Chapter 3 Terms APUSH

Growth of Colonial Cities

18th century commercial centers along Atlantic coast were smaller than today's modern towns, but by their standards, these were large cities. By 1770s, Philadelphia and NY were largest English urban centers with Boston, Charles Town SC, and Newport RI being substantial communities as well. These cities were trading centers for farmers and markets for international trade. There were wealthy merchants and minor tradesmen and workers who lived in crowed and filthy conditions, and social distinctions were clear. There were ironworks and distilleries and advanced schools. There were shops for imported goods, but also communities with many urban problems such as crime, vice, pollution, epidemics, and traffic. Cities had to form elaborate govs with constables' offices and fire departments. They made systems to support poor, who were rapidly growing, and cities were vulnerable to fluctuations in trade. When a market for a product fell, effects on merchants were severe, unlike in countryside where economic instability was more muted than in cities. Cities became places where new ideas were discussed and circulated, due to printers and newspapers. Books from abroad shared new intellectual influences and taverns/ coffeehouses were places where people could discuss issues.

The Stono Rebellion, 1739

A slave uprising in 1739 in South Carolina where 100 Africans took weapons and killed many whites trying to escape to Florida, but were stopped and executed. Many slaves tried running away but were often caught and punished.

The Middle Passage

African chieftains captured enemies, tied them in long lines/ coffles and sold them on African coast. Then victims passed packed into the holds of ships for horrible journey known as middle passage. As many people as possible were crammed in, so they couldn't stand and could hardly breathe. Minimal food and water, and women often raped. Those who died thrown overboard. Once arrived, slaves auctioned off and transported to new homes.

Th Northern Economy

Agriculture was most important part of economy, but less farming than the south. More diverse than economy in south due to colder weather and hard, rocky soil in Northern New England, with fertile soil and temperate weather in middle and southern New England colonies. NY, PA, and Connecticut River Valley supplied wheat. Families had home industry which gave them surplus of goods to trade or sell. Many cobblers, blacksmiths, rifle makers, silversmiths, and printers, with some entrepreneurs using water power to run mills. Also had large scale ship building operations.

Unariatocratic Immigrants

Although few early English settlers were members of upper classes, most were unariatocratic, including members of growing middle class, businesses men, but most dominantly, English laborers. The ones who came independently were often religious dissenters arranged passage, brought families, and established themselves on their own land. Many who came to New World however, were indentured servants.

Problems in 17th Century Colonial Commerce

American merchants had no commonly accepted medium of exchange with few gold or silver coins in colonies. They experimented with paper currency and tobacco certificates, or land certificates, but these wouldn't be accepted abroad, and paper currency was eventually outlawed by parliament. For many years merchants had to barter or use crude substitutes like animal skins. No merchant could be sure their goods would be plentiful, or that they would find good markets. Traders were not informed of about what to expect in foreign ports, ships sometimes staying on sea for years trading in different markets to to make profit. Very competitive companies, making low stability even worse for traders.

Differences in the American & British Political Systems

Americans created a group of institutions of their own giving them a self government. In most colonies, communities ran their own affairs and maintained control over delegates to the colonial assembly. Colonial assembly exercised many powers Parliament exercised in England. Provincial governors appointed by Crown had broad powers on power, but their influence was limited, lacking control over appointments and contracts, and a governor could be removed any time his patron in England lost favor. Governors were usually not familiar with colonies they were governing, with few being native born Americans, but most being Englishman. Provincial govs acted independently of Parliament and assumptions and expectations of colonist's rights formed in America that England didn't share. Before 1760s, British did little to exert authority, but in 1763, they attempted to tighten control over American colonies.

Population Pressure on Larger Towns

As towns grew, people began cultivating land farther from community center. Some farmers moved out of town center to be near their lands, and went farther away from church. Outlying residents built churches of their own, forming new towns, and dispersion of communities was due to distributing land through patriarchal family structure. First, fathers had enough land for all sons, but after many generations, there was too little land to go around, forcing young residents to move elsewhere, often forming towns of their own.

