Chapter 22 An Age of Nationalism and Realism

Wagner

German composer of operas and inventor of the music drama in which drama and spectacle and music are fused (1813-1883)

Who indirectly completed Italian unification? How?

Prussia In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the new Italian state became an ally of Prussia. Prussia's victory left the Italians with Venetia In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War resulted in the withdrawal of French troops from Rome. (Get Venetia 1866, Get Rome 1870)

Austro-Prussian War (1866) Results

Prussia had effective military reforms. Defeat Austrians at Ko ̈niggra ̈tz Bismarck does not want a hostile enemy so made Austria lose no territory except Venetia to Italy and they were excluded from German affairs.

How did the Austro-Prussian war lead to the Franco-Prussian War?

Prussia now dominate all of northern Germany Austria excluded from significant role in German affairs. Bismarck realized that France would never be content with a strong German state to its east because of the potential threat to French security. Napoleon III needed a foreign triumph to compensate for his foreign failures.

Bismarck

Prussian delegate to the parliament of the Germanic Confederation and Prussian ambassador to Russia Bismarck was a consummate politician and opportunist. He only went to war if all other diplomatic opportunities unavailable. Ultimate realist (realpolitik) Submit army appropriations bill to parliament; parliament reject; Bismarck went ahead and collected taxes anyway From 1862 to 1866, Bismarck governed Prussia by largely ignoring parliament Parliament did nothing Before war was declared, Bismarck always saw to it that Prussia would be fighting only one power and that that opponent was isolated diplomatically

How did the Franco-Prussian War start?

Queen Isabella II was deposed after a successful revolution in Spain. Throne offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (distant relative of Prussian king) If Leopold took throne, France would become caught in members of Hohenzollern dynasty. French objections caused King William I to force Leopold to withdraw. But French wanted more, they want a full-out apology and promise that Leopold would never be considered a candidate again. French declare war 1870.

The Crimean War

(1853-1856) Russian war against Ottomans for control of the Black Sea; intervention by Britain and France cause Russia to lose; Russians realize need to industiralize.

Abolition of serfdom in Russia

(1861)Alexander issue emanipation edict. Peasants allowed to own property, but the benefits were limited. Government provide land for peasants by purchasing from landowners but landowners kept the best land. Russian peasants lacked arable land. Peasants expected to repay in the state in long term installments. Peasants subjugated to authority of their mir.

Obstacles to surgery

1) post surgery infection (see above) 2) pain; develop anesthetic agents

Describe the decline of the OE

1699 OE lost Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to the expanding Austrian Empire. Russia take Crimea in 1783 and Bessarabia in 1812 1829 The Russians had obtained a protectorate over the Danubian provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia 1830 Nationalist revolt gained Greece independence 1830 Serbia independent

Continental iron industries

1850-1870, Continental iron industries transition from charcoal iron smelting to coke-blast smelting. Still do not surpass British iron production. In 1870, the British iron industry produced half the world's pig iron—four times as much as Germany and five times as much as France.

Alexander Herzen

1864, lead the populist movement that believed that peasants should initiate the reform, peasants not enthusiastic enough to initiate the revolts though. Wrote The Bell. Intellectuals who followed his ideas formed a movement called populism whose aim was to create a new society

Louis Pasteur

A French chemist, this man discovered that heat could kill bacteria that otherwise spoiled liquids including milk, wine, and beer.

What is the Zollverein?

A German customs union formed in 1834 by Prussia. Eliminate tools on rivers and roads among its member states which stimulated trade among members. By 1853, all the German states except Austria had joined the Prussian- dominated customs union.

William Gladstone

A Liberal British Prime Minister Responsible for series of reforms: government positions open by civil service exams instead patronage, secret ballot for voting, abolish practice of purchasing military commissions. Education Act of 1870

Who passed and carried out Reform Act of 1832?

After Palmerston died in 1865, the movement to extend franchise intensified. Whigs (now called liberals) were responsible for Reform Act of 1832 Tories (now called conservatives) carried through the Reform Act of 1832

Who did German nationalists believe were powerful enough to dominate German affairs?

Austria and Prussia Austria had long controlled existing Germanic Confederation Prussian power was growing with economic expansion.

In 1850, who was the dominant power of the Italian peninsula

Austria. Failure revolution 1848-49

Why did France withdraw from helping Italy? What happened?

