Chapter 2: Social and Cultural Diversity

The two intersecting dimensions of Sue (1987), Locus of Responsibility and Locus of Control, result in four worldview combinations:

1. IR-IC 2. IR-EC 3. ER-IC 4. ER-EC

Results of Structural Violence include:

1. Inadequate school facilities in poorer neighborhoods. 2. Limited access to health care. 3. Significant unemployment and underemployment.

Racism occurs at three levels:

1. Individual 2. Institutional 3. Cultural

The creation, sustainment, and actualization of prejudice stem from three causes:

1. Individual Personality. 2. Social Traditions. 3. Political Systems.

Weinberg et al. (1994) outlined four stages of bisexual identity development:

1. Initial Confusion 2. Finding and applying the label of bisexuality 3. Settling into the identity 4. Continued Uncertainty

The four interpersonal distance "zones" include:

1. Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches). 2. Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet). 3. Social distance (4 to 12 feet). 4. Public distance (12 feet or more).

Some common Latin American cultural values include:

1. Language 2. Family 3. Interpersonal Relationships 4. Catholicism 5. Gender

Several distinct phases exist within feminist doctrine:

1. Liberal feminism. 2. Radical feminism 3. Cultural feminism. 4. Women of color feminism. 5. Black feminism 6. Social feminism 7. Ecofeminism.

The main beliefs of feminist theory include the following:

1. Males and females are equal politically, socially, and economically. 2. The patriarchal male oppresses women in society. 3. At root, people are political. 4. Rather than mental health issues and other difficulties being the result of pathology, the issues stem more from the skills a person uses to cope with their world. 5. Value-free therapy is not possible. 6. The counselor must establish a relationship that promotes equality between counselor and client.

Four major groups of Latin Americans

1. Mexicans 2. Puerto Ricans 3. Cubans 4. Central Americans, South Americans, and Carribeans.

Types of Classism

1. Modern Classism 2. Structural Classism 3. Internalized Classism

The five stage model of Hardiman (2003) is represented as follows:

1. Naivete 2. Acceptance 3. Resistance 4. Redefinition 5. Internalization

According to Helms (1995), there are they types of interactions according to her Racial Interaction Theory:

1. Parallel Interactions 2. Regressive Interactions 3. Progressive Interactions

Five stages of Downing and Roush (1985) feminist identity development model

1. Passive Acceptance 2. Revelation 3. Embeddedness-Emanation 4. Synthesis 5. Active Communication

Internalization (Hardiman, 2003)

In this final status, Whites define themselves independently of the anxiety and resistance of earlier stages.

Creativity [Important principle for scientific testing of sociometry]

Interfaces with spontaneity.

An _____ (IC) is the belief that consequences are dependent on an individual's actions.

Internal Locus of Control (Sue, 1987)

An _____ (IR) refers to the idea that success (or failure) is viewed as an individuals' own doing and is thus the result of individual systems.

Internal Locus of Responsibility (Sue, 1987)

Tertiary Oppression is also known as _____, which is prevalent in ethnic minority literature and basically means internalizing, or taking in, the dominant message about the minority's low self-worth and importance.

Internalized Oppression

Affirm [OARES]

Encourages the client to change behaviors.

Gender dysphoria

Experienced by persons who were born one gender, identify with another, and feel conflicted about it.

An ____ (EC) refers to the notion that consequences result by chance, outside of an individual's control.

External Locus of Control (Sue, 1987)

An ____ (ER) refers to the notion that the social environment or external system is responsible for what happens to individuals.

External Locus of Responsibility (Sue, 1987)

As Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a briefer model focused on solutions, an acronym, FRAMES, was developed to guide timely and effective interventions:

F: Feedback R: Responsibility A: Advice M: Menu E: Empathy S: Self-Efficacy

As Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a briefer model focused on solutions, an acronym, ______, was developed to guide timely and effective interventions.

FRAMES

Access (Crethar, 2009)

Fair ___ to services, resources, and education that allow the individual to reach a good quality of life with the ability to make one's own decisions.

Adaptation or Resolution Phase [Culture Shock]

Feelings of belonging to multiple cultures and having a sense of well-being.

Marianismo

Femininity. Traditional female traits such as nurturing, emotional, and sexually pure. Latin American Cultural Value.

Another acronym, which has its roots in MI, is OARES, which outlines MI techniques:

O: Open-Ended Questions A: Affirm R: Reflective Listening E: Elicit Self-Motivational Statements S: Summarize

Primary Oppression (Hanna, Talley, & Guindon, 2000)

Obvious acts by both force and deprivation.

Menu [FRAMES]

Offer a menu of various treatment opportunities.

Regressive Interactions (Racial Interaction Theory; Helms, 1995)

One individual (typically the one with more social power [e.g., White]) is at a lower racial identity status than the other individual.

Progressive Interactions (Racial Interaction Theory; Helms, 1995)

One individual of a higher social power exhibiting a more advanced racial identity status than the other individual.

Secondary Oppression (Hanna, Talley, & Guindon, 2000)

Oppression acts in which individuals do not get directly involved but from which they may benefit.

The ____ is the group to which the person feels least similar.

Out-Group

Refers to verbal cues other than words. These may be volume, tempo, prolongation of sound, disfluencies (e.g., utterances such as uh and um), and pitch (highness or lowness of one's voice.

Paralanguage

_______ is a recent move to undo the harm caused by labeling a person. For example, it's not "disabled person" but "person with a disability".

People-First Language

Genderqueer

Persons who do not conform to traditional ideas of gender roles and sexual orientation.

Cross-dressers

Persons who dress in clothing traditionally worn by the opposite sex.

Transgenderist

Persons who live the life of the opposite sex without biological intervention.

_________ described a developmental process by which individuals become more personally connected with a higher power.

Poll and Smith (2003)

Preencounter (Cross's Nigrescence Model)

Pre-experiencing of a racial event; race or anti-Black attitudes are not viewed as important by the Black individual.

____ and _____ refer to a bidirectional system in which individuals, depending largely on their cultural group combinations, experience differential levels of power, access, advantage, and social status.

Privilege; Oppression

Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (PL 93-122)

Prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in federally sponsored programs.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Prohibits discrimination of persons with disabilities in employment, public services, telecommunications, and accomodations.

Women of Color Feminism

Promotes embracing all women regardless of the color of their skin.

Advice [FRAMES]

Provide direction on client situations.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)

Provision of nondiscriminatory education process for children with disabilities in the least restrictive environment.

A Sociometric Test studies actual behavior, as opposed to ____, which infer ideas from similar behaviors.