17th Century Status of African Laborers vs. Indentured Servants

At first, African laborers were treated similarly to indentured servants and in the south, with such difficult conditions, it was hard to differentiate whites and blacks. Often blacks were treated more like white hired workers and some were freed after a number of years, with some Africans becoming land owners and some owning slaves of their own. By early 18th century though, clear distinction occurred between whites and Africans.

Concerns over Weakening Religious Piety

By beginning of 18th century, many Americans by decline in religious piety. Movement of population westward, and scattering of settlements caused communities to stop having organized religion. Rise of commercial prosperity created secular outlook in urban areas, and progress in science and free thought in Europe and enlightenment ideas in America caused some colonists to doubt traditional religious beliefs. In 1660s in New England, Puritan Oligarchy warned of decline in power of church, and sabbath after sabbath, ministers preached sermons of despair called jeremiads warning of signs of piety. Puritan faith remained very strong, but to New Englanders religious piety seemed to be a serious problem.

Extractive Industries

By mid 17th century, fur trade was declining, and instead there was lumbering, mining, and fishing which was mainly in New England coast. They exported commodities to England for goods and formed a commercial class.

Birth of the American Legal System

Changes in laws in America were partially result of few English trained lawyers. Not until well into 18th century did English authorities impose laws. American legal system adopted essential elements of English system, like trial by jury. Court procedures were simpler in America than Britain, and punishments were different, with whipping post, branding iron, stocks, and the ducking school as opposed to gallows or prison in England.

Colonial Population Increase

Continued immigration and natural increase caused the Europeans and Africans to be the dominant population groups over natives along Atlantic Coast in late 17th century.

Origins of Slavery in British America

Demand for African workers from the start due to lack of labor in south. Once tobacco became staple of economy in Chesapeake, demand grew rapidly, but supply of African laborers was limited during 17th century due to Atlantic slave trade not serving English colonies in America. Portuguese slavers dominated trade since 16th century and sent Africans to South America and Caribbean. Dutch and French eventually joined slave trade, as well as the Americas between Caribbean and southern colonies. By late 17th century, plenty of African workers in North America.

Rise of Consumerism

Differences between upper and lower class became more extreme so people became more invested in joining the upper class. Purchasing and displaying expensive goods showed you were wealthy, but growth of consumerism due to early start of industrial revolution was important. Little industry in America in 18th century but England and Europe were producing affordable goods for affluent Americans. These goods relied on customers, so people promoted purchase of goods for your social status. Many colonists got debts due to purchases, but merchants offered credit. Merchants would advertise goods in journals and newspapers. George and Martha Washington ordered many elegant furnishings for their home. Products like tea, glassware, cutlery, and furniture that had once been considered luxuries became necessities. The idea of a gentleman and a lady living with virtue and refinement became popular, causing people to read books on manners and fashion. People got portraits done, displayed fashionable possessions in homes and built gardens. Cities built squares, parks, and boulevards.

Rise of Colonial Commerce & the Triangular Trade

Elaborate coastal trade where colonies sold goods to West Indies, mainland colonies, and Caribbean. Expanding trade between North American colonies and and England, continental Europe, and West Africa. This became known as triangular trade suggesting a neat process where merchants carried goods from New England to Africa, traded for slaves transported through middle passage to West Indies, and traded slaves for sugar and molasses to bring back to New England. The system wasn't so simple though, with a maze of trade routes.

Family Division of Lands

English system of primogeniture or passing of all family property to firstborn son didn't occur in New England. Instead, father divided land among sons, and this power gave him control over males of family. Only in late 20s would son get a household, and it would be near their father. Young women needed dowries of furniture, household goods, or money and precious objects and weren't tied down like males. Due to increased commercialization and population growth, strains grew on tight Puritan communities.

Generational Interdependence in the Puritan World

Even in family, economic necessity undermined patriarchal model which most Puritans followed. Fathers needed sons and daughters as labor to keep farm and household functioning, so relationships were contractual, with authority of husbands limited by economic necessity and bonds of affection.