Austrians had not yet been defeated and Napoleon thought the struggle might be longer and more costly. Plus, Prussians were mobilizing in support of Austria and Napoleon did not want to take on 2 enemies at once. Piedmont receive only Lombardy while Venetia remain under Austrian control. But soon after war with Austria, northern Italian states like Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of the Papal States, had been taken over by nationalists who in 1860 agreed to join Piedmont

William Thackeray

Author of Vanity Fair: A Novel without a Hero, one of the major works of the literature of Realism.

What are joint-stock investment banks?

Banks that were crucial to Continent Industrialization because they mobilized enormous capital resources for investment. Important in promotion of railway construction.

Early unions and socialism

Before 1870, capitalist factory owners remain largely free to hire labor on their own terms based on market forces. Workers for trade unions to fight for better work conditions but these unions were basically ineffective and represent small part of industrial working class. Real change come with development of socialist parties and socialist trade unions.

Did the southern German states want to join the North German Confederation

Before the war ended, the souther German states agreed to enter North German Confederation January 1871 German empire proclaimed. Bismarck proclaimed kaiser or emperor of the Second German Empire German unity had been achieved by the Prussian monarchy and the Prussian army. Germany had merged into Prussia. Strongest power on the Continent (new European balance of power)

What did Bismarck ask Prussian parliament to pass after the Austrian war?

Bismarck asked the Prussian parliament to pass a bill of indemnity which legalized taxes he took illegally since 1862. Most support because impressed with Bismarck successes

Lord Palmerston

British Prime Minister from 1855 - 1865 who was a Whig but was able to compromise across party lines. He opposed expanding voting rights.

Battle of Balaklava (1854)

British and French attack Russia's Crimean penisula in the Black Sea Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell in 1855. Treaty of Paris signed 1856

How did the Crimean War destroy the Concert of Europe?

Broke up longstanding European power relationships Russia and Austria were now enemies because Austria didn't support Russia. Russia withdrew from European affairs next 2 decades; so did GB Not until 1870s were new combinations formed. This international situation make possible unification of Italy and Germany

French and Italy vs Austria

Cavour provoke Austrians into invading Piedmont 1859. French defeat Austrians at 2 major battles (Magenta & Solgerino) French made peace with Austria 1859 without telling Italy

The breakdown of the _______opened the way for the _____ and the ______ to establish national states. Their successful unifications transformed the power structure of the European continent. Europe would be dealing with the conse- quences well into the twentieth century.

Concert of Europe Italians Germans

What started the Danish War? (1864)

Conflict over duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1863, Denmark incorporated these 2 into Denmark, contrary to international treaty German nationalists angry because large number German populations in those duchies and they considered them to be German states Diet of Germanic Confederation want to send troops to Denmark but Bismarck did not want to subject Prussian policy to Austrian dominated German Parliament. He persuade Austrians to join Prussia and declare war on Denmark

What was one reason for Britain's stability

Continuing economic growth Working class conditions after 1850 started improving; better wages Aristocratic and upper MC dominating Parliament blur lines between their strife

Slavery in the US and Civil War

Cotton South exploited slavery. Plantation slavery and cotton economy very closely relatves. Abolition movement in north challenge southern order leading to civil war. Kansas-Nebraska Act Lincoln elected Civil war started as a war to save Union, develop into a war against slavery. Emancipation Proclamation Union Blockade Confederate surrender

Effects of the Danish War?

Danes defeated; surrender Schleswig and Holstein Prussia took Schleswig while Austria took Holstein Bismark wanted to dominate northern Protestant part of Germanic Confederation so Austria would be excluded from German affairs.

Realism in art

Depict everyday life or ordinary people Photographic realism Natural environment

Robert Koch

Developed the culture plate method to identify pathogens Identify bacteria of tuberculosis, typhoid, cholera, etc Prove that bacterium was causative agent of disease

New public health measures

Discoveries of bacteria prompted a public health movement Based on preventing, not curing. The prebacteriological hygiene movement focused on providing clean water, adequate sewage disposal, and less crowded housing conditions. Pasteurize milk Immunization against disease

Ausgleich of 1867

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part of empire have constitution, bicameral legislature, government for domestic affairs, capital; common army, foreign policy and system of finances. The Ausgleich did not satisfy other nationalities. The nationalities problem persisted until the demise of the empire at the end of World War I.