Psychometric Tests

_____ constitute 9.6% of all Latinos. All considered U.S. citizens.

Puerto Ricans

Discrimination (Allport, 1979)

Purposely making sure individuals do not have access to resources for a better quality of life.

Avoidance (Allport, 1979)

Purposely trying to not be around disliked persons.

Black Feminism

Puts forth that African American women are the targets of both sexism and racism.

Describes how groups of people are thought to be identified by physical characteristics, ushc as a person's skin color, facial features, hair texture, or eye shape.

Race

Helms (1995) also created the _____, whereby she conceptualized how Whites and people of color at various racial identity development statues, might interact and whether those interactions would be adaptive or maladaptive.

Racial Interaction Theory

Institutional Racism

Racism perpetuated by institutions such as businesses and government. In addition to oppression minority races, ______ benefits Whites.

Reflective Listening [OARES]

Shows the counselor is tracking the client.

Summarize [OARES]

Shows the counselor understands the client.

Immersion and Emersion [Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID)]

Similar to Cross's model, individuals in this status actively reject White culture and have increased racial pride, retreating into their own racial group practices.

Internalized Sexism

The belief that males deserve a privileged status and others do not, may occur as a consequence of sexism.

Ecofeminism

The beliefs that women understand the balance between humans and nature better than men do and that men hurt both women and the environment.

Self-Efficacy [FRAMES]

The client's perception of his or her ability to overcome challenges effectively is another important component of this model.

Atheism

The disbelief in the existence of God.

Heterosexism

The discriminatory practice toward those who do not fall within the "mainstream" category of heterosexual.

Credibility [Social Influence Model]

The expertise and trustworthiness of the counselor.

Achieved Female Identity (Hoffman, 2006)

The final stage involves the synthesis of new feminist identity with other aspects of identity. Gender self-confidence occurs.

Ableism

The form of discrimination affliction the disabled population by which people believe that one who is disabled is limited in the extent of what he or she can truly do and under evaluate his or her abilities.

Hardiman (2003) developed a model of White racial identity development that asserted that ___.

The general developmental issue for Whites is to integrate their "Whiteness" with other components of their culture identities.

The U.S. Census Bureau (2017b) defines races as:

The group with which a person most closely self identifies.

Antilocution (Allport, 1979)

The sharing of harmful views with those who have the same belief system, whether they are known to the person or not. ______ involves pure discussion, and no actions.

Upper-Class Status

The wealthy, who have made or inherited large sums of money.

White Supremacy

The wrongful justification that Whites deserve certain advantages because they are the superior race.

Sensitization (Troiden, 1989)

There is an awareness of same-sex attraction; the individual sees self as different from peers.

Identity Assumption (Troiden, 1989)

There is exploration within the gay community, and individuals present as gay ("come out").

Identity Acceptance (Cass, 1979)

There is movement toward a more active commitment to the gay community, beyond simple tolerance of it.

Identity Pride (Cass, 1979)

There is stronger commitment to an active gay identity with some activism.

Synthesis (Worthington et al., 2002)

This final status involves the development of an overall sexual self-concept, which involves solidified attitudes toward self and others' sexual identities.

Autonomy [Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID)]

This final status is one of advocacy for Whites: Whites strive to relinquish some of their White privilege and dismantle the racial status quo.

Continued Uncertainty (Weinberg et al., 1994)

This final status may occur for some individuals and is characterized by individuals feeling intermittent uncertainty about their bisexual identity.

Naivete (Hardiman, 2003)

This initial stage is characterized by Whites categorizing others by racial groups and receiving transmitting messages about power and privilege.

Questioning

This is a relatively new term that refers to an individual who is questioning his or her sexual orientation or gender identity. The letter Q is used to represent this concept, although for many young people Q represents queer.

Liberal Feminism

This marks the beginning of the feminist movement in the 18th and 19th centuries when this view sprang to life in response to discrimination against women. ______ focuses on human rights and desire to be treated, lime men, as "rational" human beings.

Active-Commitment (Downing & Roush, 1985)

This stage involves women advocating for other women and working to eradicate sexism.

Embeddedness-Emanation (Downing & Roush, 1985)

This stage is best characterized by women developing a support network with other women to deal with negative feelings of the Revelation stage. Toward the end of the stage, women remain guarded in their interactions with men.

Crisis (Hoffman, 2006)

This stage is similar to Downing and Roush's (1985) Revelation stage in that women become aware of societal discrimination in the form of sexism. This usually occurs because of one or more events.

Passive Acceptance (Downing & Roush, 1985)

This stage refers to women internalizing traditional gender roles and societal views of women. Women in this stage often to not interact with women who identify as feminist.

Identity Comparison (Cass, 1979)

This stage represents the initial attempts individuals may make as they accept or reject various aspects of a gay identity.

Active Exploration (Worthington et al., 2002)

This status involves a more active identification with heterosexuality and attention to heterosexual privilege (either positive or negative).

Redefinition (Hardiman, 2003)

This status involves a self-reflection process about Whites' ethnic identity membership (unlike Helms's model, which involves redefining Whiteness). Whites in this status increase their understanding of their ethnic identities independent of their attitudes toward other racial and ethnic groups.

Settling into the Identity (Weinberg et al., 1994)

This status is characterized by individuals' increased acceptance of a bisexual identity.

Identity Confusion (Troiden, 1989)

This status is characterized by uncertainty about sexual orientation by the individual; there is an awareness of an incongruence between societal assumptions of heterosexual and gay identities.

Unexamined Female Identity (Hoffman, 2006)

This status is similar to Downing and Roush's (1985) Passive Acceptance stage. It involves the acceptance of traditional gender roles for women.

Awakening (Poll & Smith, 2003)

This status refers to the notion that individuals become aware of themselves as spiritual beings after a spiritual event or conflict.

Disintegration [Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID)]

This status refers to when Whites become uncomfortable with the notion of racial superiority.

Diffusion (Worthington et al., 2002)

This status represents a period of no commitment or exploration at the individual or group level.

Heteroflexible

This term can describe individuals who may primarily identify as heterosexual yet engage in limited same-sex sexual behavior but do not identity as bisexual.

Pansexual

This term refers to individuals whose sexual or affectional attractions are not limited to what might be typical of a particular gender identity or biological sex.

International Students

Those who leave their home country to pursue higher education in the United States.

Elicit Self-Motivational Statements [OARES]

To foster an environment in which the client can feel more comfortable changing and can make goals to move toward a desired behavior.