Colonial Women in New England

Family structure stable due to declining death rates and many immigrants bringing families. Sex ratio balanced so most men would marry. Women married young and birthed into 30s. Northern children more likely to survive and families more likely to stay intact. Less widows, and if widowed then usually later in life. Less control over conditions of marriage due to more men, and fathers could control choices. Parents usually lived to see their children grow up, but women's lives still consumed with child bearing. Parents controlled kids longer including who they married. Depended on fathers for land and women needed dowries from parents. Fewer women became pregnant before marriage.

Myth of Self-Sufficiency

Few colonists were self sufficient in late 17th and early 18th centuries, despite popular image of American households growing their own food, making their own clothes, and having little connection to the market. Few families owned spinning wheels or looms, meaning they would buy cloth, and grain needed centralized facilities for processing.

Monopoly of the Royal African Company

First African workers went to English North America before 1620, and the flow of African ls only increased. Caribbean Islands and Brazil were very large markets due to labor intensive sugar sending majority of slaves there. Not until 1670s were Africans imported straight to North America. Royal African Company of England had monopoly on trade in mainland companies keeping prices high and supply low. In 1690s their monopoly was broken.

Population Increase & Decline in Mortality

First, new arriving colonies dealt with great hardship and much early death, but gradually conditions improved, leading to population growth. In New England and mid Atlantic colonies, reproduction rates increased in second half of seventh century. Population skyrocketed due to reproduction rate increase which was occurring due to exceptional longevity. Average survival age of 70-71. Contributing factors to this include cool disease free climate in middle and north, clean water, and no large population centers to spread epidemics. Worse rates in south though, In Chesapeake area, half died before 20, leaving large amount of widows and orphans, with disease still ravaging with salt contaminated water. When more women arrived in colonies, birth rates increased which produced roughly equal numbers of males and females, changing sex ratio.

Colonial Medicine & Midwifery

High death rates of women who bore children due to little understanding about infection and sterilization. Communities didn't know about bacteria, so they got diseases through dirty water/ garbage. Easy for people to get into medical field leading to female midwives who assisted in birth and recommended natural remedies. They were popular, so doctors felt threatened by them. Practiced medicine based on "humoralism" popularized by 2nd century Roman physician Galen, who thought there were 4 main humors, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood, and there was natural balance between humors, but when ill, an imbalance, so one humor would need to be removed. Many early Americans dealt with their own illness without physicians. In 17th century, people wouldn't do research, and medical field didn't really progress until enlightenment.

Early Colonial Women in the Chesapeake

High sex ratio in 17th century meant most women married at 20, which was earlier than England. High mortality rate meant male centered family where males had all power didn't work since families didn't stay intact for long. Among indentured servants, they were forbidden to marry until their terms were over, but many women would get pregnant during their terms and would get fines, whippings, added time to serve, and loss of children once weaned. Many Chesapeake marriages occurred while bride was pregnant if their term ended while pregnant or man could buy off time. Average wife became pregnant every 2 years and those who survived often bore 8 children with most not surviving infancy. Few women made it to see children grow up. In the south since women were scarce they had a lot of choice in who they married, and didn't usually have a father to control decisions. Women married younger than men, outliving their husbands. Widows were left with children, and farms or plantations giving them much economic power. Women would usually remarry and have to be peacemakers in families with many half siblings.

Education in the Colonial World

High value on education even before enlightenment, with some families trying to teach children how to read and write at home. In MA in 1647, a law required every town to support a public school, and even though many communities didn't do so, Quakers and other sects operated church schools. In some communities widows or unmarried women held dame schools with private classes in their homes. In cities, master craftsmen had evening schools for apprentices. At least 100 schools formed between 1723-1770. Only few kids got education beyond primary level, but white male Americans had high literacy rates. By American Revolution, over half of all white men could read and write, helping create a market for wisely circulated publications. Literacy rate of women lagged until 19th century, education for girls beyond primary school was almost non existent. Girls got home based education, while African slaves had no access to education. Occasionally, masters or mistresses would teach slave children to read and write, but strong social and legal sanctions formed to stop efforts to promote black literacy. Natives also stayed out of white education system educating their children their own way, though some missionaries built schools for Native Americans.

