewing techniques that Freud used, and they still tend to focus on childhood experiences and attachments, unresolved conflicts, and unconscious influences. However, they are not likely to dwell on fixation at any psychosexual stage, or the idea that sexual issues are the basis of our personality
Freud proposed that the development of the "voice of our moral compass" is related to the ______________, which internalizes ideals and provides standards for judgments.
super ego
rules and morality
super ego
part of freud's structural model that included the conscience and ego ideal?
super ego the conscience know what is bad and prohibits behavior while the ego knows what is good and rewards behavior- the two interact to produce what one "should do"- what parents, laws, and society dictate
this is considered our moral compass which seeks perfection, not only considering the real but the ideal. It focuses on how we ought to behave in order to bring about positive feelings and avoid feelings of guilt
super-ego
evidence of Freud's idea that we unconsciously defend ourselves against anxiety
terror-menagement theory when thinking about how we are all going to die people become more religious and think about close relationships in order to calm anxiety someone may take up running or a healthy hobby upon the death of a loved one
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. - not always effective
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos. - how kids cope with threatening feelings brought out in the phallic stage. Children decide if they can't beat their parent then they should join them and thus start to identify with the same sex parents and adopt their values
what are possible selves? How do they function?
the self you wish to become of the self you fear becoming these possible selves motivate us to lay out specific goals that direct our energy effectively and efficiently
criticism of personality being fixed/stable
the way we behave can change from situation to situation. can't pigeonhole people based on personality traits
humanistic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.
how do social- cognitive psychologists differ from behaviorists?
they focus on how people interact with the environment while behaviorists focus more on how the environment dictates our behaviors social cognitive psychologists not only focus on how external stimuli influences behavior but also on how our mental processes like those involved in schemas, our memories, and our expectations influence our behavior patterns
________ theories of personality focus on describing characteristic behavior patterns, such as agreeableness or extraversion.
trait
Scientific study of traits has isolated important dimensions of personality, such as the Big Five traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion).
trait theory
We have certain stable and enduring characteristics, influenced by genetic predispositions.
trait theory- Allport; Eysenck, H.; Eysenck, S.; McCrae; Costa
The total acceptance Rogers advocated as part of a growth-promoting environment is called _______________ ________________ ______________.
unconditioned postive regard
latent content
unconscious content, figurative meaning interpretation helps unlock the true meaning of dreams
Freud believed that our defense mechanisms operate _____________ (consciously/unconsciously) and defend us against _____________.
unconsciously; anxiety
psychodynamic theories
view human behavior as a dynamic interaction between the conscious mind and unconscious mind, including associated motives and conflicts. These theories are descended from Freud's psychoanalysis
social-congitve perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
when do we most often feel inferior?
when we compare ourselves to others
can personality traits of the big 5 predict behavior?
yes Conscientiousness and agreeableness predict workplace success, and agreeableness predicts helpfulness (Habashi et al., 2016; Sackett & Walmsley, 2014). Traits also characterize certain career paths. For example, U.S. politicians tend to have "big" personalities, outscoring the general public on extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (low neuroticism)
the unconscious mind is responsible for attending to stimuli we are not consciously aware of. Give some examples
• the schemas that automatically control our perceptions and interpretations (Chapter 6). • the priming by stimuli to which we have not consciously attended (Chapters 6 and 8). • the right-hemisphere activity that enables the split-brain patient's left hand to carry out an instruction the patient cannot verbalize (Chapter 2). • the implicit memories that operate without conscious recall, even among those with amnesia (Chapter 8). • the emotions that activate instantly, before conscious analysis (Chapter 12). • the stereotypes and implicit prejudice that automatically and unconsciously influence how we process information about others (Chapter 13).