Counselors should discuss _____, or discrimination against this community due to their nonalignment with cultural expectations and also take a ________ which involves the counselor adopting the role of an advocate by being involved politically, teaching the client how to advocate, and rallying for equal community resources.

Transphobia; Trans-affirmative approach

__________ refers to discrimination faced by individuals because of their possession of multiple minority statues, such as being a racial minority, female, and having a disability.

Triple Jeopardy

___ outlined four patterns of male gender role conflict: A. Pressure of success, power, and competition. B. Conflict between work and family relationships. C. Restricted emotionality. D. Restricted affectionate behavior between men.

Wester, Vogel, O'Neil, and Danforth (2012)

Tertiary Oppression (Hanna, Talley, & Guindon, 2000)

When minority group members adopt the majority opinion so they fit in.

Contact [Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID)]

Whites in this status are unaware that racism exists and deny race plays a role in their interactions with others.

Acceptance (Hardiman, 2003)

Whites in this status believe that there is an equal opportunity for all racial groups, although they hold White values as the gold standard for others to follow.

A person's ethnicity is rather flexible, depending on changes in his or her own _____ and experiences.

Ethnic Identity

It is important to note that Hispanic/Latino is considered not a race but an ______; thus, individuals of Latin descent may identify with any race or races.

Ethnicity

An ____ perspective refers to viewing clients from a universal perspective.

Etic

Discrimination against biracial individuals occurred originally as a result of the ________, or a method to monitor a person's inborn characteristics and an attempt to keep the Caucasian race "pure" by directing who could marry and reproduce.

Eugenics Movement

SES includes factors such as:

Income Financial Status Educational Background Resource Availability (e.g., housing and clothing), and Job Held

In which individuals identify with both their own culture and that of the host culture.

Integration Model (or Biculturalism) (Paniagua, 2014)

Refers to what system is accountable for things that happen to individuals.

Locus of Responsibility (Sue, 1987)

Sue (1978) described how individuals guide their behaviors on the basis of two intersecting dimensions:

Locus of responsibility and Locus of control.

Transgender includes the following categories:

1. Transsexuals. 2. Cross-Dressers. 3. Transgenderist. 4. Intersexed. 5. Genderqueer. 6. Two-spirited. 7. Gender dysphoria.

Nonverbal communication includes many types:

1. High-Context Communication 2. Low-Context Communication 3. Paralanguage 4. Kinesics. 5. Chronemics. 6. Monochromic time 7. Polychromic time 8. Proxemics.

Sexual Orientation is generally categorized as the following orientations:

1. Homosexual 2. Hetersexual 3. Bisexual 4. Heteroflexible 5. Questioning 6. Pansexual

The second worldview mode was developed by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and contains five components that integrate in various cultures to create unique cultural worldviews:

1. Human Nature 2. Relationship to Nature 3. Sense of Time 4. Activity 5. Social Relationships

Two-Spirited

A Native American term that identifies a person with the spirit of both male and a female.

Ethnocentrism

A concept defining a cultural group's belief that it is superior in comparison to all cultures.

Hetersexual

A person of the opposite sex is usually the object of sexual attraction and fantasizing. This orientation, also known as "straight," is the most socially accepted.

Homosexual

A person of the same sex is usually the object of sexual attraction and fantasizing. Persons with this orientation can be referred to as "gay" or "lesbian" and they do not prefer to be called _____.

Middle-Class Status.

Able to meet immediate needs plus those that arise in the future. Employed in technical or professional occupations.

The process in which an individual (usually an immigrant) makes sense of a host culture's value system in relation to his or her own.

Acculturation

How self-expression occurs for individuals. These may include being (i.e., present-oriented with an internal focus on self), being-in-becoming (i.e., present-and future oriented goal development to create an integrated self), and doing (i.e., actively engaging in activities that are deemed important by external standards).

Activity [Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)]

Socioeconomic Class or Status (SES)

Another cultural group categorization for a counselor to consider. Individuals in each _____ can have a different worldview, conceptions of problems, perceptions of themselves, and needs to be met.

In which highly acculturated individuals identify solely with the new culture and adopt values and customs of the other, more dominant group.

Assimilation Model (Paniagua, 2014)

Colorism

Refers to the judgement of worth based on how closely an individual's skin color approximates that of Whites.

Color Consciousness

Describes the process of how whites, in response to guilt for their role in perpetuating racial discrimination for racial minorities, focus predominately on racial (or perceived) differences.

Mulatto

Designated as one with both White and African Lineage

The more immigrants identify with and belong to a particular ethnic group, particularly if their ethic values contrast with general U.S. cultural values, the more _____ the process of acculturation becomes.

Difficult

Refers to an orientation toward time in a linear fashion (use of schedules and advanced planning of activities).

Monochromic time

_______ may be defined as the integration of cultural identities within the counseling process.

Multicultural Counseling

Generational Poverty

Occurs when poverty has been a factor in numerous generations.

Situational Poverty

Occurs when the lack of resources is due to an extenuating circumstance, such as a divorce, unexpected unemployment, or a death.

Transgender

Often used interchangeably with TGNC, is used broadly to describe persons who do not have the biology or appearance of someone that is in line with traditional gender roles.

Transsexuals

Persons who choose to alter their biology to be more in line with their identified gender.

Refers to the value of time as secondary to relationships among people.

Polychromic time

Structural Classism

Promotes a current status quo or arrangement of classes

Modern Classism

Proposes that those of the lower statuses may exhibit classism as well

The use of personal physical distance.

Proxemics

Ethnicity

Refers to a person's identification with a group of people who have a similar social or cultural background.

Refers to how individuals view the power of nature: harmony with nature, power over nature, or power of nature.

Relationship to Nature [Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)]

Relates to what aspect of time individuals focus upon: past, present, or future.

Sense of Time [Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)]

In which individuals refuse to adapt to cultural values outside of their own cultural values.

Separation Model (Paniagua, 2014)

Sex Roles

Similarly to the biological basis on which the definition of sex is derived--tend to focus on a person's physiological functioning.

Gender Roles

Take into account many factors, which include expectations put on a person by society about how someone should behave, think, and be treated and what beliefs he or she should hold.

Internalized Classism

The result of a person feeling shame for the class to which they belong and their "place" in society due to SES.

Defined as individuals' conceptualization of their relationship with the world.

Worldview

Poverty has two other delineations:

generational poverty and situational poverty

Native Americans constitute about ___ of the U.S. population.