Patriarchal Puritan Families

High value on family which was main economic and religious unit within communities. Nearly absolute male authority with stereotypes of female weakness and inferiority. Women expected to be submissive with names like Prudence, Patience, Chastity, and Comfort. Wife expected to devote herself to husband and household.

Rapid Population Growth

Immigration and natural increase led to rapid population growth in colonies in 18th century. Non native population went from 250,000 in 1700 to over 2 million in 1775.

Changing Sources of Immigration, 1700s

In 1700s, flow of immigrants from England declined, but from other European countries it increased. French Calvinists known as Huguenots were the earliest non European immigrants. A royal proclamation (Edict of Nantes) in 1598 let them form a state within Roman Catholic France, but in 1685, French gov revoked edict, causing some to move to colonies in North America. German Protestants also suffered from religious policies, and the Rhineland of southwestern Germany suffered due to close proximity to France during wars with King Louis XIV. These Germans fled to England and some to New York, trying to live in Mohawk valley, but couldn't make it there and went to Pennsylvania, becoming known as the Pennsylvania Dutch. Germans also went to other places, like Quaker Colony and North Carolina.

Extents & Limits of Technology

In 17th & 18th centuries, colonies lacking certain basic tech. Many farmers didn't even have plows, and many houses had no water pots or kettles for cooking. Only half households had guns/ rifles. Many of these tools were difficult to make, and since many Americans were poor, they couldn't afford these products. Families couldn't afford candle molds or wax and early 18th century, few farmers had wagons.

The Southern Economy

In Chesapeake region, tobacco became basis of economy and strong European demand formed, causing planters to grow wealthy. Production often exceeded demand causing prices to drop though. In 1640, first major bust occurred, and boom and bust pattern continued, with growing more tobacco making it worse, but Chesapeake farmers didn't understand this. After 1700, tobacco plantations had dozens of slaves. In South Carolina and Georgia, rice was staple product. Building dams along tidal rivers, creating rice paddles that could be flooded and drained. Malaria swamps, beating sun, and many insects made task very difficult, causing African slaves to be main labor force. They had greater resistance to malaria and some had come from rice producing regions in Africa. In 1740s, indigo was also staple crop in South Carolina. Eliza Lucas, a young Antiguan woman experimented with the plant, finding it could grow on high ground on mainland where rice couldn't. Less of a commercial industrial economy unlike north, relying on cash crops with few smaller cities.

Social Mobility in the Colonies

In England land was scarce with large population and few people with land had power over majority who didn't. Imbalance between land and population founded English economy and class system, while in America land was abundant and people scarce. Aristocracies formed, but relied on control of a workforce and were less powerful than English wealthy. In America there were opportunities for social mobility, going up and down classes.

Patterns of Settlement in Puritan New England

In Puritan New England, there were towns. Each new settlement had a covenant with members, committing all residents socially and religiously, some settlements consisting of people who had emigrated to America. Colonists laid out a village with houses, a meeting house, a central pasture, and divided fields and woodlands. Size and location of a family's field was based on wealth and numbers.

Saugus Ironworks and Metalworks

In Saugus MA in 1640s after iron ore deposits had been found, iron tech had already begun advancing rapidly in England. Water power drove bellow, controlling heat in furnace. As ore melted, it trickles into molds, or was taken in form of sow bars to be shaped into tools like axes and pots. Saugus was very advanced, but a financial failure ending in 1668 due to financial issues. Metalworks slowly became important though, and ironworks of German iron-master Peter Hasenclever in Northern NJ became largest industrial enterprise in English North America. Founded in 1764, hundreds of workers many imported from ironworks in Germany were employed. In late 18th century Great Britain, there was explosive industrial growth due to Iron Act of 1750 restricting metal processing in colonies. In America, biggest obstacle was lack of labor, small market, and inadequate transportation facilities.

Vagaries of the Plantation Economy

In good years, growers could earn profit and expand, but since there was no control over markets when prices for crops fell like tobacco in 1660s, planters were in danger.

