Chapter 4-5-6-7-8
A journalist is a person who fabricates stores and tries to present them as facts in order to mislead the public
Persuasive definition
Lexical definitions
is to state the conventional, dictionary meaning word
Identify a characteristic of vagueness
it given rise to unclear borderline cases.
In order to avoid getting lost when diagramming complex arguments, it is a good idea to start by _____.
locating the main coclusion
An argument's paraphrase should clarify the arguer's intent in ways that _____.
make the arguments less easy to attack
A good way of making a paraphrase or summary concise is by _____.
stripping away all the irrelevant or unimportant details
The Earth is not flat. Therefore, smoking in public places should be banned. This premise is _____ to its conclusion.
Logically irrelevant
Refute the following statement by citing one or more counterexamples.The United States consistently favors democratic rule and has never supported corrupt authoritarian regimes.
(In countries such as Guatemala, Iran, and Indonesia, the United States has supported, and in some cases installed, corrupt authoritarian governments.)
Refute the following statement by citing one or more counterexamples.It's always wrong to break a promise.
(Keeping promises is important, but other things, such as saving lives, may sometimes be more important.)
Refute the following claim by reducing it to absurdity:All generalizations are false.
(The statement "All generalizations are false" is itself a generalization, and hence false in its own terms. The statement refutes itself.)
While diagramming arguments, readers should avoid diagramming _____.
Redundant statements
stipulative definition
When a new word is invented or an existing word is applied in a new way.
Redundant statements should be omitted in argument diagrams because they _____.
merely clutter the argument
A premise provides independent support for a conclusion when it provides a(n) _____ for accepting the conclusion.
freestanding reason
The famous novelist Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World and other great works of fiction, held that near-sightedness can be corrected by eye exercise
inappropriate appeal to authority
Vagueness
indefiniteness, uncertainty, imprecision; not clear or specific Fuzzy, inexact boundaries. debatable borderline cased.
Jane's friend claims that her 80-year-old grandmother can run 10 miles in under 10 minutes. In this case, the credibility of the source is doubtful because the claim _____.
is highly improbable on its face
Headline: Doctor testifies in horse suit.
Ambiguity
Headline: Safety experts say school bus passengers should be belted.
Ambiguity
Headline: Teacher Strikes Idle Kids.
Ambiguity
Jim said Mac stopped at a fork in the road. I guess Mac must have a special interest in silverware.
Ambiguity
Sign: Dogs must be carried on escalator
Ambiguity
According to the principle of rational acceptance, it is generally reasonable to accept an unsupported claim if _____.
the claim comes from a credible source that we have no good reason to doubt
she can not bear children
Ambiguity
Adam drew the cards. This sentence is
Ambiguous
If a word or expression has two or more distinct meanings and the context does not make clear which meaning is intended
Ambiguous
Logical Fallacy
An argument that contains a mistake in reasoning Two types of fallacies Fallacies of relevance (Chapter 5) Fallacies of insufficient evidence (Chapter 6)
questionable cause 1
Fallacy is committed when one claims, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the cause of something else Post hoc fallacy: Assuming without adequate evidence that because one event, A, occurred before another event, B, A is the cause of B
Weak Analogy
Fallacy occurs when an arguer compares two (or more) things that aren't really comparable in relevant respects
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. My driving instructor, Mr. Peterson, told me that it's dangerous to drive without a seat belt. But why should I listen to him? Last week I saw him driving without a seat belt.
Look who's talking
Which of these factors can reduce the reliability of a person's observations? (Check all that apply.)
Poor physical conditions Unreliable measuring instruments Sensory impairment Failures of memory
Types of Relevance
Positive Relevance and Negative Relevance
The writer or speaker assigns an accurate meaning to a vague term so that the word's meaning is not left to the interpretation of the reader
Precising definition
Airline regulation: Overweight passengers must pay a 20% surcharge.
Vagueness
Dorm noise policy: Excessive noise is not permitted in the residence halls between the hours of 8-10
Vagueness
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Either you support preferential treatment for disadvantaged minorities in university admissions, or you are a racist. But surely you're not a racist. Therefore, you support preferential treatment for disadvantaged minorities in university admissions.
False alternatives
Student handbook policy on hate speech: The college will not tolerate actions or language that stigmatize or victimize......
Vagueness
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If we don't elect a Democrat the economy will go down the tubes and we don't want that! So we should elect a Democrat.
False alternatives
Overgenerality
Vagueness gets often confused with this. if the information is to broad and unspecific in a given context.
Professor: John, it's clear you did not study hard for this test. This was very straightforward exam, and you failed every section' John: But I did study hard! I spend over an hour last night studying for his exam
Verbal dispute
When the ambiguity of a key term has not been clarified people may disagree on an issue leading to a verbal dispute
Verbal dispute
Composition and Division 1
Fallacy of composition: Assuming, without good reason, that what is true of the parts is also true of the whole Example: Each of my monthly car payments is low. So the total price of the car will be low. Fallacy of division: Assuming, without good reason, that what is true of a whole is also true of its parts Example: This box is heavy, so everything in this box must be heavy
Claim: Black cats bring bad luck.
False Unreasonable
Claim: I fought in World War II. (said by a man who appears to be about forty-five years old)
False Unreasonable
Claim: Ninety-eight percent of statistics are just made up.
