chapter 17 reading guide

What did the term "Enlightenment" mean in the 18th century?

"man's leaving his self-caused immaturity"

How did the Enlightenment, in some ways, reinforce the same old gender values that had been practiced in pre-Enlightenment times?

- "natural" biological differences (women = destined to be mothers; men = more intellectual than women)

Who was Mary Wollstonecraft? What did she write? What contradictions did she point out from other male Enlightenment thinkers?

- English writer - Vindication of the Rights of Women 1. women obey men - contrary to hatred of arbitrary power of monarch over subjects/slave owners over slaves 2. Enlightenment based on reason (innate in all people) - women have reason and are entitled to the same rights as men

How did the writing of history change in the period of the Enlightenment form how it was written by humanists of the Renaissance? What was emphasized? What were the weaknesses?

- Enlightenment = secular (concentrate on themselves and relationships) - Renaissance = also secular, but not as intense (not complete removal of God) - emphasis: science of reason - weaknesses: preoccupation as philosophes - goal = follow classics, civilize the age

In term of social class, who most benefited from the Enlightenment? Why?

- aristocracy and upper middle class because the the spread of ideas was targeted to literate elite and they had salons

Who were most likely to oppose Enlightenment?

- authorities/church because of conflicting beliefs and decreasing power

What did Adam Smith write in The Wealth of Nations? What is "economic liberalism" and is this term the same as what we view as "liberal" today? Why not?

- condemned tariffs in mercantilism as a way to protect home industries: free trade = good to Adam Smith - labour = wealth of nation, land and gold ≠ wealth - laissez faire - government has 3 functions: army, police, public places - economic liberalism: economic liberty of individual (pertains to just economy whereas "liberal" today = social/political term)

How was medicine conducted in the 17th and 18th centuries? Was there much forward progress during this time?

- conducted in Latin and based on Galen's work - appeals were made but efforts at hospital reform remained ineffectual

What two greater trends did the collapse of the Jesuits represent in terms of the direction the Catholic church was heading during the 18th century?

- decline in papal power - government gained power of Catholic churches

What was the attitude of the ruling class of educating the poor? Why do you think this was the case?

- effective primary education = hindered; ruling class feared consequences of teaching lower class anything - beyond virtues of hard work and deference to superiors (keep them obedient so ruling class doesn't lose power)

What are Salons? What functions did they serve in the 17th and 18th centuries? Who ran them? What other venues of the time had similar functions?

- elegant drawing rooms in urban houses of the wealthy - invited philosophes and guests gather to engage in philosophic conversations - ran by women - coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, libraries

What is the significance of the development of the novel during this time? What makes novels different than other books? To which audience were novels most appealing?

- grew out of medieval romances and picturesque stories of the 16th century - no established rules, all experimentation - women readers and writers

How were punishments handled almost everywhere in Europe? How frequently was the death penalty invoked? What difference existed between social classes in terms of judicial punishments?

- heirarchy of courts (except England - torture) - death penalty - commonly used for property crimes and violent offenses - nobles = beheaded; lower-classes = tortured, broken on wheel, drawn and quartered

What is the difference between "high culture" and "popular culture"? What parts of society made up each group? What role did print media play in the 18th century?

- high culture: the literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes - theologians, scientists, intellectuals, poets, and dramatists - popular culture: the written and unwritten lore of the masses - reading, writing, and publishing books and newspapers increased and reached the middle class as the elite

What class was Voltaire from and what line of work brought him early success? Of which elements in French society and government was Voltaire most critical?

- middle class - playwright - criticized ills oppressing France: (royal absolutism, lack of religious tolerance, lack of freedom of thought)

How did education change in the 18th century? Who obtained an education during this era? What did their education focus upon, and what reforms were made toward the end of the 18th century?

- more private schools - the elite - classics (Greek/Latin) - little math, science, or modern language - physics, astronomy, and math were introduced to universities

Spielvogel says that many of the philosophes of the 18th century attempted to uncover "Natural Laws" pertaining to the "Science of Man." What did he mean by this? Were they successful? Why or why not?