1%

The five stages of prejudice include different levels of severity (Allport, 1979):

1. Antilocution 2. Avoidance 3. Discrimination 4. Physical Attack 5. Extermination

The four statuses of McCarn and Fassinger's (1996) gay identity development model are these:

1. Awareness 2. Exploration 3. Deepening Commitment 4. Identity Integration

There are seven major types of religions. (Cashwell & Giordano, 2018)

1. Buddhism. 2. Christianity. 3. Confucianism. 4. Hinduism. 5. Islam. 6. Judaism. 7. Taoism.

The basis for social identity is:

1. Categorization 2. Identification 3. Comparison

Common Arab American Cultural Values

1. Collectivism: extended family, community-oriented; decisions made by consulting others and considering what is best for family and community. 2. Hierarchical family relationships. 3. Duty and family honor. 4. Religious diversity, including Catholic, Muslim, Orthodox, and Protestantism. 5. Educational attainment. 6. Use of nonverbal communication, comfort with touching, use of high volume or repetition to elucidate main points.

The five statues of Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID) include:

1. Conformity 2. Dissonance 3. Immersion and Emersion 4. Internalization 5. Integrative Awareness.

There are six stages to Cass's (1979) gay identity development model:

1. Conscious Awareness 2. Identity Comparison 3. Identity Tolerance 4. Identity Acceptance 5. Identity Pride 6. Identity Synthesis

Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID) is represented by the following statues:

1. Contact 2. Disintegration 3. Reintegration 4. Pseudo-Independence 5. Immersion and Emersion 6. Autonomy

According to Singh and Mingo (2018), the consequences for women and others not identifying as male include:

1. Depression. 2. Disordered eating. 3. Increased physical risk for interpersonal violence and other forms of trauma. 4. Unequal economic, occupational, and social opportunities.

Common African American cultural values:

1. Emphasis on a kinship network and extended relatives and non relative family relationships, especially to care for children and the elderly. 2. Respect for the family, particularly adult figures, by children. 3. Collectivism and interdependence. 4. Spiritual or religious orientation. 5. Harmony with nature. 6. Egalitarian gender roles within the family and other interpersonal relationships. 7. Educational attainment. 8. Flexible time orientation. 9. Racial socialization of children. 10. Assertiveness and expressiveness in communication style.

Crethar (2009) outlined four main foci of social justice:

1. Equity 2. Access 3. Participation 4. Harmony

The characteristics are observed in persons with higher resilience:

1. Espousing hopeful attitudes and worldviews. 2. Having a supportive network of family, friends, and so forth. 3. Having a connected and safe community with sufficient services available.

Examples of White Privilege include:

1. Forvarable experiences in job interviews. 2. Positive portrayal in the media. 3. Having access to adequate and safe housing.

Four phases of culture shock:

1. Honeymoon Phase 2. Crisis or Disintegration Phase 3. Reorientation and Reintegration Phase 4. Adaptation or Resolution Phase

Chaney and Brubaker (2018) identified four components of sexual identity, a term they believe more comprehensively defines sexual orientation:

1. Physical Identity (Biological makeup of an individual) 2. Gender Identity (Belief about one's gender) 3. Social Sex Role Identity (Sex Roles Individuals Adopt due to culture) 4. Sexual Orientation Identity (Sexual and emotional attraction to individuals of the same and/or opposite sex)

Poll and Smith's (2003) spiritual identity development model includes four stages:

1. Pre-Awareness 2. Awakening 3. Recognition 4. Integration

The statues of Cross's Nigrescence Model are as follows:

1. Preencounter 2. Encounter 3. Immersion-Emmersion 4. Internalization 5. Internalization-Committment

Hanna, Talley, and Guindon (2000) described three different levels of oppression:

1. Primary Oppression 2. Secondary Oppression 3. Tertiary Oppression

Examples of Institutional Racism include:

1. Racial profiling by law enforcement or loan officers. 2. Difficulty obtaining employment due to race.

The Several Types of oppression include:

1. Racism 2. Sexism 3. Heterosexism 4. Ableism 5. Classism.

The four statuses of Troiden's (1989) gay identity development model are these:

1. Sensitization 2. Identity confusion 3. Identity assumption 4. Committment

Examples of Oppression by Force include:

1. Sexual Assault 2. Negative Media images of people of color. 3. Police brutality based on racial profiling.

Native American Cultural Values:

1. Sharing 2. Cooperation 3. Non Interference 4. Present Time Orientation 5. Reliance on extended family 6. Harmony with nature.

Two important principles for scientific testing of sociometry: Most people have varying levels of these two factors; rarely are they equal.

1. Spontaneity 2. Creativity

The U.S. Government has put in place three laws to protect citizens with disabilities:

1. The 1973 Rehabilitation Act. 2. The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act. 3. The 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act.

There are four statuses in Hoffman's (2006) feminist identity development model:

1. Unexamined Female Identity 2. Crisis 3. Moratorium and Equilibrium 4. Achieved Female Identity

Worthington et al. (2002) heterosexual identity statues are these:

1. Unexplored Commitment 2. Active Exploration 3. Diffusion 4. Deepening and Commitment 5. Synthesis

Examples of Sexism include:

1. Unfair pay. 2. The glass ceiling effect or limited career opportunities. 3. Unequal distribution of labor within the family system. 4. Exploitive portrayal in the media.

Root (1990) identified six interrelated themes of identity issues and concerns that multiracial individuals may experience:

1. Uniqueness, whereby they are treated as different or unique from their peers; 2. Acceptance and belonging, or the struggle of deciding to which racial groups to align; 3. Physical appearance, in that they are perceived in various ways depending on which race may be more prominent; 4. Sexuality, or sexual stereotypes experienced particularly by multiracial women; 5. Self-esteem; and 6. Identity, or affirmation of a positive multiracial identity development.

Four classes can be identified in the United States, and each represents a distinct culture:

1. Upper-Class Status. 2. Middle-Class Status. 3. Working-Class Status. 4. Underclass Status.

Examples of Oppression by Deprivation include:

1. Withholding job opportunities from someone based on their sexual orientation. 2. Lack of access to safe, affordable housing for particular lower socioeconomic statues.

African Americans make up approximately ___ of the U.S. population.

13.2%

Latin Americans make up over _____ of the U.S. population, and _____ when individuals are asked about ethnicity alone.

13.6%; 17.7%

Approximately ____ of the U.S. population identifies as having two or more races.

2.5%

Arab Americans make up approximately _____ of the U.S. population.

3.5 million

Asian Americans make up approximately ______ of the U.S. population.