What was an important factor in the expansion of markets?

Elimination of barriers to international trade -essential international waterways opened by eliminating tolls -trade treaties eliminate protected tariffs

Joseph Lister

English surgeon who was the first to use antiseptics (1827-1912) Believed bacteria might enter wound and cause infection. Used disinfectants to eliminate infections during surgery

Charles Dickens

English writer whose novels depicted and criticized social injustice (1812-1870)

Courbet

Everyday life Painted factory workers, peasants, wives saloon keepers. "The Stone Breakers" - 2 workers building a road To Courbet, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly to interest him.

Frankfurt Assembly

Failed German unification attempt.

Gustave Flaubert

French author; Madame Bovary---first major realist novel. Main character is trapped in marriage to drab author, reads about love, has affairs but is unfulfilled so kills herself

Franco-Prussian War results

French no match for the better led and better organized Prussian army. The southern German states honored their military alliances with Prussia and joined the war effort against the French. Prussian army captured French army and Napoleon III. Second French empire collapsed. France have to pau indemnity of 5 billion francs and give up provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to new German state.

Why did GB and France declare way on Russia? What did the Austrians do?

GB - concerned Russia upset balance of power; Russia would befefit from weakness of OE and take OE territory which make Russia major power in E Euro and give them ability to challenge GB naval power in East Medd France - Napoleon III thought Russia insulted France at Congress of Vienna and as replacing them as the protectors of Christians in OE Austria - remain neutral (despite the fact that Russian troops had saved the Austrian government in 1849)

What were the two main intellectual developments between 1850 and 1870?

Growth of scientific knowledge Shift from Romanticism to Realism

leitmotiv

Guiding, or leading, motive in Wagner's operas

Austrian Empire

Habsbugs crush revolts of 1848 and 1849; restore centralized, autocratic government to empire 1848 Act of Emancipation free compulsory labor services. Industrialization caused labor unrest and new industrial middle class.

Why did Cavour need the French? What deal did he made?

He could challenge Austria directly so he made a deal with Napoleon III: -Napoleon III would ally with Piedmont to drive Austrians out of Italy -Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part Papal states would be added to Piedmont -Piedmont provinces Nice and Savoy would go to Napoleon -Prince Napoleon would marry Victor's daughter and have a kingdom in central Italy

How did Napoleon III respond to opposition to his policies

He liberalized his regime by legalizing trade unions, granting right to strike, let opposition candidates in Legislative Corps have greater freedom to campaign and give them more say in affairs of state including budget. Liberalization policies strengthen government. French people voted Napoleon over a constitution with a parliament. Napoleon III would be ruined by his foreign policy. (with Prussia)

Why did Napoleon III involve himself in the Crimean War?

He wanted to make France free from peace settlements of 1814-1815 and make France chief arbiter of Europe. The decline in the OE presented this opportunity

What did Napoleon control in his empire?

He was the chief of state and controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation or declare war The Legislative Corps made it seem like there was representative government because members elected by universal male suffrage but they could not initiate legislation or affect budget

Describe the policies of Cavour

He was the prime minister of king Victor Emmanuel II Liberal minded nobleman Moderate, favor constitutional government, consumate politician good at persuading Policy of economic expansion: build roads/canals/rails, foster businesses by expanding credit and investment in new insustriest With growth of economy, pour money into army

Ideas of the Communist Manifesto

History was made up a series of class struggles; it has always been oppressor vs oppressed Feudal classes had to accept the rules of the MC. The MC took control and used the government to defend their own interests. Proletariat (industrial working class) would overthrow middle class and form a classless society that would no longer represent interests of one particular class. Progress in science, technology, and industry lead to greater wealth for all

Scientific method/growing popularity of science

Increasing gains in science led to a growing belief about the benefits of science Widespread acceptance of scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis) as the only way to truth; undermine faith of many Increasing secularization

Materialism

Increasing secularization, particularly evident in the growth of materialism Belief that everything mental, spiritual, or idea was simply a result of physical forces. Truth found in the concrete existence of human beings and not in feelings

Continent railroads

Industrial expansion on Continent fueled by railroads. Between 1850 and 1870, European railroad track mileage increased from 14,500 to almost 70,000. Road stimulate iron and coal industries

