Chapter 28

Ideologies of nationalism

Promised glory and prosperity to those who worked in the interests of their national communities.

Burke's thought of the American revolution

A natural change in keeping with the historical development of North American society

Mexican Independence

The struggle for independence began in the wake of Napoleon's invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807), which weakened royal authority in the Iberian colonies.

Philosophes Religion

Some philosophes were conventional Christians, and a few turned to atheism. Most of them were deists who believed in the existence of a god but denied the supernatural teachings of Christianity, such as Jesus' virgin birth and his resurrection.

French nobleman Charles Louis de Secondat, better known as the Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Sought to establish a science of politics and discover principles that would foster political liberty in a prosperous and stable state.

Britain's advantages over the rebels:

A strong government with clear lines of authority, the most powerful navy in the world, a competent army, a sizable population of loyalists in the colonies, and an overall colonial population with mixed sentiments about revolution.

Slave Revolt

Boukman organized a slave revolt. In August 1791 some twelve thousand slaves began killing white settlers, burning their homes, and destroying their plantations. Within a few weeks the rebels attracted almost one hundred thousand slaves into their ranks. Saint-Domingue quickly descended into chaos as white, gens de couleur, and slave factions battled one another.

Napoleonic France

Brought political stability to a land torn by revolution and war. He made peace with the Roman Catholic church and in 1801 concluded an agreement with the pope. The pact, known as the Concordat

When did creole forces overcome Spanish armies and deposed Spanish rulers throughout South America.

By 1825

Bolívar attempted to bring Peru and Bolivia, why did the not join? Which also led to the Gran Colombia's fall out.

By 1830, however, strong political and regional differences had undermined Gran Colombia. As the confederation disintegrated, a bitterly disappointed Bolívar pronounced South America "ungovernable" and lamented that "those who have served the revolution have plowed the sea."

The newly independent Latin American states granted military authority to local charismatic strongmen, known as

Caudillos

The Convention

Fearing military defeat and counter revolution, revolutionary leaders created the Convention, a new legislative body elected by universal manhood suffrage, which abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic.

What did Portugal's royal court do when Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807.

Fled to Lisbon and established a government in exile in Rio de Janeiro. In 1821 the king returned to Portugal, leaving his son Pedro in Brazil as regent.

nationalist activist Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)

Formed a group called Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state.

The center of Enlightenment thought was

France, where prominent intellectuals known collectively as philosophes ("philosophers") advanced the cause of reason.

Congress of Vienna

Gathering of European diplomats in Vienna, Austria, from October 1814 to June 1815. The representatives of the "great powers" that defeated Napoleon—Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—dominated the proceedings, which aimed to restore the prerevolutionary political and social order.

During the 1820s independent Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador formed a republic called

Gran Colombia

Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)

He wanted to secure Austria's predominance by forming two confederations, one German and the other Italian, with Austria as the leading power in both.

Why was the Estates General summoned

King Louis XVI was unable to raise more revenue from the overburdened peasantry, so he sought to increase taxes on the French nobility, which had long been exempt from many levies. Aristocrats protested that effort and forced Louis to summon the Estates General

François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803)

Leader of the Haitian independence movement during the French Revolution. He emancipated the slaves and negotiated for the French colony on Hispaniola,

Cause of American Revolution

there was no sign that North America might become a center of revolution. But when Faced with staggering financial difficulties arising from the Seven Years' War, the British Parliament passed legislation to levy new taxes

what was Bolívar's goal for the former Spanish colonies of South America

weld into a great confederation like the United States in North America.

Voltaire's battle cry was

écrasez l'infame ("crush the damned thing"), meaning the church that he considered an agent of oppression.

On 4 July 1776 the Continental Congress adopted a document titled

"The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America." This Declaration of Independence drew deep inspiration from Enlightenment political thought in justifying the colonies' quest for independence.

In 1804 Napoleon promulgated the ______ Code

(Civil) a revised body of civil law, which also helped stabilize French society. The Civil Code affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men and established a merit-based society in which individuals qualified for education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing.

Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861),

Prime Minister to King Vittorio Emmanuel II of Piedmont and Sardinia In alliance with France, Cavour expelled Austrian authorities from most of northern Italy in 1859.

Why were Enlightenment thinkers philosophers

They addressed their works more to the educated public than to scholars: instead of formal philosophical treatises, they mostly composed histories, novels, dramas, satires, and pamphlets on religious, moral, and political issues.

Liberalism

Took change as normal and welcomed it as the agent of progress. Championed the Enlightenment values of freedom and equality, which they believed would lead to higher standards of morality and increased prosperity for the whole society.

Scottish philosopher Adam Smith

Turned his attention to economic affairs and held that laws of supply and demand determine what happens in the marketplace.

When did revolutionary leaders in Europe and the Americas readily adopted Enlightenment ideas

When justifying their efforts to overhaul the political and social structures they inherited.

Napoleon's Empire

While working to stabilize France, Napoleon also sought to extend his authority throughout Europe.

The population of Saint-Domingue comprised three major groups.

White colonials, subdivided into several classes: European-born Frenchmen who monopolized colonial administrative posts. A second group comprised about twenty-eight thousand gens de couleur most of whom were mulattoes and some of whom were black. Many of them were artisans, domestic servants, or overseers, but a small and influential proportion owned small plots of land and slaves. Slaves, some of whom were mulattoes but most of whom were African-born.

The Theory of Progress

became almost an ideology of the philosophes, who believed that natural science would lead to greater human control over the world while rational sciences of human affairs would lead to individual freedom and the construction of a prosperous, just, and equitable society.

Burke's thought of the French revolution

denounce, saw it as a chaotic and irresponsible assault on society.

What did the antislavery movement inspire

feminist social reformers to seek equality with men.

Theodor Herzl

founded the Zionist movement, which sought to confront anti-Semitism in Europe by establishing a home for the Jews in Palestine.

Under the National Assembly and the Convention, what new rights did women have.

free public education for girls as well as boys, granted wives a share of family property, and legalized divorce.

Simón Bolívar Allied with who in the effort the become independent from Spain

he campaigned in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru, coordinating his efforts with other creole leaders, such as José de San Martín (1778-1850) in Argentina and Bernardo O'Higgins (1778-1842) in Chile.

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)

he took up arms against Spanish rule in 1811. In the early days of his struggle, Bolívar experienced many reversals and twice went into exile. In 1819, however, he assembled an army that surprised and crushed the Spanish army in Colombia.

English political philosopher Edmund Burke (1729-1797) (conservatied)

held that society was a compact between a people's ancestors, the present generation, and their descendants as yet unborn. While admitting the need for gradual change that came about by general consensus, Burke condemned radical or revolutionary change, which in his view could only lead to anarchy.

The war of American independence had begun.

in 1775, when tensions were so high that British troops and a colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, near Boston.

William Wilberforce (1759-1833)

leading spokesman of the antislavery movement. He tirelessly attacked slavery on moral and religious grounds. In 1807 Parliament passed Wilberforce's bill to end the slave trade.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

led the unification movement in southern Italy, with an army of about one thousand men outfitted in distinctive red shirts, Garibaldi swept through Sicily and southern Italy, outmaneuvering government forces and attracting enthusiastic recruits

The Convention rallied the French population by instituting

levée en masse ("mass levy"), or universal conscription that drafted people and resources for use in the war against invading forces.

The Directory

members of the Directory were unable to resolve the economic and military problems that plagued revolutionary France. It came to an end in November 1799 when a young general named Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état and seized power.

rebel advantages over Britain

military and economic support of European states France, Spain, the Netherlands, and several German principalities contributed to the American quest for independence. George Washington provided strong and imaginative military leadership for the colonial army while local militias employed guerrilla tactics effectively against British forces.

