Chapter 15

Which of the following statements about sampling is true? A) Convenience sampling is used by both qualitative and quantitative researchers. B) Quantitative researchers establish eligibility criteria, but qualitative researchers do not. C) Extreme case sampling is a type of theoretical sampling. D) Focus groups would not be used in qualitative descriptive studies.

Ans: A Feedback: Convenience sampling is used by both qualitative and quantitative researchers. Sampling by convenience is efficient, but is not a preferred approach, even in qualitative studies. Like quantitative researchers, qualitative researchers often identify eligibility criteria for their studies. Although they do not specify an explicit population to whom results could be generalized, they do establish the kinds of people who are eligible to participate in their research. Qualitative researchers may start with convenience or snowball sampling, but usually rely eventually on purposive sampling to guide them in selecting data sources that maximize information richness. One type of purposive sampling (not theoretical sampling) is extreme case sampling (selecting the most unusual or extreme cases). Focus groups have been used by researchers in many qualitative traditions and in qualitative descriptive research.

Samples of ten or fewer study participants would be most likely to be found in which of the following? A) Phenomenological study B) Grounded theory study C) Ethnography D) Participatory action study

Ans: A Feedback: Phenomenologists tend to rely on very small samples of participantsótypically 10 or fewer. Grounded theory researchers typically use theoretical sampling in which sampling decisions are guided in an ongoing fashion by the emerging theory. Ethnographers make numerous sampling decisions, including not only whom to sample but what to; decision making is often aided by their key informants who serve as guides and interpreters of the culture. One type of unstructured observation is participant observation, in which the researcher gains entrÈe into a social group and participates to varying degrees in its functioning while making in-depth observations of activities and events.

Which of the following is a type of purposive sampling? Select all that apply. A) Extreme case sampling B) Maximum variation sampling C) Snowball sampling D) Typical case sampling

Ans: A, B, D Feedback: Qualitative researchers may start with convenience or snowball sampling, but usually rely on purposive sampling to guide them in selecting data sources that maximize information richness. One purposive strategy is maximum variation sampling, which entails purposely selecting cases with a wide range of variation. Another important strategy is sampling confirming and disconfirming casesói.e., selecting cases that enrich and challenge the researchers' conceptualizations. Other types of purposive sampling include extreme case sampling (selecting the most unusual or extreme cases); typical case sampling (selecting cases that illustrate what is typical); and criterion sampling (studying cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance).

Which of the following is true regarding qualitative and quantitative research? A) Quantitative research and qualitative research both develop eligibility criteria before consenting study participants. B) Quantitative research and qualitative research both use random samples whenever possible, to enhance the ability to predict within a wider population. C) Quantitative research and qualitative research both determine sample size in the same manner. D) Quantitative research and qualitative research both prefer a large sample to a small one, because it produces stronger statistical results.

Ans: A Feedback: Both types of research consider what types of participants would provide the best information. Qualitative research typically involves non-random sampling. Whereas quantitative research typically requires that the sample size be determined before the study begins and remains fixed, study sample size in qualitative studies is typically not fixed and may change due to changing research needs as the study progresses. Although quantitative studies typically benefit from larger sample sizes, which tend to decrease bias, qualitative studies my benefit from smaller sample sizes depending on study goals.

A qualitative researcher who is attempting to provide findings from multiple diverse viewpoints on a phenomenon would most likely subscribe to which of the following? A) Deviant case sampling B) Typical case sampling C) Criterion case sampling D) Confirming case sampling

Ans: A Feedback: Deviant case sampling would provide multiple diverse viewpoints. Extreme (deviant) case sampling provides opportunities for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants (e.g., outstanding successes and notable failures). Typical case sampling involves the selection of participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical or average. Criterion sampling involves studying cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance. Confirming cases are additional cases that fit researchers' conceptualizations and strengthen credibility.

Which of the following would be the most appropriate reason to adjust the sampling method in a grounded theory study as it unfolds? A) To better evaluate emerging conceptualizations B) To support past descriptions of the phenomenon C) To increase the availability of participants D) To postpone data saturation

Ans: A Feedback: The goal in a grounded theory study is to select informants who can best contribute to the evolving theory. Sampling, data collection, data analysis, and theory construction occur concurrently, and so study participants are selected serially and contingently (i.e., contingent on the emerging conceptualization). The sample is adjusted in an ongoing fashion. Emerging conceptualizations help to inform the theoretical sampling process. Sampling continues until saturation is achieved-sampling methods should not be changed to postpone data saturation. Past descriptions of the phenomenon should not determine sampling methods. Availability of participants should not guide the sampling.