False Unreasonable
Claim: There is no hard scientific evidence that smoking is addictive. (said by a tobacco company executive)
False Unreasonable
A feature of stipulative definition is that they are
Very subjective in nature
When a key word is used in two or more senses in the same argument and the apparent success of the argument depends on the shift in meaning of that word, the fallacy of _____ is committed.
equivocation
Critical premises are the _____ of an argument.
essential supports
Claim: Analgex brand aspirin: Nothing works stronger or faster on your tough headaches. (said by a paid sports celebrity)
false
Creative
Extremely vague
Decagon
Hardly vague
Headline: Police: Crack found in Man's Buttocks. This is an example of
Semantic ambiguity
logical fallacy
a mistake in reasoning
According to the principle of rational acceptance, generally speaking, it is reasonable to accept a claim if ______. (Check all that apply.)
the claim does not conflict with background beliefs that we have no good reason to doubt the claim does not conflict with personal experiences that we have no good reason to doubt the claim comes from a reliable source
The credibility of a source should be doubted when _____.
the claim made by the source seems improbable
the claim comes from a credible source that we have no good reason to doubt
the conclusion does not follow properly from the premises
Refute the following statement by citing one or more counterexamples.The great majority of supermarket fruits are red.
(What about bananas, pears, limes, lemons, blueberries, kiwis, grapes, peaches, cantaloupes, etc.?)
Refute the following statement by citing one or more counterexamples.No student should ever have his or her cell phone on in class.
(What about if an urgent message is expected, e.g., regarding the birth of a child or a medical emergency?)
Vague word divides things in three classes
1. Those things to which the word clearly applies 2. those things to which it clearly does not apply 3. Those things to which it may or may not apply
persuasive definition
A definition that aims at persuading the listener one way or another toward the term being defined. To convince the reader or listener to agree with the writer or speaker.
Logical irrelevance
A statement is logically irrelevant to another statement if it counts neither for nor against that statement
positive relevance
A statement is positively relevant to the truth of another statement if and only if its truth would give some evidence or reason to support the truth of that other statement. That is, if the first statement were true, that would count in favor of the second one being true.
difference between vagueness and ambiguity
A vague word is imprecise because it has blurry boundaries and unclear borderline applications. Ambiguous word is imprecise became it is unclear which of two or more distinct meaning is the one intended by the author.
Difference between Vagueness and Ambiguity
A word can be vague even though it is not ambiguous, and an ambiguous term having more than one meaning wouldn't not be said to be vague if the different meanings it has are vey precise.
Identify the most important critical thinking standards in a good argument. (Check all that apply.)
Accuracy and Logical correctness
Which of the following are the most important questions to ask in assessing the logic of an argument?
All of the answers above are correct If the argument is deductive, does the conclusion follow necessarily from the premises? Are the premises relevant to the conclusion? Are the premises sufficient to support the conclusion?
As a member of Parliament, Anglo-Irish playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816) had been asked to apologize for insulting a fellow member of Parliament. "Mr. Speaker," replied Sheridan, "I said the honorable member was a liar it is true and I am sorry for it. The honorable member may place the punctuation where he pleases."
Ambiguity
Bob told Devlin he was hot.
Ambiguity
British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli had a standard acknowledgment for people who sent him unsolicited manuscripts for his opinion: "Thank you for the manuscript; I shall lose no time in reading it."
Ambiguity
He ate his cheesecake with relish
Ambiguity
Headline: Advice to Teachers and Parents on Drugs.
Ambiguity
Headline: Need Plain Clothes Security: Must Have Shoplifting Experience.
Ambiguity
Jana told her sister she was envious
Ambiguity
St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Dizzy Dean was famous for his strong arm and weak mind. In the 1934 World Series, Dean was pegged in the head while sliding into second base. A headline the next day read: "X-rays of Dean's Head Show Nothing."
Ambiguity
Store sign: Our bikinis are exciting. They are simply the tops
Ambiguity
With her enormous bottom exposed to the sky, Ellen watched Titanic slowly sink.
Ambiguity
Bandwagon Argument
An argument that plays on a person's desire to be popular, accepted, or valued Common form Everybody (or a selective group of people) believes or does X Therefore, you should believe or do X, too Not all appeals to popular beliefs or practices are fallacious
Analyze and present the following argument in standard format:My buddy keeps telling me I should save for retirement, but I tell him, "Look: I'm overweight. I smoke. Neither of my parents lived past sixty-five. Honestly, I'd rather enjoy my money now than save it for a nursing home I'll never need." (Enter Premise 1 to Blank 1, Premise 2 to Blank 2, etc.)
Analysis in standard format:Premise 1: I'm overweight.Premise 2: I smoke.Premise 3: Neither of my parents lived past sixty-five.Premise 4: I'll never need a nursing home.Conclusion: I do not need to save for retirement.
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. IRS agent: Mr. Peckinsniff, there is nothing in these documents that proves that you haven't been cheating on your taxes. Therefore, I must assume that you have been.
Appeal to ignorance
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Skeptics have tried for centuries to prove that reincarnation is a myth, and no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that reincarnation is a fact.
Appeal to ignorance
No one has proved that the lost continent of Atlantis doesn't exist. Therefore e the lost continent of Atlantis probably does exist.
Appeal to ignorance
An advertisement for a health club claims that the club offers state of the art facilities, qualified and experienced trainers, and an attractive package
Appeal to the reader's desires and needs
Ned argues that IT employees should be given the raise they were promised. But, of course, Ned thinks so because he works for IT.
Attaching the motive
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." Doctor Montgomery insists that all his patients have to visit him for follow-ups every three months. Of course he does. He charges exorbitant rates for each visit.
Attacking the motive
The error of criticizing a person's motive for offering a particular argument or claim, rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself is referred to as the fallacy of _____.
Attacking the motive
Identify the characteristics that a good argument should possess.