The wars of the French revolution and the Napoleonic era inspired the development of

nationalism

French revolution

repudiated existing society, often referred to as the ancien régime ("old order"), and sought to replace it with new political, social, and cultural structures. But, unlike their American counterparts, French revolutionaries lacked experience with self-government.

American revolution

sought independence from British imperial rule, but they were content to retain British law and much of their British social and cultural heritage.

what did the unification of Italy and Germany made it clear

that when coupled with strong political, diplomatic, and military leadership, nationalism had enormous potential to mobilize people who felt a sense of national kinship.

What did Jacobin party do

unleashed a campaign of terror to promote their revolutionary agenda. They sought to eliminate the influence of Christianity in French society. They promoted a new "cult of reason". They executed about forty thousand people and imprisoned three hundred thousand suspected enemies of the revolution.

became the symbol of Mexican independence, and the day on which he proclaimed his revolt—16 September 1810—is Mexico's principal national holiday.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811)

The most serious was a peasant rebellion in Mexico led by a parish priest,

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811) who rallied indigenous peoples and mestizos against colonial rule.

What did France do in response to Slave Revolt

1802 Napoleon dispatched forty thousand troops to restore French authority in Saint-Domingue. Toussaint attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement, but the French commander arrested him and sent him to France. However, yellow fever had ravaged the French army in Saint-Domingue, and the black generals who succeeded Toussaint had defeated the remaining troops and driven them out of the colony.

When did Haitian declared independence and establish the Haiti Republic

1803 they declared independence, and on 1 January 1804 they proclaimed the establishment of Haiti, meaning "land of mountains," which became the second independent republic in the western hemisphere.

The first Nationalist uprising occurred in

1821 in the Balkan peninsula, where the Greek people sought independence from the Ottoman Turks

Otto von Bismarck(1815-1898)

As prime minister, Bismarck reformed and expanded the Prussian army. Between 1864 and 1870 he intentionally provoked three wars—with Denmark, Austria, and France—and whipped up German sentiment against the enemies. In all three conflicts Prussian forces quickly shattered their opponents, swelling German pride.

In the final military confrontation of the American Revolution

American and French forces under the command of George Washington surrounded the British forces of Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. After a twenty-day siege, the British forces surrendered in October 1781, and major military hostilities ceased from that point forward.

Who general Augustín de Iturbide (1783-1824)

Colonial rule came to an end in 1821,when he declared independence from Spain. In the following year, he declared himself emperor of Mexico. Neither Iturbide nor his empire survived for long.

Independence in Latin America

Creoles resented administrative control and economic regulations imposed by the Iberian powers. They drew inspiration from Enlightenment political thought and occasionally took part in tax revolts and popular uprisings. They sought to displace the peninsulares but retain their privileged position in society: political independence on the model of the United States in North America struck them as an attractive alternative to colonial status. Between 1810 and 1825, creoles led movements that brought independence to all Spanish colonies in the Americas—except Cuba and Puerto Rico—and established creole-dominated republics.

last documented ship to carry slaves across the Atlantic Ocean arrived in.

Cuba in 1867

How did Isaac Newton's vision of the universe influence Enlightenment and Revolutionary Ideas

His work suggested that rational analysis of human behavior and institutions could lead to fresh insights about the human as well as the natural world.

he only successful slave revolt in history took place on the Caribbean island of

Hispaniola in the aftermath of the French revolution.

In much of South America, slavery ended with

Independence from Spanish rule, as Simón Bolívar freed slaves who joined his forces and provided constitutional guarantees of free status for all residents of Gran Colombia.

unification of Germany

In 1871 the Prussian king proclaimed himself emperor of the Second Reich. Embraced almost all German-speaking peoples outside Austria and Switzerland in a powerful and dynamic national state.

When did King Louis called the Estates General into session, where did it take place.

In May 1789, at the royal palace of Versailles in hopes that it would authorize new taxes.

Who provided the theoretical justification for the Glorious Revolution and the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England

John Locke

What was the shift from early classical liberalism to a more democratic variety.