5.5%

European Americans are the predominant racial/ethnic group in the United States and constitute approximately _____ of the population, with _____ of the U.S. population identifying as White, non-Hispanic.

77.3%; 63.7%

Approximately ___ percent of communication is nonverbal (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2018).

85

Hinduism

A "pantheistic" faith that believes in Brahman being the creator of Earth and that all things in nature are manifestations of Brahman. Meditation is a key element in this faith, as is karma, or the belief that a person's actions in this life determine his or destiny in the next life. Karma is the core concept of _____, rather than a core focus on Brahman. Followers of this religion believe in reincarnation and the transcendence of self.

Racial Worldview

A defining cultural characteristic in which individuals and groups perceive and understand each other; this understanding is transmitted to succeeding generations.

Islam

A faith based on the belief in Allah, who is ____'s only god, and whose doctrine was proclaimed by the messenger Muhammed in the holy book of ____, the Koran. Abraham and the first five books of the Old Testament are also incorporated into this faith. Focus is on prayer, sharing wealth, forgiveness, benevolence, religious fasting, and making a spiritual pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca.

Extermination (Allport, 1979)

A focused effort to demolish certain groups of people (e.g., genocide).

Identity Synthesis (Cass, 1979)

A gay identity is integrated with other cultural identities.

Disability

A mental or physical challenge that greatly limits a person's ability to function in activities of daily living.

Overt Racism

A more obvious and focused prejudice, and it is never unintentional or unconscious.

Bisexual

A person is attracted to and fantasizes about both the opposite and same sex.

Affectional Orientation

A recent term suggested by researchers to describe sexual minorities because it broadens discussion beyond simple sexual attraction. Relationships also involve attraction based on intelligence, emotional stability, communication style, and other interpersonal factors and feelings.

Immersion-Emersion (Cross's Nigrescence Model)

A response to conflict and anxiety from the Encounter status, which prompts the individual to retreat and embrace symbols and artifacts of Black identity and then develop a more sophisticated Black identity.

Encounter (Cross's Nigrescence Model)

A specific experience, or encounter, that prompts the Black individual to begin to notice and question his or her racial identity.

Homoprejudice

A term that has recently emerged in research as scholars suggest that prejudice is more the cause of discrimination than an actual phobia per se.

Paniagua (2014) identified four main models of acculturation with which counselors should be familiar.

A. Assimilation Model. B. Separation Model. C. Integration Model (or Biculturalism). D. Marginalization Model.

Wester, Vogel, O'Neil, and Danforth (2012) outlined four patterns of male gender role conflict:

A. Pressure of success, power, and competition. B. Conflict between work and family relationships. C. Restricted emotionality. D. Restricted affectionate behavior between men.

Awareness (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996)

At an individual level, the individual feels different. There is also acknowledgement at a group level of sexual orientations other than heterosexual.

Gray (2018) identified some common themes of the cultural identity development process that can apply to many specific identity development processes, such as racial identity or sexual identity development:

A. Unawareness or denial of cultural group membership; B. Conflict or anxiety when encountering those who differ in cultural identity; C. Retreat into one's own cultural group and then cautious identity with other self-identities and other factors; and D. Advocacy for those who belong to cultural group memberships who may experience oppression.

Helms (1995) developed a White racial identity development (WRID) model to illustrate that the general development issue for Whites is _____.

Abandonment of entitlement--that is , Whites develop a more complex racial identity as they learn to relinquish some of the White privileges they recieve.

Resilience

According to Cheek (2009), ______ is defined as " a person's ability to maintain equilibrium, adjust to distressful or disturbing circumstances, or to 'bounce back' toward a level of positive functioning in spite of (or often in response to) adverse situations".

Latin Americans often experience _____, or cognitive and affective consequences associated with leaving one's own country and entering a host country.

Acculturative Stress

Physical Attack (Allport, 1979)

Acting either overtly violent or with violent undertones when in a high-pressure situation against a targeted group.

Valente (2009) defines ____ as "a preoccupation and dependence on a drug or process, resulting in increased tolerance, withdrawal, and repeated patterns of relapse"

Addiction

_____ occurs between 10 and 20 years of age and is a time of significant developmental transitions, including physical changes.

Adolescence

Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID) ____.

Adopted Cross's principles and applied them to all people of color.

Pseudo-Independence [Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID)]

Alternatively, Whites may move toward this status, whereas they address conflict by making a superficial commitment to racism issues. However, there are often discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors toward other racial groups: they do not "walk the walk".

Gerontological Counseling

An area of counseling tailored for individuals 65 years of age and older, an age group that continues to increase as a percentage of the U.S. population.

Self-Categorization

An important piece of social identity theory, in which the "self" is seen as an object to be classified into membership in a social group that gives worth to the person.

Saving Face [Asian American Cultural Values]

An individual's behaviors are reflective of family and thus should protect the honor of the family.

Examples of Ethnic groups:

Arab Americans Hispanic/Latino(o/as) African Americans Italian Americans Jewish Americans Japanese Americans Irish Americans

Biracial Individuals

Are those who are biological children of parents from two different racial backgrouds.

Empathy [FRAMES]

As MI is based on Rogerian principles, displaying this understanding is key.

Reparative Therapy or Conversion therapy

Attempting to change one's sexual orientation, has not been supported by research or any professional organization, although many attempts have been made using shock therapy, pain therapy, hypnosis, medications, and religious counseling.

Equity (Crethar, 2009)

Balanced allocation of services, rights, and duties within a society.

Christianity

Belief in one God who sent his son Jesus Christ to die for the forgiveness of sins for all. Focuses on God's transformative love and the gift of grace to have a personal relationship with God. Forgiveness, mercy, and personal growth are further precepts of this faith.

Polytheistic

Believing in many gods.

Monotheistic

Believing in one god.

Access forms the main piece of the _____, which calls for equality for all citizens.

Bill of Rights

Parallel Interactions (Racial Interaction Theory; Helms, 1995)

Both individuals are similar racial identity statues, resulting in more harmonious race-based communications.

Spirituality

Can be best understood as meaningful experiences that possibly include a relationship with a divine entity, the universe, or nature.

Sexual Orientation

Can be thought of as the way people prefer to meet their sexual needs and the object of their sexual attraction.

______ was the first to publish a gay identity development model.

Cass (1979)

_____ identified four components of sexual identity, a term they believe more comprehensively defines sexual orientation. 1. Physical Identity (Biological makeup of an individual) 2. Gender Identity (Belief about one's gender) 3. Social Sex Role Identity (Sex Roles Individuals Adopt due to culture) 4. Sexual Orientation Identity (Sexual and emotional attraction to individuals of the same and/or opposite sex)

Chaney and Brubaker (2018)

Mestizo

Characterizes one born of Native American and Caucasian parents.