Being well-reasoned
Equivocation
Committed when a key word is used in two or more senses in the same argument
Weak Analogy 2
Common forms Pattern 1: A has characteristics w, x, y, and z. B has characteristics w, x, and y. Therefore, B probably has characteristic z too. Pattern 2: A is an x, and A is a y. B is an x, and B is a y. C is an x, and C is a y. D is an x. Therefore, D is probably a y too. Pattern 3: A is an x. This is like B is a y.
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." The Brazilian soccer team has three top, match-winning players. Therefore, the entire Brazilian team must be a top, match-winning team.
Composition
It is easy to analyze arguments that are less than a paragraph in length or shorter using _____.
Diagramming
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." The illiteracy rate in all developing countries is high. It follows that every person from a developing country must be illiterate.
Division
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." This purse is black. So, all the contents in this purse must be black."
Division
Which of these guidelines should be followed while evaluating arguments? (Check all that apply.)
Does the arguer commit any logical fallacies? Are the premises relevant to the conclusion? Are the premises true? Does the arguer express his or her points clearly and precisely? Is the reasoning correct?
An argument can be defeated by proving that one or more of its premises are _____.
Dubious
1. Washington D.C. is the capital of the U.S.2. The President of the U.S. is the commander-in-chief of the US Armed Forces.3. Gary Dustin is the President of the U.S.So, Gary Dustin is the commander-in-chief of the U.S. Armed Forces.In order to refute this argument, which of the following premises must be disproved?
Either the second or the third premise
Dudley said that whenever anything would go wrong at his last job, his boss would always say he was responsible. I guess Dudley must be a very responsible person. I'd better hire him
Equivocation
candidates for a job are rejected because they are unqualified. However, they are told that they are partially proficient
Euphemism
Indecent
Extremely vague
Linda thinks that eggs are healthy as they are rich in protein. Bob disagrees with her and says that eggs have low protein content and so are not healthy
Factual Dispute
A ----occurs when people disagree not over the meanings of words but over the relevant facts
Factual dispute
Belinda: Ty Cobb has the highest single season batting average Ned: Wrong as usual, sports fan. Rogers Hornsby hit 424 one year
Factual dispute
Mike: We better leave now. Coach said the game starts at 1 Lindo: We have plenty of time he said it starts at 4
Factual dispute
Inconsistency
Fallacy is committed when an arguer asserts inconsistent or contradictory claims
Straw Man
Fallacy is committed when an arguer distorts an opponent's argument or claim to make it weak (like a straw man) in turn making it easier to attack This "recasts" the plausible "anti-violent pornography" argument as a not-so-plausible "anti-free-speech" argument
Look who's talking
Fallacy is committed when an arguer rejects another person's argument or claim because that person fails to practice what he/she preaches. Arguments are good or bad because of their own intrinsic strengths or weaknesses and not because of who offers them
Begging the question
Fallacy is committed when an arguer states or assumes as a premise the very thing he or she is trying to prove as a conclusion
Slippery Slope 1
Fallacy is committed when one claims, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly harmless action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous outcome Many slippery-slope arguments leave out some or all of the intermediate steps that an arguer believes will occur Sometimes, there are good reasons for thinking that a very bad outcome may result from a seemingly harmless first step
Claim: Dunleavy Ford: Nobody sells for less. (heard on the radio)
False Unreasonable
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Either you're with us or you're against us. And if you're against us, then we will bomb you back to the Stone Age. So, you better be with us.
False alternatives
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." Coach Phil, giving a pep talk to his soccer team in the film Kicking and Screaming: You can win and go on to glory, or you can lose and probably face a series of cataclysmic events.
False alternatives
1. Sam is five years older than Greg.2. Greg is three years younger than Fred.3. Julie is 2 years younger than Greg.So, among Sam, Greg, Julie, and Fred, Sam is the eldest.Which of the premises are the critical premises in this argument?
First, second, and third
Exceptions to appeal to ignorance
Fruitless searches: Applies only when a careful search has been conducted, and it is likely that the search would have found something if there had been anything there to be found Example: We've searched this car from top to bottom looking for the stolen jewels, and no trace of them has been found. Therefore, probably the jewels aren't in the car. Cases in which special rules require that a claim be rejected as false unless a certain burden of proof is met Example: Innocent until proven guilty
hexagon
Hardly vague
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. On Tuesday I was passed by a reckless woman driver. On Thursday I was passed by a reckless woman driver. On Friday I was passed by a reckless woman driver. It's clear that most reckless drivers today are women.
Hasty generalization
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Rich Kowalski is a young, successful CEO of an Internet start-up company, and his parents come from Poland. Kelly Yablonski is a young, successful CEO of an Internet start-up company, and his parents come from Poland. Matt Golembeski is a young, successful CEO of an Internet start-up company, and his parents come from Poland. Miguel Gonzalez is also a young, successful CEO of an Internet start-up company. So, his parents probably come from Poland, too.
Hasty generalization
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Which sport is more popular: sailing or snow skiing? To find out we asked more than five hundred people on the streets of Miami, Florida. The result? Americans prefer sailing by a margin of more than 3 to 1.
Hasty generalization
It rains a lot in San Diego during the summer. I know because I spent two weekends in San Diego last summer, and both times it rained like cats and dogs.
Hasty generalization
Identify a true statement about the process of argument standardization.
Implied statements should be placed in parentheses.
Professor Gene Poole.....animal....medical....experiment
Inapporpirate appeal to authority
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. CSULA is a better university than CSULB. I've been assured of this by Dr. Bigelow Hype, dean of admissions at CSULA.