Stratified Southern Society

Landowners controlled the lives of those in their plantation as well as affecting the lives of small farmers who couldn't compete with planters and instead relied on them to market crops and receive credit. Small farmers with small plots of land and no slaves made up majority of southern agrarian population, but planters dominated economy. Most landowners lived in rough cabins with slaves nearby, nothing like aristocratic splendor.

Revival of Patriarchy, Early 1700s

Life expectancy was increasing, and indentured servitude was declining, and natural reproduction became biggest source of population increase. Sex ratio evening out and life became less dangerous. Women lost power their scarcity had given them and patterns of male authority revived. By mid 18th century, southern homes were very patriarchal.

18th Century Creation of Rigid Black and White Codes and Systems

Masters were forced contractually to free white workers while with blacks they could keep them as long as they wanted. Assumption formed that blacks would permanently stay in service. Also, by keeping black workers they could have their children work. White people assumed they were the superior race and excused slavery. In early 18th century slave codes were formed, limiting rights of blacks and ensuring absolute authority of masters. The only way to determine weather these codes applied was color, any African ancestry was enough.

Interest in Scientific Knowledge in the Colonies

Most early colleges had chairs in natural sciences and introduced scientific theories of Europe like Copernican astronomy and Newtonian physics. Merchants, planters, and theologians became corresponding members of Royal Society of London, a leading scientific organization. Ben Franklin won international fame for his 1752 experiment using a kite proving lighting and electricity were the same.

Economic Inequality/ Stratification in New England

New England had very unequal society where wealthy had privileges unavailable to poor. Elites called ladies and gentlemen while low class people called Goodman's and goodwives. Elites got beat church seats and has most influence over parish. Men had much more power than women, and servants had few rights. Church taught that God wanted inequality. In cities, economic stratification was significant in cities with wealthy being the largest group since they were more likely to move to cities and in agricultural countryside, less people accumulated much wealth.

Colleges of the Colonies

Of 6 colleges in 1763, all but 2 were founded for training preachers, yet influences of new scientific and rational approach to knowledge were present in colleges. Harvard was the first college established in 1636 by legislature of MA at the command of Puritan theologians who wanted a training center for ministers. John Harvard died and left his library and half of his estate to the college. In 1693, William and Mary College was established in Virginia by Anglicans to train clergyman. In 1701, conservative Congregationalists who didn't like religious liberalism of Harvard founded Yale in Connecticut. Due to Great Awakening, College of New Jersey was founded in 1746 later becoming known as Princeton, one of its first presidents being Jonathan Edwards. Despite religious basis, a secular education could be derived from curricula which included theology, logic, ethics, physics, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. Harvard attempted to educate ministry, but to advance learning. They tried to stop new scientific ideas like that of astronomy from being spread to larger public by publishing almanacs against it. King's College founded in NY in 1754 renamed Columbia later, spread secular knowledge even though founded by Anglican Trinity Church, it had no theological faculty and was interdenominational. Academy and College of Philadelphia becoming University of Pennsylvania was completely secular founded in 1755 by group of laymen inspired by Ben Franklin. It became site of first medical school in British America, which was founded in 1765.

Slave Society & Culture

On smaller farms, less rigid social separation between whites and blacks. By mid 18th century, 3/4 of blacks lived on plantations with at least 10 slaves with many in communities of 50+ slaves. Africans developer their own culture in America. They developed a family structure due to increased life expectancy, and sex ratio equalized with natural increase occurring. Tried to build families and households, growing their own food, but any family member could be sold, so Africans put emphasis on kinship networks and surrogate relatives if they were sent away. They also developed their own languages like in South Carolina, where early slaves would communicate using Gullah, a mix of English and African languages allowing conversation whites couldn't understand. Slave religion mixing Christianity and African folklore. House slaves lived in luxury, but were separated from community and black women were constantly raped bearing mulatto kids who were accepted by slave community. On some plantations Africans treated kindly, and others, brutally.