How individuals conceptualize and act toward time.

Chronemics

A term related to SES is ____, which a form of discrimination founded on a person's social status.

Classism

Responsibility [FRAMES]

Clients are in charge of their modification and should take ownership of the process.

Structural Racism

Closely related and often used interchangeably with institutional racism, emphasizes that the oppression of racial and ethnic groups, originating with the social construction of race and racial classification systems, is organized by institutional, cultural, and social structures (i.e., components of institutions) that create and maintain racial inequities.

Prejudice

Closely related to oppression, involves making assumptions about an individual.

Male Privilege

Closely related to sexism and involves the unearned societal benefits afforded to ment based on being male.

One way individuals consider someone's "race" in social interactions involves ______, or treating individuals equally by ignoring their racial group, or color of their skin, as a component of their identity.

Color Blindness

The ______ involves recognizing oneself as a sexual minority and disclosing one's sexual identity to others. This process mostly occurs in the teenage years; however, some individuals hide their identity for years and even have opposite-sex relationships.

Coming Out Process

Taoism

Concentrates on harmony with nature, a peaceful existence with the world, and power from Dao. ______ has three foci that include the ways of ultimate reality, human life, and the universe. Intense study, it is believed, leads to enlightenment. ____ also follows the precept that all humans have a moral center.

Personalismo often coincides with _____ or possessing trust and confidence in those with whom one is in a relationship.

Confianza

Cross's Nigrescence Model (Cross, 1971, 1995)

Cross was interested in the process of Blacks "Becoming Black," or Nigrescence, and developed a racial identity model in the 1970s. This model serves as a description of stages that Blacks experience as they come to understand and embrace their Black identity. Cross's Nigrescence Model is considered a guide for racial identity development models.

______ make up about 3.7% of Latin Americans.

Cubans

Typically, the counselor does not understand the client's worldview or cultural identity and thus fails to integrate this information in practice. This is known as _____.

Cultural Encapsulation.

______ refers to the degree to which individuals identify belonging to subgroups of various cultural groups or categories.

Cultural Identity

____ consists of the shared values, practices, social norms, and worldviews associated with a particular cultural group.

Culture

Sexism

Defined as the oppression of individuals on the basis of gender, stems from the belief that males are the superior gender and thus are more competent and deserving of power.

Ageism

Discrimination based on one's age.

__________ refers to discrimination faced by individuals because of their possession of multiple minority statues, such as being a racial minority and a female.

Double Jeopardy

_____ or ______ refers to discrimination faced by individuals because of their possession of multiple minority statues.

Double Jeopardy; Triple Jeopardy

Radical Feminism

Emerging in the 1960s and continuing through the 1980s, this particular phase focused on discrimination against women in capitalism, particularly white middle-class women, and was the building block for feminist therapy. Also during this time period, birth control pills were introduced, enabling women to choose for themselves their path either to or away from motherhood.

An ____ perspective refers to using counseling approaches that are specific to a client's culture.

Emic

In developing Multicultural Counseling Competence, counselors are to be familiar with two perspectives that can be considered a continuum:

Emic Perspectives vs. Etic Perspectives.

_____, which began as a political statement, is generally concerned with equality of women. This theory is not heavily technique-laden, but rather promotes values taken from the areas of multiculturalism, politics, and social advocacy.

Feminist Theory

Confucianism

Focuses on the completion of a person through lifelong educational growth concerning various aspects, including morgal and cognitive. Persons are expected to conduct themselves harmoniously and humbly. Relationships, family, and tranquility in social transactions are key to ______. The proper mannerisms, traditions, ethics, and regulations, called li, dictate these social interactions.

Social Feminism

Focuses on the whole of society, which pertains to particulars such as women's roles and careers, race, capitalism in a patriarchal context, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, culture, and the financial realm.

Sociometry

Gauges the extent of relationship among people or groups, or how people relate to one another, via a sociogram, which is a scientific, visual way to analyze and display these relationships. _____ was developed by Jacob Moreno.

Underclass Status.

Generally have an underpaying job or are not employed. Struggle greatly to maintain basic needs, such as food, housing, health care, and even access to transportation. Can be considered to be at the poverty level and also suffer from great anxiety over how to meet their needs.

The American Counseling Association (ACA) has created the Counselors for Social Justice division and the ACA Advocacy Competencies (Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek, 2003), which ____.

Give counselors knowledge about how to advocate against oppression.

Feedback [FRAMES]

Give pertinent and immediate input on what is happening.

Hoffman (2006) developed a feminist identity development model that ______.

Gives special attention to the concept of gender self-confidence.

Buddhism

Goal is increase awareness and understanding of life so as to reduce the anxieties of life. The final state is called nirvana, reached by means of meditation. Peacefulness, forbearance, and a belief in karma and reincarnation are further hallmarks of the faith.

Culture consists of the shared values, practices, social norms, and worldviews associated with a particular cultural group; ____ can be categorized based on race, ethnicity, gender, ability, status, and sexual orientation.

Group

It is important to note that the term ____ is no longer accepted.

Handicap

Counselors also engage in ____, which is the view that addiction is a health issue and that there are physical risks to abuse.

Harm Reduction

One-drop rule

Hierarchical social system that implied that possessing one drop of Black blood indicated you were Black and thus of a lower social status.

Involves individuals relaying messages by relying heavily on surroundings; it is assumed that "many things can be left unsaid," and thus nonverbal cues create social harmony.

High-Context Communication

Interpersonal Attractiveness [Social Influence Model]

How the counselor shows the client that the counselor likes and has commonalities with him or her.

Troiden (1989) developed a model that is similar to Cass's (1979) model, yet focuses more on ____.

How the social context creates a nonlinear gay identity development process.

Involves the continuum that humans are basically good, bad, or both good and bad.

Human Nature [Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)]

Identity Tolerance (Cass, 1979)

In this stage, which is similar to the Immersion/Emersion statues of racial identity development models and the Embeddedness/Emanation and Moratorium/Equilibrium stages of feminist identity development models, there is some movement to retreat into the culture. Specifically, individuals desire to connect with other sexual minorities and distance themselves from heterosexuals.

The ___ is the group to which an individual feels similar.

In-Group

Sexual Minority Individuals

Include lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and those questioning their sexual orientation. This group also often includes transgender individuals.