Inappropriate appeal to authority
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. The door-to-door cosmetics saleswoman claimed that the brand of lipstick she sold was the best. It had the maximum color pay off, stayed on the longest, and would never dry the lips.
Inappropriate appeal to authority
Fallacies of insufficient evidence
Inappropriate appeal to authority Appeal to ignorance False alternatives Loaded question Questionable cause Hasty generalization Slippery slope Weak analogy Inconsistency Composition and division
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. I never make mistakes. I used to think I did, but I was wrong.
Inconsistency
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Nobody goes to downtown Long Beach anymore. It is too crowded.
Inconsistency
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Sign in New Jersey parking lot: Free shuttle transportation to and from airport. Fuel surcharge of $4 per car.
Inconsistency
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." I'm prejudiced only if I hold irrational biases. But I don't hold any irrational biases. I just think this country's being overrun by Catholics and Jews.
Inconsistency
If the amount of support a premise provides to the conclusion is not weakened or destroyed by the removal of any other premise in the argument, the premise provides _____ support to the conclusion.
Independent
An example of a physical condition of the observer that reduces the reliability of his observations is _____.
Intoxication
While diagramming arguments, _____ statements should be avoided.
Irrelevant
Referential ambiguity
It is not clear which thing or group is being referred to.
Identify a general requirement of a good argument.
It should be fair
A definition in which terms are defined in the way they are generally used in the language is known as
Lexical definition
A doctor is a person who is skilled in the science of medicine and who is trained and licensed to treat sick and injured people
Lexical definition
No members of the Edwards Country Club are Raiders fans. 2. Rick is a member of the Edwards Country Club. 3. So, Rick isn't a Raiders fan. In this argument, the conclusion is supported by _____ premises.
Linked
A premise provides _____ for a conclusion when the amount of support it provides would be weakened or destroyed by the removal of some other premise in the argument.
Linked support
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. When will the American people finally realize that the Democrats are leading this country straight into socialism?
Loaded question
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." When are you going to stop cheating on exams? You can't stop? Then you must have been cheating.
Loaded question
If a premise does not provide the slightest reason for thinking that its conclusion is either true or false, it is said to be _____ to the conclusion.
Logically Irrelevant
My dad told me I need to study harder because I'm getting all D's. But what does he know? He got bad grades when he was in school. Why should I listen to him?
Look who talking
When an arguer rejects another person's argument or claim because that person fails to practice what he preaches, the arguer has committed the fallacy of _____.
Look who's talking
questionable cause 2
Mere correlation fallacy: Suggesting, without sufficient evidence, that because A and B regularly occur together, A must be the cause of B or vice versa Example: I ate eggs every morning this week, and every day I failed an exam. I should stop eating eggs so I can pass my exams. Oversimplified cause fallacy: Suggesting, without adequate evidence, that A is the sole cause of B when, in fact, there are several causes of B Example: SAT scores have been dropping. Clearly, kids have been watching too much TV.
Fallacy of relevance
Mistakes in reasoning that occur because the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion
Fallacies of insufficient relevance
Mistakes in reasoning that occur because the premises, though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence to support the conclusion
Baggage
Moderately vague
Furniture
Moderately vague
Annie is a six-month-old infant. So, she probably knows how to spell. This is an example of _____.
Negative Relevance
If a premise, assumed to be true, provides at least some reason for thinking that the conclusion is false, it is said to be _____ to the conclusion.
Negatively relevant
An extensive, diligent search of the zoo failed to find any trace of the missing gorilla. Therefore, the gorilla is probably isn't in the zoo. it must have scaped
No Fallacy
Billy I know you want to go to school today, but you have the flu and you should stay home. If you go to school
No Fallacy
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." I have searched my car carefully, and I haven't found my lost car keys there. It's reasonable to conclude, therefore, that my car keys aren't in the car.
No Fallacy
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." I know we're looking for 27 Oak St., but I have looked at every house on this block and none of them is number 27. We must be on the wrong street."
No fallacy
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. If no fallacy is committed, select "no fallacy." Malcolm Cox isn't qualified to be a kindergarten teacher. He's lazy and incompetent and has twice been convicted of child abuse.
No fallacy
loaded Question
Occurs when an arguer asks a question that contains an unfair or unwarranted presupposition such that either way you answer it, you will appear to endorse an assumption. (Ask for clarification. Do not answer such a question.) Usually multiple questions are rolled up into one. To respond to a loaded question effectively, one must distinguish the different questions being asked and respond to each individually
Appeal to Ignorance
Occurs when an arguer asserts that: A claim must be true because no one has proven it false A claim must be false because no one has proven it true
Inappropeiate Appeal to authority
Occurs when an arguer cites an authority who, there is good reason to believe, is unreliable When the source cited (example, a reference work, or an Internet source) is known to be generally unreliable When the source has not been cited correctly or the cited claim has been taken out of context When the source's claim conflicts with expert opinion When the issue is not one that can be settled by expert opinion When the claim is false or highly improbable on its face
Appeal to Pity
Occurs when an arguer inappropriately attempts to evoke feelings of pity or compassion from his listeners or readers
Hasty Generalization 1
Occurs when one draws a general conclusion from a sample that is biased or too small Not every argument that jumps to a conclusion is a hasty generalization
Bryan: what did you have for lunch today? Samantha: food. Samantha is being
Over general
Who was George Washington? Student: A man in this scenario, the student's answer is
Over general
Words are---- if the information they provide is too broad and specific in a given context
Over general
Rick: I'm really looking forward to seeing you in New York City on Saturday. Where do you want to meet? Ted: I'll meet you in Central Park.