Garibaldi

Italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and the cause of the Young Italy Raised an army of Red shirts (volunteers) and invaded Silcily where revolt had broken out against Bourbon king of Two Sicilies Conquer Naples and Two Sicilies. Cavour comes back. Garibaldi wanted to march to Rome but Cavour thought that was a bad idea because that would cause war with France who protect papacy. So the Piedmont army invade papal states but skip Rome. Garibaldi retire to farm Papal States and the Two Sicilies supported union with Piedmont

What did Russia's defeat at the crimean War reveal>

Its decencies and that it was falling hopelessly behind western Europe. Tsar Alexander II had come to power during Crimean War

Alexander II's system of zemstvos

Local assemblies that provided a moderate degree of self-government. Reps elected by noble landowners, towns people and peasants, but since it was property based voting nobles had advantage. Given limited power to provide public services Given limited power to provide education, famine relief, road maintenance, etc. Their efforts were interrupted by bureaucrats who fear self government

Alexander von Bach

Local privileges were subordinated to a unified system of administration, law, and taxation Hungary subjected to rule of military officers, Catholic Church was state church and given control over education Emperor create Reichsrat (imperial parliament) meant to provide representation for the nationalities of the empire but ensured German majority seats

Describe the government of Prussia in 1848

Looked like constitutional monarchy Bicameral legislature with lower houses elected by universal male suffrage. But the voting population divided into 3 classes based on amount of taxes they paid; biggest taxpayers get most seats; Rising MC get control of the lower house (growing class because of industrialization) The MC want a real parliament but the king's power was to strong; royal ministers answer to the king

Reform Act of 1867

Lowered the monetary requirements for voting which increased the number of voters from about one million to slightly over two million. Although Disraeli believed that this would benefit the Conservatives, industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868. Increased rivalry between liberals and conservatives in parliamentary life

The Mexican Adventure

Napoleon wanted control of markets and sent troops to Mexico. He installed Emperor Maximillian as new emperor of this country even after order had been restored from the faction upheaval there. When France needed troops, Maximillian had no troops He was eventually executed.

New kingdom of Italy

On March 17, 1861, the new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under a centralized govern- ment subordinated to the control of Piedmont and King Victor (Venetia in the north was still held by Austria and Rome was under papal control supported by French; to attack either would be war with a major European state and Italy was not ready for that)

Reform Act of 1832

Opened the door to political representation for the industrial middle class in Great Britain. Britain's liberal parliamentary system demonstrated once more its ability to make both social and political reforms that enabled the country to remain stable

Charles Darwin

Organic evolution (Animals/plants evolve over time from their simpler forms) Natural selection (survival of those best adapted to environment because of "variants") Influenced by Malthus, more animals produced than can survive produces a struggle for existence Many did not accept his ideas because it made humans seem ordinary and not unique.

Liszt

Piano and secred music e invented the term symphonic poem to refer to his orchestral works, which did not strictly obey traditional forms and were generally based on a literary or pictorial idea. Romantic

Where did advocates of Italian reunification focus on to achieve their goal?

Piedmont Royal house of Savoy ruled kingdom of Piedmont (include island of Sardinia) Though defeated by Austrians in 1848-1849, Piedmont under King Charles Albert had made a valiant effort

Literary realism

Reject Romanticism Ordinary characters from real life, No Romantic heros Avoid flowery and sentimental language Careful observation and accurate description

Prussia gathering allies for the Austro-Prussian War (!866)

Russia - Bismarck had no problem getting Russia to agree to be neutral because Prussia helped suppress Polish revolt there in 1863. France - Bismarck buy neutrality of Napoleon III with promise of territory in Rhineland Italy - Bismarck promise Venetia if Austrians defeated War starts 1866

What did each country want from the disntegration of the OE?

Russia - close to OE; bond between ROC and GOC, wanted to enlarge sphere of influence Austria - want land in Balkans France/Britain - want commercial opportunities in east Medd

How did the OE declare war on Russia in 1853? What happened next?