Unexplored Commitment (Worthington et al., 2002)

Individuals accept themselves as heterosexual without exploring this identity. They conform to heterosexual norms present in society.

Identity Integration (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996)

Individuals at this status internalize their gay identity and integrate it with other aspects of their identity. At a group level, there is synthesis of the gay culture into self-identity.

Finding and Applying the Label of Bisexuality (Weinberg et al., 1994)

Individuals become more comfortable with being attracted to both sexes and select the "bisexual" label.

Exploration (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996)

Individuals begin to have strong same-sex attractions and seek to belong, on a group level, by seeking information about others who identify as gay.

Integrative Awareness [Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID)]

Individuals develop a more complex view of all racial groups and work to eliminate all forms of oppression (e.g., racism, sexism, classism). This status differs from Cross's last status, which focuses on advocacy for Black issues only.

Conscious Awareness (Cass, 1979)

Individuals in this stage feel different and note that they may not be heterosexual.

Commitment (Troiden, 1989)

Individuals in this status are fully active in the gay community and have a positive gay identity.

Deepening Commitment (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996)

Individuals in this status confirm their gay identity at an individual level and actively commit to a gay identity at a group level.

Pre-Awareness (Poll & Smith, 2003)

Individuals in this status do not view spirituality as salient in their lives.

Dissonance [Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID)]

Individuals in this status experience a crisis that increases their awareness that racism exists. Conflict may lead individuals of color to appreciate aspects of their respective racial groups and distrust the dominant racial group (i.e., Whites).

Initial Confusion (Weinberg et al., 1994)

Individuals in this status may experience anxiety about their sexual identity. The are attracted to both sexes and display discomfort about selecting a gay or heterosexual identity.

Internalization [Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID)]

Individuals increasingly identity with individuals of other oppressed identities and develop an individualized racial self-concept. Individuals interact with Whites with more flexibility and objectivity.

Conformity [Helm's (1995) People of Color Racial Identity Development Model (POCRID)]

Individuals of color may embrace racial stereotypes, blaming people of color for their problems. Individuals at this status may not socialize with other people of color. There is no awareness of racism.

Deepening and Commitment (Worthington et al., 2002)

Individuals show a greater commitment to their heterosexuality and focus more on acknowledging heterosexual privilege and dismantling oppression.

Victims of racism may experience _____, which is the taking in of majority beliefs about minority groups that will cause the minority group to believe stereotypes concerning itself, resulting in low self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, and lower motivation levels.

Internalized Racism

Culture Shock

Involves having to transition to a foreign environment by adjusting to the new foods, customs, language, and so on.

Honeymoon Phase [Culture Shock]

Involves hopefulness, excitement, and captivation of the new culture.

Reorientation or Reintegration Phase [Culture Shock]

Involves reintegration into the new culture by viewing both the good and bad of the culture.

Religion

Involves the actual ritualized practices that may involve a church or other organization, authority figures, and religious mores.

Racism

Involves the belief that a group of people are inferior to one's own group due to recognized or perceived differences in physical characteristics. ______ also involves the ability to act on such beliefs overtly or covertly, intentionally or unintentionally.

Gender Self-Confidence (Hoffman, 2006)

Involves the degree to which an individual defines himself or herself according to traditional views of masculinity and femininity and accepts those views.

Crisis or Disintegration Phase [Culture Shock]

Involves the individuals being frustrated or let down by cultural aspects that were at first fascinating.

Participation (Crethar, 2009)

It is the right of all individuals to have their opinion taken into consideration on decisions that will influence their lives. _____ increases hope, control, motivation, and community.

After slavery ended in 1865, ____ were enacted to maintain separate and unequal social and economic situations for Blacks.

Jim Crow Laws

Involves postures, body movements, and positions. These might include facial expressions, eye contact and gaze, and touch.

Kinesics

The second worldview mode was developed by ________ and contains five components that integrate in various cultures to create unique cultural worldviews.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)

This movement touts accomplishments such as women's eventual participation in medical and mental health studies and also the incorporation of women in the voting population.

Liberal Feminism

Working-Class Status.

Live paycheck to paycheck, working to get immediate needs and bills met. Often work in service or labor industries and are put under extreme pressure to make ends meet.

The degree of control individuals perceive they have over their environment.

Locus of Control (Sue, 1987)

Refers to individuals communicating primarily verbally to express thoughts and feelings.

Low-Context Communication

Research on counseling men indicates that males may experience ____, which refers to the traditional gender role socialization that negatively impacts males.

Male gender role conflict

In which individuals reject the cultural values and customs of both cultures.

Marginalization Model (Paniagua, 2014)

Machismo

Masculinity. Traditional male traits such as competitive, powerful, decision maker and breadwinner for the family. Latin American Cultural Value.

Oppression

May occur by force or deprivation.

_______, in a seminal article on White and male privilege, outlined everyday privileges individuals experience. These privileges tend to be unearned and involve creating oppression experiences (intentionally and unintentionally) for other cultural groups.

McIntosh (1998)

_____ make up approximately 64% of Latinos.

Mexicans

In contrast to the popular focus on pathology and a forceful confrontation-based model known as the _______. ____ has much less supporting research.

Minnesota Model (MM)

_____ takes a more respectful and person-centered, yet distinctly directive, approach used initially in addictions counselings. ____ is heavily supported by research. _____ practitioners try to elicit awareness of incongruence between actions and goals.

Motivational Interviewing (MI)

A _____ is conducted in a hypothetical situation and will have no action taken following the results.

Near-Sociometric Test

Filial Piety [Asian American Cultural Values]

Needs of individual often are secondary to those of the family, especially to parents and elders.

Nontheistic

Non-belief in God or gods.

Covert Racism

Not directly obvious but is done insidiously, either through conscious or unconscious motivations.

_______ developed the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC) that speaks to four developmental domains of counselor self-awareness, counseling relationship, client worldview, and counseling and advocacy interventions pertinent to effective multicultural counseling.

Ratts et al. (2015)

Wealth

Refers to a surplus of social, educational, and economic resources.

Racial Identity

Refers to an orientation to one or more racial groups.

Cultural Racism

Refers to devaluing cultural artifacts (e.g., art, media, and religion) that do not approximate White cultural values.

Personalismo

Refers to having compassion and caring for those in their communities and families.

Gender Expression

Refers to how individuals portray their gender, which may or may not be aligned with gender role expectations.

Oppression by Force

Refers to imposing a role, experience, or condition on someone.