Overgenarlity
Office: can you describe the bank robber Al: Sure he was between three feet tall and nine feet tall.
Overgeneral
Teacher: Johnny, what is seven plus fi ve? Johnny: More than two.
Overgeneral
Ellie: What's the High Temp supposed to be today? Ira: Somewhere between the annual mean of Pluto and Venus Ellie: Thanks a lot.
Overgenerality
Mother Joey, how were your grades this semester? Joey: I didn't make even one B
Overgenerality
Save up to 70%on select items throughout the store
Overgenerality
Teacher: Billy, do you know where Norway is? Billy: In the Northern hemisphere.
Overgenerality
On returning from church one day, President Coolidge was asked on what topic the minister had preached. After a moment's thought, he replied, "Sin." "And what did he say about the sin?" his interlocutor asked. "He was against it," Coolidge replied.
Overgenral
Richard Dawkins argues that evolution is true. But he's a godless atheist who can't be trusted. Therefore, his arguments for evolution must be faulty
Perosnal Attack
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. Jason: Did you hear Andrew's class presentation on senior-class rights and privileges?Kyle: Yeah, but I don't buy any of his arguments. He's just a rich snob who likes to hear himself talk.
Personal Attack
Fallacies of Relevance
Personal attack (Ad Hominem) Attacking the motive Look who's talking (Tu quoque) Two wrongs make a right Scare tactics Appeal to pity Bandwagon argument Straw man Red herring Equivocation Begging the question
Most teachers are health-conscious. Wendy is a teacher. So, she is probably health-conscious. This is an example of _____.
Positive relevance
NHTSA defines fatal collisions as "alcohol-related" if the driver passenger or non-motorists has a blood alcohol content of .01 percent
Precising definition
Analyze and present the following argument in standard format:Why should I go to college? It costs a fortune, it's boring, and I can get a high-paying job in trucking or construction without a college education. (Enter Premise 1 to Blank 1, Premise 2 to Blank 2, etc.)
Premise 1: It costs a fortune.Premise 2: It's boring.Premise 3: I can get a high-paying job in trucking or construction without a college education.Conclusion: I do not need to go to college.
Analyze and present the following argument in standard format:Tanning booths are great. They're available day or night and at any season of the year. You don't have to worry about getting burned, and you can get a great, even tan quick.
Premise 1: Tanning booths are available day or night and at any season of the year.Premise 2: You don't have to worry about getting burned.Premise 3: You can get a great, even tan quick.Conclusion: Tanning booths are great.
Identify the ways in which an argument can be refuted. (Check all that apply.)
Proving that a premise is false . Demonstrating that the conclusion does not follow from the premises
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. I can't believe I failed my chemistry test. I knew I should have worn my lucky sweatshirt to take the test.
Questionable cause
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. It is a proven scientific fact that video games are ... corrupting American youth. In a recent experiment, scientific researchers exposed a group of teen-aged boys to an arcade game, and found all of them had unclean thoughts. Of course, the researchers got the same result when they exposed the boys to coleslaw, an alpaca sweater, and "The McNeil-Lehrer News Hour" but that is beside the point. The point is that we should all write letters to our elected officials to urge them to ban video games.
Questionable cause
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Nasrudin was throwing handfuls of crumbs around his house. "What are you doing?" someone asked him. "Keeping the tigers away." But there are no tigers in these parts." "That's right. Effective, isn't it?"
Questionable cause
Immediately after the governor spoke at the outdoor rally, a bolt of lightning struck the City Hall, injuring several people. For the safety of all the residents of this city, it is imperative that the governor not be asked to speak here again
Questionable cause
Refer to your analysis above, refute the following argument by citing omitted countervailing evidence. If you think the argument is strong and can't be refuted, cite omitted countervailing evidence that weakens the argument.Why should I go to college? It costs a fortune, it's boring, and I can get a high-paying job in trucking or construction without a college education. Enter one by one your rebuttal to premise 1, premise 2, etc.
Rebuttal to Premise 1: It does not always cost a fortune. You may apply for scholarships. You may also attend a community college, which charges less tuition than a four-year college.Rebuttal to Premise 2: It's not always boring. You may take classes that interest you. You may also choose to participate in interesting extracurricular activities.Rebuttal to Premise 3: Jobs in trucking or construction are usually dangerous and labor-intensive. You probably do not want to stay in the industry when you are in your 50's or 60's.Rebuttal to Conclusion: You should go to college.
Refer to your analysis above, refute the following argument by citing omitted countervailing evidence. If you think the argument is strong and can't be refuted, cite omitted countervailing evidence that weakens the argument.Tanning booths are great. They're available day or night and at any season of the year. You don't have to worry about getting burned, and you can get a great, even tan quick. Enter one by one your rebuttal to premise 1, premise 2, etc.
Rebuttal to Premise 1: Not all tanning booths are available day or night and at any season of the year.Rebuttal to Premise 2: You do have to worry about getting burned. Tanning booths, like natural sunlight, emit ultraviolet radiation.Rebuttal to Premise 3: You may get a tan quick but the ultraviolet radiation may cause skin cancer and wrinkling.Rebuttal to Conclusion: Tanning booths are not great.
Refer to your analysis above, refute the following argument by citing omitted countervailing evidence. If you think the argument is strong and can't be refuted, cite omitted countervailing evidence that weakens the argument.My buddy keeps telling me I should save for retirement, but I tell him, "Look: I'm overweight. I smoke. Neither of my parents lived past sixty-five. Honestly, I'd rather enjoy my money now than save it for a nursing home I'll never need."