In which of the following types of studies would the principle of data saturation be used? Select all that apply. A) Grounded theory study B) Ethnography C) Phenomenological study D) Clinical trial

Ans: A, B, C Feedback: Samples in qualitative studies that include grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology are typically small and based on information needs. A guiding principle is data saturation, which involves sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved. In clinical situations, for example, it is often appropriate to let people talk freely about their problems and concerns, allowing them to take much of the initiative in directing the flow of conversation. Clinical trials would not employ the principle of data saturation.

Which of the following is characteristic of qualitative research? Select all that apply. A) Uncovering multiple realities B) Finding meaning in an experience C) Generalizing results to a target population D) Using non-random sampling

Ans: A, B, D Feedback: Qualitative results are not normally used to generalize to a target population. Uncovering multiple realities and finding meaning are goals of qualitative research. Qualitative sampling is non-random. That is, qualitative researchers ask such sampling questions as: Who would be an information-rich data source for my study? Whom should I talk to, or what should I observe, to maximize my understanding of the phenomenon? A first step in qualitative sampling is selecting settings with high potential for information richness.

Which of the following are types of notes maintained by a participant observer? Select all that apply. A) Descriptive notes B) Participatory action notes C) Reflective notes D) Methodologic notes

Ans: A, C, D Feedback: Participatory action notes are not a type of note maintained by a participant observer. The most common forms of record keeping for participant observation are logs and field notes, but photographs and videotapes may also be used. A log (or field diary) is a daily record of events and conversations. Field notes are broader and more interpretive. Field notes represent the observer's efforts to record information and to synthesize and understand the data. Field notes can be categorized according to their purpose. Descriptive notes (or observational notes) are objective descriptions of events and conversations, and the contexts in which they occurred. The goal of participant observers' descriptive notes is thick description. Reflective notes document researchers' personal experiences, reflections, and progress in the field, and can serve different purposes. Theoretical notes document interpretive efforts to attach meaning to observations. Methodologic notes are reminders about how subsequent observations should be made. Personal notes are comments about the researcher's own feelings during the research process.

Which of the following statements about data collection in qualitative research is true? Select all that apply. A) When interviewing participants, qualitative researchers do not tend to ask their questions in any predetermined order. B) Unstructured observational data are often gathered in field settings through participant observation. C) Ethnographers usually gather their data using both observation and self-reports. D) The data for an unstructured interview are most likely to be in the form of field notes that the researcher records immediately after the interview has been completed.

Ans: A, C, D Feedback: Qualitative researchers do not have a set of questions that must be asked in a specific order and worded in a given way. Instead, they start with general questions and allow respondents to tell their stories in a naturalistic fashion. Unstructured observational data are often gathered in field settings through participant observation. Ethnographers typically collect a wide array of data, with observation and interviews being the primary methods. Unstructured interviews are typically long, sometimes lasting several hours. Most prefer tape recording the interviews for later transcription.

Which of the following are key principles that guide the selection of a sample for a phenomenological study? Select all that apply. A) The participant must be able to articulate what it was like to have lived the experience. B) The participant must have considerable knowledge of the phenomenon being studied. C) The participant must be someone who is closely associated with someone who has experienced the phenomenon. D) The participant must have experienced the phenomenon being studied.

Ans: A, D Feedback: Two principles guide the selection of a sample for a phenomenological study: (1) all participants must have experienced the phenomenon and (2) they must be able to articulate what it is like to have lived that experience. Having considerable knowledge of the phenomenon and close association with someone who has experienced the phenomenon are not key criteria.

A qualitative researcher identifies trends in the phenomenon being studied, yet several new cases received through a snowball sampling effort have divergent views of the phenomenon. These new cases are referred to as which of the following? A) Confirming cases B) Disconfirming cases C) Purposive cases D) Typical cases

Ans: B Feedback: Disconfirming cases are cases that do not fit with the previous cases. Confirming cases are cases that confirm to the previous cases. Purposive (or purposeful) sampling strategy involves deliberately choosing the cases or types of cases that will best contribute to the study. Typical case sampling involves the selection of participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical or average.

Theoretical sampling is most likely to be used by which of the following? A) Ethnographers B) Grounded theory researchers C) Phenomenologists D) Qualitative descriptive researchers

Ans: B Feedback: Grounded theory researchers typically use theoretical sampling, in which sampling decisions are guided in an ongoing fashion by the emerging theory. Ethnographers make numerous sampling decisions, including not only whom to sample but what to sample; decision making is often aided by their key informants who serve as guides and interpreters of the culture. Phenomenologists typically work with a small sample of people who meet the criterion of having lived the experience under study. Focus groups have been used by researchers in many qualitative traditions and in qualitative descriptive research.