A Growing Slave Population

Once monopoly of Royal African Company of England was broken in 1690s, prices fell, and number of Africans being imported to North America increased. High ratio of African men to women decreasing natural population, but in Chesapeake more slaves were being born in Chesapeake than being imported, but in South Carolina, high death rates due to difficult conditions of rice cultivation caused African population to barely be able to sustain itself through natural increase. Between 1700-1760, Africans in the colonies rapidly increased with majority still in south, with white indentured servitude completely stopped.

smallpox inoculation

Puritan theologian Cotton Mather heard from his slave of practice of mildly infecting people with smallpox to immunize them. He learned inoculation experiments were being done in England, and not being a committed scientist, continued to believe disease was a punishment for sin, yet urged inoculation on Bostonians during epidemic in 1720s, with results confirming the technique. By mid 18th century, inoculation became common medical procedure in America.

Distinctions Among the Scots-Irish

Scottish Presbyterians who has settled in Northern Ireland in Province of Ulster in early 1600s had prospered for a time even though they struggled to suppress Catholic natives but in early 18th century, parliament stopped Ulterior from importing goods to England, and the English gov wanted Ulster to follow Anglican Church, so after 1710, many traveled to America, going to edges of European settlement, without a care about the natives, treating them badly. In 18th century, Scottish Highlanders some being Roman Catholics immigrated into many colonies but mainly North Carolina. Lowlanders with high rents in Scotland left for America before American Revolution joining New Jersey and Pennsylvania, establishing Presbyterianism as an important religion there. Catholic Irish immigrated steadily, many abandoning Roman Catholic religion.

Patterns of Religions in the Colonies

Settlers in America brought many different religious practices, making it hard to impose religious codes on any area and naturally making it more tolerant religiously in America. Church of England was established as official faith in Virginia, Maryland, NY, the Carolinas, and Georgia, but these laws were usually ignored and in 18th century, different congregations affiliated with different denominations. Protestants were tolerant towards each other, but not towards Roman Catholics. Protestants in America hated the pope and New Englanders thought Catholics in France and as rivals and dangerous agents of Rome. In most colonies, there were too few Catholics to cause conflict, most being in Maryland, where worst persecution was. After overthrowing of original proprietors in 1691, Catholics in Maryland lost political rights and had to hold religious services in private houses. There were less than 2000 Jews in Provincial America, most living in New York City with smaller groups in Newport and Charles Town. They couldn't vote or hold office and could only practice religion openly in Rhode Island.

Impact of Slavery on Plantation Family Life

Since plantations far from cities, they became self contained communities with residents living close together in clusters of buildings including the "great house" of the planter, the service buildings, barns, and slave cabins. Wealthy planters created full towns on their plantations with schools for white kids, chapels, and large population. Small planters lived more modestly, but still mostly self sufficiently, for example, around Charleston, South Carolina, planters divided time between the city and nearby plantations. Wives of plantation workers relied on servants to do household chores, spending more time with husbands and children. Often there were sexual affairs with white men and black slaves but white women pretended not to notice, but added resentment. Black women also resented these affairs.

Plantation Life in the South

Some plantations were huge like the Maryland plantation of Charles Carrollton with 40,000 acres and 285 slaves. But, many 17th Century plantations were small estates and in early Virginia, they were crude clearings where land owners and indentured servants worked together in such bad conditions death was a common everyday occurrence. Even later when death rate declined, there were usually less than 30 workers.

The Great Awakening

Starting in 1730s and climaxing in 1740s, the Great Awakening brought new emphasis on religion in colonies. This religious revival was favored by women and younger sons who stood to inherit least land. This revival taught people could break away from the past and start anew with God, which may have reflected peoples desires to break away from families and communities and start a new life. George Whitfield was a powerful preacher and associate of the Wesley's (who founded Methodism and visited Georgia and other colonies in 1730s) made several evangelizing tours through colonies drawing large crowds. New England Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards was also very important. He was a very orthodox Puritan and a theologian from Northampton MA. He formed new doctrines of easy salvation for all, preaching anew traditional Puritan ideas of absolute sovereignty of God, predestination, and salvation by God's grace alone, scaring people with vivid descriptions of hell. Great Awakening les to division of congregations into new light revivalists, and old light traditionalists. Some revivalists thought book learning hindered salvation and got rid of secular education, but other evangelists thought education furthered religion, and founded or led schools.