Liberalism's traditional emphasis on minimizing the role and power of government was reversed, and by the end of the nineteenth century, liberals started to look to government to minimize or correct the problems that accompanied industrialization.

From Scotland to Sicily, and from Philadelphia to Moscow, European and Euro-American thinkers launched an ambitious project to transform human thought and to use reason to transform the world

Like the early modern scientists, they abandoned Aristotelian philosophy, Christian theology, and other traditionally recognized authorities, and they sought to subject the human world to purely rational analysis.

French Revolutionary chaos reached its peak in 1793 and 1794 when

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) and the radical Jacobin party dominated the Convention.

Napoleon got exiled to...

Mediterranean island of Elba, near Corsica. March 1815 he escaped from Elba, returned to France, and reconstituted his army. After British army defeated him at Waterloo. European powers banished Napoleon to the remote and isolated island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean,

François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778)

More than any other philosophe epitomized the spirit of the Enlightenment. Writing under the pen name Voltaire. Say what you think. Lover of wisdom, expose the abuses and freedom of speech. Targeted corrupt officials and idle aristocrats. Detested the slave trade and religious prejudice. Offended the gov't and church. Later imprisoned and forced into exile.

The Fall of Napoleon

Napoleon's empire began to unravel in 1812, when he decided to invade Russia. A coalition of British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies converged on France and forced Napoleon to abdicate his throne in April 1814.British army defeated him at Waterloo in Belgium

Conservatism

arose as political and social theorists responded to the challenges of the American and especially the French revolutions. Viewed society as an organism that changed slowly over the generations.

National Assembly

On 17 June 1789, representatives of the third estate took the dramatic step of seceding from the Estates General

When did British government formally recognized American independence.

September 1783, at the Peace of Paris.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

Studied at French military schools and became an officer in the army of King Louis XVI. A brilliant military leader, he became a general at age twenty-four.

The end effects of the National Assembly

abolished the old social order along with the many fees and labor services that peasants owed to their landlords. abolishing the first estate, defining clergy as civilians, and requiring clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the state. France became a constitutional monarchy in which men of property

National Assembly undertook a broad program of political and social reform called

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, proclaimed the equality of all men, declared that sovereignty resided in the people, and asserted individual rights to liberty, property, and security.

The Estates General

an assembly that represented the entire French population through groups known as estates.

In the ancien régime what were three estates, or political classes

The first estate consisted of about one hundred thousand Roman Catholic clergy, and the second included some four hundred thousand nobles. The third estate embraced the rest of the population—about twenty-four million serfs, free peasants, and urban residents ranging from laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers to physicians, bankers, and attorneys.

in 1821, Pedro was left in Brazil. What happened to Brazil

The next year Brazilian creoles called for independence from Portugal, and Pedro agreed to their demands. When the Portuguese Cortes (parliament) tried to curtail his power, Pedro declared Brazil's independence and accepted appointment as Emperor Pedro I (reigned 1822-1834).

French-Swiss thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778),

The most prominent advocate of political equality. identified with simple working people and deeply resented the privileges enjoyed by elite classes. In his influential book The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau argued that members of a society were collectively the sovereign. In an ideal society all individuals would participate directly in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws. In the absence of royalty, aristocrats, or other privileged elites, the general will of the people would carry the day.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

The most prominent exponent of early liberalism. Tirelessly promoted the freedom of individuals to pursue economic and intellectual interests. Advocated universal suffrage as the most effective way to advance individual freedom. Seeking to extend the rights of freedom and equality to women and working people as well as men of property.

English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704)

Worked to discover natural laws of politics. He attacked divine-right theories that served as a foundation for absolute monarchy and advocated constitutional government on the grounds that sovereignty resides in the people rather than the state or its rulers.

Zionism

a political movement that holds that the Jewish people constitute a nation and have the right to their own national homeland.

Religious Society of Friends of Pennsylvania

a religious movement better known as the Quakers.