Which of the following data collection approaches is most likely to use a topic guide? A) A completely unstructured interview B) A focus group interview C) A critical incidents interview D) Participant observation

Ans: B Feedback: In-depth interviews are the most widely used method of collecting data for qualitative studies. Self-reports in qualitative studies include completely unstructured interviews, which are conversational discussions on the topic of interest; semi-structured (or focused) interviews, using a broad topic guide; focus group interviews, which involve discussions with small groups, typically with a topic guide; and the critical incidents technique, which involves probes about the circumstances surrounding an incident that is critical to an outcome of interest. One type of unstructured observation is participant observation, in which the researcher gains entrÈe into a social group and participates to varying degrees in its functioning while making in-depth observations of activities and events.

Qualitative researchers often count on recruiting by referral, which is called which of the following? A) Convenience sampling B) Snowball sampling C) Volunteer sampling D) Purposive sampling

Ans: B Feedback: Snowball sampling is a method in which early participants recommend or refer additional participants. Qualitative researchers often begin with a convenience sample (also called a volunteer sample), in which they accept whatever participants happen to be available. Purposive sampling is when researchers choose participants based attributes they possess.

A critical concern for qualitative researchers in their sampling decisions is which of the following? A) Obtaining a sample that is representative of the population under study B) Accessing information-rich sources of data C) Recruiting a sample that can facilitate saturation quickly and efficiently D) Obtaining a sample with high potential for generalizability

Ans: B Feedback: The aim in qualitative studies is to extract the greatest possible information from a small number of people. Quantitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with measuring attributes and identifying relationships in a population, and therefore a representative sample is desirable so that the findings can be generalized. The aim of most qualitative studies is to discover meaning and to uncover multiple realities, not to generalize to a target population.

What is the purpose of choosing key informants in ethnographic research studies? Select all that apply. A) To facilitate recruiting more participants to the study B) To guide the researcher culturally C) To identify important events D) To provide a knowledgeable link to the culture

Ans: B, C, D Feedback: Ethnographers may begin with a ìbig netî approach in samplingóthat is, they mingle and converse with as many members of the culture as possible. Although they may talk to many group members (usually 25 to 50), ethnographers often rely heavily on a smaller number of key informants, who are highly knowledgeable about the culture and who develop special, ongoing relationships with the researcher. Key informants are the researcher's main link to the "inside." Sampling in ethnography typically involves sampling things as well as people. For example, ethnographers make decisions about observing events and activities, about examining records and artifacts, and about exploring places that provide clues about the culture. Key informants can play an important role in helping ethnographers decide what to sample. Facilitating the recruitment of more participants to the study is not a purpose of choosing key informants.

A grand tour question is most likely to be used at which time? A) At the beginning of a focus group session B) At the end of a critical incident interview C) At the beginning of an unstructured interview D) At the end of a photo elicitation study

Ans: C Feedback: In unstructured interviews, researchers begin by asking a grand tour question, such as, "What happened when you first learned that you had AIDS?" Subsequent questions are guided by initial responses. Focus group sessions and focused interviews are more likely to rely on a topic guide to prompt discussion. A photo elicitation study involves discussion that is stimulated and guided by photographic images. The critical incidents technique is a method of gathering information about people's behaviors in specific circumstances. The method focuses on a factual incident--an integral episode of human behavior; critical means that the incident must have had a discernible impact on some outcome.

Which of the following statements about participant observation is true? A) Participant observers must maintain the same level of participation throughout the study. B) In a participant observation study, participants are observed but not questioned. C) Participant observers may use single, multiple, or mobile positioning. D) Participant observers most commonly record their observations by videotaping all events and transactions that they observe.

Ans: C Feedback: Participant observers often use a combination of positioning approaches. Single positioning means staying in a single location for a period to observe transactions in that location. Multiple positioning involves moving around the site to observe behaviors from different locations. Mobile positioning involves following a person throughout a given activity or period. The level of participation may change during a study or stay the same. Participant observers ask questions of group members. Logs of daily events and field notes of the observer's experiences and interpretations constitute the major data collection instruments.

Data saturation occurs when which of the following happens? A) Researchers can find no new participants that fit the criteria B) All the research questions are answered C) No new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved D) Participants are describing new concepts

Ans: C Feedback: Sample size in qualitative research is usually determined based on informational needs. A guiding principle is data saturationóthat is, sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved. Data saturation is not achieved simply by a lack of new participants that fit the criteria or when all of the research questions are answered. Participants describing new concepts would be evidence that data saturation has not been achieved.