Rebuttal to Premise 1: You can lose weight.Rebuttal to Premise 2: You can quit smoking.Rebuttal to Premise 3: The fact that your parents did not live past sixty-five does not mean that you will not be able to live past sixty-five. Average life expectancy for U.S. residents has increased from age 60 in 1930 to age 78.8 today (according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).Rebuttal to Premise 4: There is a chance that you will live pass sixty-five. Thus, there is a good possibility you will need some retirement savings—and not just to pay for a nursing home.Rebuttal to Conclusion: You should save for retirement.Note: You may also mention that saving for retirement—particularly with widely available employer matching funds—need not cost an arm and a leg. In addition, in most cases unused retirement income can be passed on to one's heirs.
If a statement provides some reason for thinking that a second statement is true or false, the first statement is said to be _____ to the second.
Relevent
Ambiguities that result from uncertainty about the meaning of a single word or phrase is called
Semantic ambiguity
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. One of your readers suggested we should ban smoking [in public places] like California does. I'm from New York and New York State tried to do something similar, but think about this. You might be concerned with the filthy smoke that streams over to the nonsmoking section, but realize this: When your state starts to control your actions that's just the beginning, and soon everything else will be controlled. You might want to think about that. If you don't like places that allow smoking, try going somewhere that does not allow it.
Slippery slope
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Students have asked that we extend residence hall visitation hours by one hour on Friday and Saturday nights. This request will have to be denied. If we give students an extra visitation hour on weekends, next they'll be asking us to allow their boyfriends and girlfriends to stay over all night. Eventually, we'll have students shacking up in every room.
Slippery slope
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. We shouldn't let gays get married. If we do, before you know it, people will be marrying their brother sand sisters, animals, plants, multiple people, inanimate objects—it will be chaos. It will be a mockery of marriage. We can't let that happen.
Slippery slope
negative relevance
Statement that counts against another statement is said to be negatively relevant
A friend-in-law refers to a friend of one's spouse
Stipulative definition
When writers create a new word or use an old word in an entirely new way and explains what they meant they have created a
Stipulative definition
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. School superintendent Kate Duncan has argued that children in public schools should be allowed to participate in a voluntary moment of silence at the beginning of each school day. But it's wrong to allow teachers to indoctrinate children with their own religious views. Duncan's argument must be firmly rejected.
Straw man
When compared to shorter arguments, it is usually better to _____ lengthy arguments rather than diagram them.
Summarize
Ambiguities that result from faulty grammar or sentence structure are called
Syntactical ambiguity
Newspaper ad: Dog for sale. Eats anything and is especially fond of children. This is an example of
Syntactical ambiguity
Attacking the Motive
The error of criticizing a person's motivation for offering a particular argument or claim, rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself. Not all attacks on an arguer's motives are fallacious.
Red Herring
The fallacy is committed when an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising an irrelevant issue and then claims that the original issue has effectively been settled by the irrelevant diversion it is not a fallacy simply to change the subject or evade an issue
The fallacy of personal attack occurs only if an arguer rejects another person's argument or claim and attacks _____.
The individual offering the claim
Ambiguity
The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
Identify the reasons to doubt the credibility of a source. (Check all that apply.)
The source is not a genuine expert. The source has been cited incorrectly. The source is generally known to be unreliable or inaccurate. The source is speaking outside his or her area of expertise. The source is biased.
The test for emotive words is whether
The writer appears to be manipulating the audience's feeling
Identify the true statements about the premises in a well-reasoned argument. (Check all that apply.)
They should provide enough proof for justifying the conclusion. They must be relevant to the conclusion.
Scare Tactics
This fallacy is committed when an arguer threatens harm (physical or nonphysical) to a reader or listener if he or she does not accept the argument's conclusion Not all threats involve fallacies
Two wrongs make a right
This fallacy is committed when one tries to make a wrong action look right, by comparing it to another wrong (perhaps worse) action. There are times when an act that would otherwise be wrong can be justified by citing the wrongful actions of others
Personal Attack
This is a fallacy that dismisses an argument by attacking the person that made the argument, rather than the person's argument or claim
Lexi Ambiguity
This is a single word or term having more than one meaning in the language.
"Judith Thomson argues that abortion can be morally permissible. She is a well-respected bioethicist. So, abortion must be permissible sometimes." This statement illustrates the fallacy of inappropriate appeal to authority. Identify the most relevant reason for the fallacy.
This issue cannot be settled with expert opinion.
Weak Analogy 3
Three-step method to critically evaluate if an argument contains a weak analogy List all important similarities between the cases List all important dissimilarities between the cases Decide whether, on balance, the similarities are strong enough to support the conclusion
In compound sentences, when two logically distinct premises are separated by the word ''and,'' they should be _____.
Treated as linked premises
Claim: Tigers live in Africa.
True (reasonable)
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. Al: I can't believe it! My bank made a mistake on my account balance. There's an extra $3,000 in my checking account.Joe: Are you going to report the mistake?Al: Why should I? They've been ripping me off for years with their high ATM fees.
Two wrongs make a right
There's nothing wrong with paying for one movie and then sneaking in to see a second movie for free. What theaters charge for popcorn and soda is highway robbery
Two wrongs make a right
When an arguer tries to justify a wrong by citing another wrong, he is committing the fallacy of _____.
Two wrongs make a right
Yeah, I know that Bob cheated on his wife. But he didn't really do anything wrong because his wife cheated on him first
Two wrongs make a right
School dress code. Clothing that is suggestive, revealing or in poor taste is prohibited
Vague
Weather forecast: Cloudy with a chance of rain.