Russians demand right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine (privilege already given to France) OE refuse Russians occupy Moldavia and Wallachia Failure to resolve dispute based on negotations led OE to declare war on Russia. A year later in 1854, GB and France declared war on Russia

Millet

Scenes from rural life like peasants laboring in field Landscape and countrylife The Gleaners

Problems with serfdom in Russia

Subjugate millions of peasants to land and landlords were corrupt and failing system Russian landlords were unable compete with foreign agriculture. Peasant revolts disrupt countryside

King William I of Prussia

Succeeded in King Frederick William IV Wanted to double the size of the army and require 3 years military service. Middle class liberals in parliament fear compulsory military service because believe government would use to force obedience to government and strengthen conservatism Prussian legislature reject new military budget and William appoint Bismarck as a new prime minister (he was very conservative)

What is realism?

The belief that the world should be viewed realistically After 1850 Closely related to materialism

Napoleon III domestic policies

The first five years of Napoleon's reign were a success because of economic expansion. Napoleon used government resources to stimulate the economy. (Ex. government subsidies used for railraods, harbors, roads, canals) Major railways in France constructed in Napoleon's reign Iron production tripled Hospitals and free medicine provided for working class Vast reconstruction of city of Paris (broad boulevards, plazas, public squares, public water supply, etc)

Great Britain textile production vs Continent

The transformation of textile production from hand looms to power looms had largely been completed in Britain by the 1850s (for cotton) and 1860s (for wool). In 1870s, hand looms disappear in GB but still exist on Continent. On the Continent, the period from 1850 to 1870 witnessed increased mechanization of the cotton and textile industries, although Continental coun- tries still remained behind Britain.

Women and medical schools

The women in Britain were not allowed to participate in medical schools until a girl named Elizabeth Blackwell, got accepted accidentally and gained respect with her intelligence. Parliament in 1876, passed a bill in Britain, giving women the right to take qualifying exams. But still, women were given very little education compared to the the male students.

Treaty of Paris 1856

This treaty effectively ended the Crimean War. Russia was required to give up Bessarabia and accept neutrality at Black Sea. Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under protection of 5 great powers.

What was the purpose of "The Communist Manifesto?"

To rouse the working class to action. Passed unnoticed in 1848

Who was Disraeli?

Tory leader in Parliament Wanted to win over newly enfranchised groups to Conservative Party

The Emergence of a Canadian Nation

Treaty of Paris 1763 put Canada in the hands of the British. Most Canadians want more autonomy. In 1837, Canadian groups rose up in rebellion against British authority. Rebels in Lower Canada (Mostly French Canadians) demanded separation from Britain, creation of a republic, universal male suffrage, and freedom of the press. British government finally given in. Canada got its own constitution and nation with a parliament but foreign affairs still under control of British government.

Mir

Village commune where the emancipated serfs lived and worked collectively in order to meet redemption payments to the government.

How did Louis Napoleon come to power?

Worked for 3 years to preserve the support of the French people. National Assembly reject his wish to revise the constitution and stand for reelection. Louis use troops to seize government in 1851 Restored universal male suffrage. Afterwards, he asked the French people to elect him 10 years and he had an overwhelming yes in 1851 In 1852, Napoleon asked to restore the empire and the people voted yes. On December 2 1852 Louis Napoleon became Napoleon III

People's Will

a Russian terrorist organization, best known for the successful assassination of Tsar Alexander II of Russia. It created a centralized, well disguised, and most significant organization in a time of diverse liberation movements in Russia.

New German School

a group of musicians gathering around Franz Liszt in Weimar and supporting the artistic outlook of Liszt and Richard Wagner

Vera Zasulich

advocated use of violence to counteract violent repression of tsarist regime; part of Land and Freedom, an underground populist organization & radical reform; ; Shot and wounded governor in St Petersburg inspired People's Will (another radical group)

North Germanic Confederation

he German states north of the Main River organized into the North Germanic Confederation and controlled by Prussia. Southern Germanic states, Catholic remain independent but had coerced into military agreements controlled by Prussia. Each German state kept its own local government, but the king of Prussia was head of the confederation, and the chancellor (Bismarck) was responsible directly to the king. Parliament made of 2 bodies: Federal Council (delegates nominated by states) and Reichstag (elected by universal male suffrage)

Realpolitik

realistic politics based on the needs of the state

Populism

the political doctrine that supports the rights and powers of the common people in their struggle with the privileged elite

Gesamtkunstwerk

total work of art