- natural laws = parts of all areas of human life - science of man = social sciences - philosophes arrived at natural laws that they believed governed human actions - based off their time: less universal now, laid foundation for modern social sciences

What are pogroms and who were most often targeted by them? How did the philosophes react to this?

- organized massacre of Jewish communities - philosophes argued that Jews were humans and deserved citizenship "despite" their religion - philosophes denounced persecution of Jews but continued to be hostile and ridicule Jewish traditions

Spielvogel credits two Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke, for being the most intellectually inspirational pre-Enlightenment thinkers. Who is Locke? What did he write? Why were his ideas new and significant?

- theory of knowledge influenced philosophes - "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" - denied Descartes's belief in innate ideas: everyone was born with a "tabula rasa" (a blank mind) - people are molded by environment - ideas seemed to offer the hope of a "brave new world" built on reason

Who is Denis Diderot and what is he best known for helping create?

- writer who condemned Christianity as unreasonable - new ways of thinking

How is Rococo art different from the Baroque?

Baroque: - stressed majesty - power - movement - emotion - chaos Rococo: - grace - gentle actions - curves instead of strict geometrical patterns - secular

Who is Cesare Beccaria? What did he write? When did he write it? What did he argue about capital punishment?

Italian philosopher who was appalled by unjust laws and brutal punishments in criminal justice system - On Crimes and Punishments (1764) - opposed to capital punishment because it failed to stop others from committing crimes

The term "noble savage" is of significance in the works of some philosophes. What is it? How is it important?

James Cook described Tahitian natives as "savages" - they didn't have European government - Europe = shackled - contributed to skepticism about Christianity and European culture

Jean-Jacques's Rousseau's ideas about Individual Freedom

adherence to laws one has imposed on oneself - creation of laws ≠ parliament's job because everybody is responsible for framing general will

Jean-Jacques's Rousseau's ideas about The Social Contract

agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will - if individual wants to follow self-interest, they should abide by general will

Who was least affected by the Enlightenment?

common people (peasants)

Jean-Jacques's Rousseau's ideas about The General Will

community's highest aspirations - what's best for the community; liberty = forcing people to follow what's best for all because that's best for individuals

What were the ideas put forth by Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws? Although he was French, who did he use as a model example of government? Why?

comparative study of governments - 3 types: republics (small-states, citizens = involved); monarchies (middle-size states, citizens adhere to laws); despotisms (large empires, fear = obedience) - applied scientific method to society/politics to ascertain "natural laws" governing social relationships of human beings - England: example for monarchy because of checks and balances between branches of government

What is "Deism"? Are deists atheists or not? Do they believe in God? If so, how are they different than typical Christians?

deism: suggested existence of a mechanic God who had created the universe - not atheists because they believe in God (God created world with natural laws and didn't extend grace/answer prayers) - Jesus wasn't divine, but he was a good fellow

Both the Catholic and Protestant churches found themselves in a similar position during these centuries. What roles did they play?

institutions that upheld society's hierarchical structure, privileged classes, and traditions

What is a "philosophe" and what kinds of roles did they play in society?

intellectuals of enlightenment - literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists (social reformers) - came from nobility and middle class

How was the Enlightenment, in many ways, an extension of the Scientific Revolution of the previous century or so? What fundamental beliefs carried on throughout both?

intellectuals were inspired Scientific Revolution - scientific method: reasoning - skepticism

How much progress was made toward religious tolerance during this time?

many rulers found it difficult to accept other religions - true duty of rulers was to not allow subjects to be heretics and go to Hell; heretics were persecuted - Joseph II of Austria & Toleration Patent: made subjects equal (Catholic can practice publicly, and anything else practices privately)

In what respect did physiocrats reject (or repudiate) mercantilist economic beliefs? What is "laissez-faire" economics?

mercantilism - controlled economy physiocrats wanted the existence of natural economic forces of supply/demand to make individuals freer to pursue their own economic self-interest - laissez-faire: non-interference - state shouldn't interrupt natural economic forces with government regulations (leave it alone)

Jean-Jacques's Rousseau's ideas about Government

necessary evil

Jean-Jacques's Rousseau's ideas about Education

should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts - balance between heart and mind