Vague
Tracy: sue is really religious. She reads her bible and prays everyday Mark: Sue is not religious. She never goes to church.
Verbal dispute.
Composition and division 2
Ways in which people commit the fallacy of division Assuming that what is true of a group as a whole, as a composite thing, must be true of every member of that group Example: This snowflake is white, so every atom in this snowflake must be white Assuming that what is true of a group considered collectively, as a class, is equally true of each individual member of the group or of some particular member of that group Example: Finns are highly literate. Therefore, Lasse, a 2-year-old Finnish child, must be literate.
Vague terms can be useful in everyday life
We do not have to be too precise.
Green tea is leafy, green aromatic, and tastes great as an iced or hot beverage. Mari
Weak analogy
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Methadone, what a crock. Just because you can't get high off of it doesn't mean it's not a narcotic. What all these addicts are doing is trading one narcotic for another. It's like having an alcoholic drink beer instead of whisky.
Weak analogy
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. This is about the person who is concerned about McDonald Corporation's treatment of pigs and chickens. What are the poor potatoes? They gouge out their eyes, they rip off their skin, and they throw them in boiling oil.
Weak analogy
Identify the fallacy of insufficient evidence in the following argument. Water is a clear liquid, and it's nonintoxicating. 7Up is a clear liquid, and it's nonintoxicating. Vodka is a clear liquid, so it's probably nonintoxicating, too
Weak analogy
Arrange the initial steps involved in diagramming short arguments in the order in which they should be carried out.
__3__The numbers are arranged on a page with premises placed above the conclusion(s).__2__The statements are numbered consecutively as they appear in the argument.__1__Premise or conclusion indicators are circles.
According to a famous and well-respected astronomer, the temperature of the Earth's inner core is approximately the same as the surface of the Sun. This claim is believable because it comes from _____.
a credible source
Ad Hominem
a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute. Personal attacks are not fallacious when they appear in arguments that are trying to establish something about the character of the person
1. Mindy did 3 crunches on Friday.2. Mindy did 5 crunches on Saturday.3. Mindy did 7 crunches on Sunday.Therefore, it logically follows that Mindy did 15 crunches in the three days.The critical premises in this argument are _____.
all the three premises
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. Bill Baxter deserves to be promoted to vice president. He has three small children, and just last week his wife was diagnosed with breast cancer.
appeal to pity
In the context of the fallacies of relevance committed by arguers, when an arguer inappropriately tries to arouse feelings of pity or compassion from his or her listeners or readers, the fallacy of _____ is said to have occurred.
appeal to pity
Frank: Ray Weston was never the President of the U.S.Patrick: What? Everyone knows that Ray Weston was the President of the US from 2001 to 2007.In this example, the premise is proved false by _____.
appealing to common knowledge
The relationship of independent support between the premises and the conclusion can be symbolized by drawing _____.
arrows from each of the premises to the conclusion
The vast network of conscious and unconscious convictions that is used as a framework to evaluate the credibility of claims that can't be verified directly is referred to as _____.
background beliefs
An argument that plays on a person's desire to be popular, accepted, or valued is called a _____ argument.
bandwagon
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. All the cool kids of the class are going to skip school for a week and go for a road trip. You should go with them.
bandwagon
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. Practicing bull fighting as a sport is crazy because engaging in such bloody games is insane.
begging the question
Ambi
both
Background beliefs should be taken into consideration in assessing the credibility of only those claims that _____.
cannot be verified directly
As opposed to the straw man fallacy, the red herring fallacy involves _____.
changing or evading the subject
A common form of begging the question involves _____.
circular reasoning
It can be shown that the premises do not provide adequate support for a conclusion by _____.
citing evidence, omitted by the arguer, that leads to a contrary conclusion
The purpose of an argument summary is to _____ by restating its main points as briefly and accurately as possible.
clarify an argument's structure
It's often necessary to translate (i.e., paraphrase) complex or confusing language into language that's easier to understand because one of the basic aims of argument summary is to _____.
clarify what an argument is saying
An arguer's claims are logically inconsistent if any of the claims _____.
contradict other claims made in the argument
The purpose of the straw man fallacy is to _____.
distort an opponent's argument to make it seem weaker than it is
''She's from Texas, so she's probably outdoorsy.'' This argument has an unstated premise—most people from Texas are outdoorsy—and it is an example of a(n) _____.
enthymeme
An argument with a missing premise or conclusion is called a(n) __________.
enthymeme
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. Billy said that a mouse is a rodent. I have a mouse attached to my computer. It must be a rodent. This argument commits the fallacy of _____.
equivocation
Claim: I read the entire Encyclopedia Britannica last summer. (said by a stranger at a party)
false
In the final step of diagramming short arguments, a _____ is created where arrows are used to indicate the relationship between the premises and conclusions.
flowchart
When it is impossible to know what unstated premise or conclusion an arguer had implicitly in mind, the principle of charity requires that the argument be interpreted as generously as possible. This means that the argument should be completed in a way that _____.
makes the argument as good an argument as it can be
In contrast to the red herring fallacy, the straw man fallacy always involves _____.
misrepresenting another person's argument or claim
Billy, I know you want to go to school today, but you have the flu and you should stay home. If you go to school, you might give the flue to some of your friends
no fallacy
verbal dispute
occurs when a vague or ambiguous term results in a linguistic misunderstanding
False Alternatives
occurs when only two options are provided, one of which is generally presented as the poor choice or one that should be avoided Can also involve more than two false choices A false choice can be expressed as an "if-then" statement as well
factual dispute
occurs when people disagree on a matter that involves facts
An argument has one false premise and other true premises that support the conclusion. It can be refuted by proving that _____.