Undermining Traditional Authority

The enlightenment helped undermine power of traditional authority which the Great Awakening did as well. The enlightenment encouraged people to look to themselves for guidance on how to live their lives, enlightenment encouraged education and interest in politics and government. Most enlightenment figures didn't challenge religion and insisted rational thought would aid Christianity, but they challenged ideas that every element of society came directly from God. In early 17th century America, ideas were borrowed from Francis Bacon and John Locke and enlightenment thinkers from England and Scotland, but later Americans like Benjamin Franklin Thomas Jefferson made contributions to enlightenment traditions.

The Enlightenment

This was a product of scientific and intellectual discoveries in 17th Century Europe and natural laws were discovered which they believed regulated the workings of nature, and enlightenment thinkers celebrated power of human reason. They argued reason created progress and advanced knowledge, saying humans had a moral sense, allowing them to tell the difference between right and wrong without always turning to God for guidance in making decisions.

Emerging Merchant Class

Through this trade system, by mid 18th century, a group of entrepreneurs became a destination merchant class, living in port cities like Boston, NY, and Philadelphia. They had access to a market in England, but many products needed markets outside of England, so ignoring laws against trade with Non English, they traded with French, Spanish, and Dutch West Indies. These profits greatly helped colonies to import goods from Europe.

Puritan Governmental Structure

Towns ran own affairs with little interference from colonial gov. Towns had yearly meetings to decide important questions and choose selectmen who governed until next meeting. Only residents who could give evidence of grace, confident of salvation could be admitted to full membership. Residents who hadn't had "conversion experience" could help with church through halfway covenant.

1735 Trial of John Peter Zenger

Trial of NY publisher John Peter Zenger printed an attack on a public official and was powerfully defended by Andrew Hamilton and courts ruled that criticism of gov was allowed if factually true that made steps towards helping freedom of speech. Most colonists thought of law as an expression of power of an earthly sovereign.

Longevity in the Chesapeake

Worse rates in south with average life expectancy of late 30s to 40. In Chesapeake area, half died before 20, leaving large amount of widows and orphans, with disease still ravaging with salt contaminated water. When more women arrived in colonies, birth rates increased which produced roughly equal numbers of males and females, changing sex ratio.

The Salem Witch Trials, Late 17th Century

Young girls would exhibit strange behavior and accused many West Indian servants of witchcraft. They spread hysteria and before it was over, hundreds were accused of witchcraft. In Salem, accusations spread to prominent people, and 19 Salem residents were killed before the trials was over. Girls who were original accusers admitted they had made it up. Salem was one of many, with witchcraft accusations spreading throughout New England in early 1690s. Most of accused witches were widowed middle aged women with few or no children. Many had low social position, and had conflicts with neighbors who didn't like them. Others were wealthier women who had substantial land and property of their own challenging gender norms. Puritans has little tolerance for independent women, and that led to accusations. Witchcraft controversy reflected high religious emphasis in these societies, with New Englanders believing in Satans power.

Indentured Servitude

Young people would work for masters for 4-5 yrs in exchange for passage to America, food, and shelter. Many left servitude without anything, leaving them unequipped to live on their own. Men greatly outnumbered women in Chesapeake region in 17th century, meaning the women would marry when done working, but many men wouldn't be able to. Some came to colonies on purpose while in around 1617, English gov would send convicts, war prisoners, and poor to be sold into servitude. This system helped cope with labor shortages, and Chesapeake area had headright system as insensitive to bring indentured servants. A large population of young, single men done with sentences would travel restlessly to find work or land. In 1670s, decrease in English birth rate and increase in prosperity reduced pressure to emigrate, and after 1700, those who traveled to America as indentured servants avoided south where working conditions were bad and went to mid Atlantic colonies. People started to fear instability that indentured servitude created and increased emphasis on African slavery.