A phenomenological researcher is interviewing a participant who has lived through a hurricane. Which of the following is the best example of a grand tour question appropriate to ask this participant? A) Why did you not evacuate the area when instructed to do so? B) What kind of damage did your home sustain? C) What was it like to live through a hurricane? D) How many fatalities occurred in your state due to the hurricane?

Ans: C Feedback: Several approaches can be used to collect qualitative self-report data. Researchers use completely unstructured interviews when they have no preconceived view of the information to be gathered. They aim to learn about respondents' perceptions and experiences without imposing their own views. Researchers begin by asking a grand tour question such as, ìWhat happened when you first learned that you had AIDS?î Subsequent questions are guided by initial responses. Ethnographic and phenomenological studies often rely on unstructured interviews.

Which of the following data collection approaches is conducted with a group of 5 to 10 people simultaneously? A) Photo elicitation interview B) Focused interview C) Critical incidents interview D) Focus group interview

Ans: D Feedback: Focus group interviews involve groups of about 5 to 10 people whose opinions and experiences are solicited simultaneously. Photo elicitation involves an interview stimulated and guided by photographic images. Semi-structured (or focused) interviews are used when researchers have a list of topics or broad questions that must be covered in an interview. The critical incidents technique is a method of gathering information about people's behaviors in specific circumstances.

Near the end of data collection, qualitative researchers may employ the technique of sampling which of the following? A) Criterion cases B) Deviant cases C) Typical cases D) Disconfirming cases

Ans: D Feedback: Near the end of data collection, qualitative researchers may employ the technique of disconfirming cases. Other types of purposive sampling include extreme (deviant) case sampling (selecting the most unusual or extreme cases); typical case sampling (selecting cases that illustrate what is typical); and criterion sampling (studying cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance).

When collecting data through interviews, qualitative researchers rely primarily on which of the following? A) A priori ideas B) Structured questions C) Supplemental physiological data D) Self-report

Ans: D Feedback: Qualitative researchers do not have a set of questions that must be asked in a specific order and worded in a given way. Instead, they start with general questions and allow respondents to tell their stories in a naturalistic fashion. Qualitative self-reports, usually obtained through interviews, tend to be conversational. Interviewers encourage respondents to define the important dimensions of a phenomenon and to elaborate on what is relevant to them, rather than relying on investigators' a priori notions of relevance.

A difficulty identified with convenience sampling is which of the following? A) The participants do not meet the conceptual needs of the study B) It is not economical C) It is not efficient D) The participants may not produce the depth of information needed

Ans: D Feedback: Sampling by convenience is efficient, but is not a preferred approach, even in qualitative studies. The aim in qualitative studies is to extract the greatest possible information from a small number of people, and a convenience sample may not provide the most information-rich sources. However, convenience sample may be an economical way to begin the sampling process. Participants do meet the conceptual needs and that is why they are included.

When developing a theory, a nurse researcher uses theoretical sampling to do which of the following? A) To find cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance B) To learn from the most unusual and extreme informants C) To gain new informants via referrals from other informants D) To choose sampling groups that will further the emerging conceptualization

Ans: D Feedback: The objective of theoretical sampling is to discover categories and their properties and to offer new insights about interrelationships that occur in the substantive theory. Groups are chosen for their relevance in furthering the emerging conceptualization. These groups are not chosen before the research begins but only as they are needed for their theoretical relevance in developing emerging categories. Criterion sampling involves studying cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance. Extreme (deviant) case sampling provides opportunities for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants (e.g., outstanding successes and notable failures). Snowball sampling is a method in which early participants recommend or refer additional participants.

Which of the following statements about sampling in qualitative research is true? A) Convenience sampling is considered the most appropriate method of selecting sample members. B) Larger samples are considered more rigorous than smaller samples. C) Using randomness in the sampling process is desirable. D) The type of sampling approach can change and evolve over the course of data collection.

Ans: D Feedback: Type of sampling strategy can change over the course of a study Qualitative sampling may begin with volunteer informants and may be supplemented with new participants through snowballing. Many qualitative studies, however, evolve to a purposive (or purposeful) sampling strategy in which researchers deliberately choose the cases or types of cases that will best contribute to the study. Sampling by convenience is efficient, but is not a preferred approach, even in qualitative studies. The aim in qualitative studies is to extract the greatest possible information from a small number of people, and a convenience sample may not provide the most information-rich sources. Qualitative researchers avoid random samples because they are not the best method of selecting people who will make good informants