one of the critical premises is false
Fruits are usually eaten raw. Meat is a fruit. Therefore, meat is usually eaten raw. This argument can be refuted because _____.
one premise can be proven false
To lay bare the essence of an argument, it is often necessary to _____.
paraphrase portions that can be stated more briefly than they are by the author
Richard Dawkins argues that evolution is true. But he's a godless atheist who can't be trusted. Therefore, his arguments for evolutions must be faulty.
personal attack
A way to demonstrate that a premise is dubious is to _____.
point out that it is based on an unwarranted assumption
The goal of an argument summary is to _____.
provide a synopsis of the argument that accurately restates the main points in a summarizer's own words
A premise is positively relevant to its conclusion only when it
provides some evidence for accepting the conclusion
Kids play too many video games. That's why there's so much juvenile crime today
questionable cause
An arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising an irrelevant issue and then claims that the original issue has effectively been settled by the irrelevant diversion. In this case, the arguer has committed the _____ fallacy.
red herring
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. You often hear people say that the French are rude, especially to people who don't speak their language. But France is a wonderful country! The wine, the food, the museums! There's no country in Europe I'd rather visit.
red herring
Imagine this dialog between two friends:Timothy: Vigorous exercise is essential. It is the only way of ensuring a long life.Daisy (sarcastically): So, I suppose that tortoises must exercise for hours on end?In this case, Daisy has refuted Timothy's argument by using the technique of _____.
reducing to the absurd
Attempting to show that a general claim is false by producing one or more examples or exceptions that demonstrate that the claim is false is known as _____.
refutation by counterexample
Suppose the following dialog takes place between two friends:Harold: All Hollywood actors are American actors.Louis: That's ridiculous! Colin Grant and Justin Stephen are Australian actors.In this case, the technique used by Louis to defeat Harold's claim is known as _____.
refutation by counterexample
Proving that the premises do not provide convincing reasons to accept the conclusion is referred to as _____ the argument.
refuting
In contrast to reducing to the absurd, the technique of refutation by counterexample uses _____ to prove that a premise is false.
representative samples
A paraphrase is accurate if it _____.
reproduces the author's meaning without bias
Identify the fallacy of relevance committed by the following argument. Child to playmate: Admit it! Admit that Scooby-Doo is a better cartoon showthan Pokémon ! If you don't, my big brother is going to beat you up!
scare tactics
The fallacy of ______ is committed when an arguer threatens harm to a reader or listener if he or she does not accept the arguer's conclusion, and when the threat is irrelevant to the truth of the arguer's conclusion.
scare tactics
precising definition
seeks to make more precise what was previously vague or fuzzy
Lola is a human being. Lola is one of three sisters. So, Lola is a female. To refute this argument, only the second premise needs to be rejected. This is an example of _____.
selective targeting
Picking out those premises that are essential to an argument's success and attempting to refute as many as necessary to knock out the conclusion's support is known as _____.
selective targeting
Arguments, by definition, consist entirely of _____.
sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false
An argument in which each step in the argument is numbered consecutively, premises are stated above the conclusions they are claimed to support, and justifications are provided for each conclusion in the argument is said to be in _____.
standard logical form
The method of summarizing longer arguments by restating an argument in standard logical form is known as __________.
standardization
Sam, Jamie's perpetually-drunk neighbor, claims that he saw an elf in his cupboard last night. The credibility of the source is doubtful in this case because _____.
the accuracy of Sam's observations is questionable
Showing that one of the premises is false is not always enough to refute an argument because _____.
the other true premises support the conclusion
It is often possible to interpret a passage in more than one way. In such cases, the principle of charity requires that _____.
the passage be interpreted as charitably as the evidence reasonably permits
"Opponents of capital punishment have argued that the death penalty is unfair and discriminatory. But it's ridiculous to suggest that cold-blooded murders should not have to pay for their crimes. How is that fair to the victims or their families?" The following above commits fallacy of straw man, it means that _____.
the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion
The British Prime Minister lives at 10 Downing Street. Jack Forrest is the Prime Minister of the UK. So, Jack Forrest lives at 10, Downing Street. This argument can be refuted because _____.
the second premise is false
1. Brandon is a thirty-year-old man.2. Brandon was wearing a black shirt and black jeans last night.3. The knife used to stab Gina has Brandon's fingerprints on it.So, Brandon must have stabbed Gina.In order to defeat this argument, the _____ premise(s) must be proved to be false.
third
Claim: Parts of Alaska are farther west than Hawaii. (said by your geography instructor)
true
Claim: The closest star to the earth, other than the sun, is Proxima Centauri. (said by your astronomy instructor)
true reasonable
The relationships of linked support are symbolized by _____.
underlining the linked premises and putting a plus sign between them
Men are fitter than women. If this claim is presented by itself and not fortified by any argument, it will be known as a(n) _____ claim.
unsupported
No one objects to a lawyer looking up a legal case during a trial. Why then should students be permitted to lookup an answer during an exam?
weak analogy
Semantic Ambiguity
when a word or phrase carries more than one meaning in a particular context
syntactic ambiguity
when the structure or grammar of a sentence renders the meaning of a word or phrase uncertain
A premise provides linked support for the conclusion when it _____.
works conjointly with another premise to support the conclusion.
Refute the following claim by reducing it to absurdity:This ball is both red all over and blue all over.
(To say that an object is "red all over" is to say that its entire surface is red with no admixture of another color. Hence, it is self-contradictory to assert that an object is red all over and blue all over, at the same time.)