Transgender and Gender Nonconforming (TGNC)

Refers to individuals whoses identified gender or gender expression does not fit into the binary social categories of masculinity and femininity traditionally assigned with the male and female assigned sex at birth, respectfully.

Oppression by Deprivation

Refers to not providing someone with a necessary experience or resource.

Multiracial

Refers to one who is from multiple racial lineages.

Heteronormativity

Refers to societal expectations that individuals, on the basis of their biological sex, adhere to gender roles that complement those of the opposite biological sex. It involves an assumption that there is a binary gender system and that heterosexuality is the normal orientation.

Spiritual Bypass

Refers to the avoidance of these problematic issues by a person working through personal concerns at the spiritual level only.

Spiritual Identity

Refers to the degree of connections individuals have with their spiritual force.

Gender Identity

Refers to the degree to which individuals endorse gender role expressions associated with their perceived gender.

Homophobia

Refers to the fear and hatred of sexual minorities, often resulting in hate crimes.

Cisgender

Refers to the perception by individuals that their assigned sex at birth is aligned with their identified gender.

Gender

Refers to the social categories of masculinity or femininity, with placement heavily guided by culture.

Familismo

Refers to the strong connection Latinos have to their extended families.

Intersex

Refers to those who have reproductive or sexual anatomy that do not fit into the traditional biological categories of male or female.

Sex

Refers to whether a person is biologically a male or female as determined by hormones, genetics, and physical makeup.

Structural Violence

Relates to the result of individuals being marginalized--intentionally or unintentionally--by political, economic, and social institutions.

Internalization-Committment (Cross's Nigrescence Model)

Represented by the individual being an advocate for Black issues.

Resistance (Hardiman, 2003)

Similarly to Helms's (1995) Disintegration status, Whites in this status experience conflict and anxiety about their beliefs of equal opportunity, as they engage in significant and meaningful cross-racila interactions.

Based on social psychology, _____, was created to understand discrimination within groups. This theory puts forth the idea that people sort themselves into groups on the basis of similar characteristics, such as ethnicity or gender.

Social Identity Theory

The _______ was created by Stanley Strong (1968) and encompassed two counselor pieces: (a) credibility (b) interpersonal attractiveness This theory, based on social psychology, asserts that if counselors are viewed as having expertise and being attractive, they will have greater influence on the client.

Social Influence Model

Involve three categories that relate to the degree of hierarchy and group focus within a culture; 1. lineal-hieracrchal (i.e., traditional cultures with hierarchal positions, typically patriarchal structures), 2. collateral-mutual (i.e., collectivistic focus), and 3. individualistic (i.e., the needs of the group are secondary to those of the individual).

Social Relationships [Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)]

Sociometry gauges the extent of relationship among people or groups, or how people relate to one another, via a _______, which is a scientific, visual way to analyze and display these relationships. May be used to see connections or disconnections among individuals, using arrows and symbols, and can be reanalyzed to discover any progress.

Sociogram

Recognition (Poll & Smith, 2003)

Spirituality is integrated throughout life experiences. Individuals begin to develop spiritual practices.

Integration (Poll & Smith, 2003)

Spirituality is synthesized with the overall self-concept during this final status.

Model Minority Myth

States that Asian Americans have excelled in U.S. society without confronting Whites, despite past discrimination from them.

_______ can lead to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), mood disorders, eating disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, identity problems, and health issues.

Tertiary Oppression

Internalization (Cross's Nigrescence Model)

The Black individual is more accepting of his racial identity and integrates it with other cultural identities (e.g., gender and sexual orientation)

A book written by author Betty Friedan (2001) entitled ______ brought awareness to feminism and sparked discussions worldwide.

The Feminine Mystique

Privilege

The ability of a group to receive benefits and prestige that are not as readily available to other groups.

Spontaneity [Important principle for scientific testing of sociometry]

The appropriate response to new situations.

Social Justice

The belief in an equitable world for all individuals and the corresponding goal of promoting fairness by addressing privilege and oppression associated with various cultural identities.

Agnosticism

The belief that any ultimate being is unknown or unknowable.

Individual Racism

The individual perspective that another race is less intelligent, inferior, and so on. These beliefs maintain the racial status quo and are both unconscious and conscious.

White Privilege

The most commonly discussed type of privilege. It involves the positive treatment and disproportionate access to resources due to being White or the benefits received on the basis of skin color.

Gender Identity Development

The process by which individuals come to terms with gender expression.

Internalized Homophobia

The process by which sexual minorities accept accept heterosexist messages; this can hinder their sexual identity development.

Soul

The quintessential nature of a person.

Immersion and Emersion [Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID)]

Whites in this status renew their efforts to address racism and redefine their "Whiteness." This status involves increased self-reflection and self-understanding of individuals' role in perpetuating racial privilege.

Reintegration [Helms (1995) White racial identity development model (WRID)]

Whites that experience this status typically try to lessen the anxiety experienced in the Disintegration status and demonstrate intolerance and anger toward those of different racial groups.

Judaism

With a focus on interaction with others humbly and performing good deeds, clients of this religion focus on the Torah, which comprises the first five books of the Bible. Some ascribe to the more mystical Kabbalah, or the "Force of the Creator," which allows that wisdom provides growth and an opportunity to focus on the life that follows this earthly one. The focus for most followers of this religion is solidly on actions in this life.

Downing and Roush (1985) developed a feminist identity development model to help explain how _________.

Women come to know themselves in a sexist society.

Moratorium and Equilibrium (Hoffman, 2006)

Women in this stage are actively committed to a feminist identity search.

Synthesis (Downing & Roush, 1985)

Women in this stage integrate evolving feminist principles with other personal and cultural values. Events deemed previously as solely caused by sexism are re-examined to consider other causes as well.

Revelation (Downing & Roush, 1985)

Women move into this stage if they experience an event of sexism so salient that it calls into their awareness that their development is hindered in some way.

Cultural Feminism

Workplace environment, politics, sexual identity, and sexual harassment of women were the particular concentration of this movement, which began in the mid-1980s. In addition, females were studied to determine how their life experiences were distinct due merely to the fact that they are women. ______ looks at styles of management in the workplace as well, comparing them to male authority styles.

_________ developed a five-status mode that incorporates both individual and group identity development processes and is similar to McCarn and Fassinger's (1996) model.

Worthington et al. (2002)

Harmony (Crethar, 2009)

_____, that is, working for the greater good of all of the community instead of being merely self-serving, means that every group's wants and needs are supplied fairly and evenly.

Open-Ended Questions [OARES]

_______ will draw out more information from the client.