Chapter 5 Ant

Upper palaeolithic(rarely use outside of europe) refer to

culture and people who replaced Neandertals in europe beginning about 40,000 years ago

39. Which of the following scenarios or findings could NOT an example of past peoples' ideologies, as understood within the archaeological record? a. A skeleton found buried with a ritual object/artifact. b. Overlaying images painted by hand in a cave. c. A stone figurine shaped like a woman. d. A midden full of lithic flakes and other materials.

d. A midden full of lithic flakes and other materials.

9. What evidence of intentional fire use have archaeologists found in Upper Paleolithic sites? a. Rocks that show repeated striking (enabling sparks) .b. Sticks used in friction to heat and burn other flammable materials. c. Stones arranged in a traditional fire hearth placement. d. Rock art depicting flames and fires.

Answer: a Feedback: Evidence of fire comes from a variety of sources, including remnants of the fire itself, such as charred wood or ash, as well as things that have been heated, including bone, stone, and clay.See page 102.

36. Which is the correct order of the following weapons, listed chronologically oldest to youngest, in the archaeological record? a. Acheulean handax, spears, atlatl b. Atlatl, Acheulean handax, spears c. Spears, Atlatl, Acheulean handax d. Atlatl, spears, Acheulean handax

a. Acheulean handax, spears, atlatl

until 10,000

human groups were fairly mobile

habitation site

inference that people were living at the site, at least on temporary basis

Evidence of group were

mostly egalitarian by fairly equitable distribution of resources within habitation site

Problem for archaeologists include determining whether the remnants of fire they observe are

natural or cultural

Palaeolithic means

old stone ages

archaeologists are interested in ecofacts for two main reason

palaeoenvironments diet

middle palaeolithic is equated with

people and cultures associated with archaic homo sapiens, homo heidelbergensis, and neandertals

lower palaeolithic describe

people and cultures associated with homo habilis and homo erectus(lumper view)

ecofact

plant and animal remains

Acheulean

tool associated with homo erectus and bifacial(flake taken of both side)

Some anthropologists believe human started controlling fire almost

two million years ago

Ideology is difficult to study in the archaeological record because a. archaeologists prefer to work with skeletal remains. b. it is nearly impossible to receive grant funding to study ideological aspects of early culture. c. it is an intangible thing reliant upon archaeologists' interpretations. d. out of all the early human groups, only modern Homo sapiens were advanced enough to engage with ideologies

.Answer: c Feedback: Art, religion, and anything intangible stemming from ideology requires some kind of physical remains (such as burial rites, cave art, etc.); these things are therefore even more susceptible to interpretation biases.

The majority of archaeological sites concerning early humans have been found a. in Europe, due to overrepresentation and Eurocentric attitudes within the discipline. b. in Africa, since this is the birthplace of modern human life and culture. c. in Asia, when people began expanding and leaving traces of their migration. d. in North America, because most archaeologists are from this continent.

Answer: a Feedback: The archaeological discipline was developed in Europe, and Eurocentric attitudes and interests meant that other areas around the world have not received as much attention as they should.See page 96.

In Paleolithic times, most people likely a. lived exclusively in caves (as evidenced by the art left behind and the protection from animals they received). b. did not live in caves (they were cold, dangerous, and away from resources like water). c. temporarily lived in caves for one to two seasons (as evidenced by the art left behind and the lack of tools discovered in cave middens). d. avoided caves entirely (cave art comes from a different time period).

Answer: b Feedback: Caves were not generally used for dwellings, and artifacts/art found there are better preserved (leading to high archaeological visibility and bias).See page 107.

The presence of bones at a site a. definitely means that those animals were eaten by the humans at that site. b. could be evidence of meat gathering strategies by humans, or could be naturally occurring remains of scavengers and other fauna of the time. c. means that those animals were naturally occurring around that site and did not interact with the people there. d. automatically classifies a site as a base camp.

Answer: b Feedback: It all depends on the context of the bones, which means definitive conclusions are not possible. One of the big problems archaeologists grapple with is how to tell the difference between bones from food animals and bones from animals that simply lived around the area.See page 97.

If you found a site that had clear evidence of butchering and remains from people living there an extended amount of time, it would likely be categorized as a a. base camp. b. resource processing site. c. habitation site. d. fire hearth.

Answer: c Feedback: A site where people lived for any amount of time is a habitation site.See page 93.

7. The time period, region, and one example of people from the Upper Paleolithic period is: a. 300,000 to 40,000 years ago; Africa, West Asia, Europe; Neandertals b. 2.5 million to 300,000 years ago; Africa, Asia, Europe; Homo erectu sc. 40,000 to 15,000 years ago; mostly Europe; Homo sapiens d. prior to 2.5 million years ago; Africa; Australopithecus afarensis

Answer: c Feedback: The Upper Paleolithic is rarely used outside of Europe, and primarily refers to the culture and peoples who replaced Neandertals in Europe beginning about 40,000 years ago.See page 96.

Unlike other animals, humans could expand into new territories because a. bipedalism is the only locomotive method that allows long distance migrations. b. they were able to take advantage of a very specific and narrow window of time/weather that occurred. c. they were able to use the night stars as a map/guide. d. they were not dependent on biology for survival.

Answer: d Feedback: Cultural advancements enabled expansion, including fire use, clothing, social communication, and more.See page 108.

8. Which of the following would have been a likely hunting scenario for early humans? a. An individual using an atlatl to fell a mammoth. b. Women designing traps for caribou. c. Hunting deer with a bow and arrow. d. A group of people chasing a bison for days until it was too exhausted to run anymore..

Answer: d Feedback: Mammoths are too large a prey to be felled by a single person and an atlatl, bows and arrows were not invented yet, and men likely did most of the hunting (and there is no evidence of such traps). Chasing animals until they were exhausted is a known strategy.See page 100

10. Assume there are no fish bones found at a site you are excavating. You can conclude a. fish were never eaten or used by the people at this site. b. the excavation was improperly completed, since the site is near a river and you expected to find fish. c. any possible fish remains must have been eaten by scavengers. d. that there are a number of possibilities; for example, fish may have still been eaten since the bones could be very old, relatively fragile, or simply not found yet.

Answer: d Feedback: The absence of something from the archaeological record does not mean it never existed. It is hard to draw concrete conclusions from low-visibility artifacts.

32. It is difficult to determine exactly when people started controlling fire because a. even evidence such as charred bones could be explained through natural fires and scavenging. b. the nature of fire means that all evidence of it is burned away, leaving nothing in the archaeological record. c. there are two main competing theories (one suggesting fire use 5 million years ago, another suggesting 1 million years ago) that each have their own sets of evidence. d. early humans purposefully hid all evidence of fire use.

a. even evidence such as charred bones could be explained through natural fires and scavenging. page 101 paragraph 3

35. A difference between Oldowan and Acheulean tools is a. how they were made: Oldowan are unifacial (flakes taken from one side), whereas Acheulean are bifacial (flakes taken from both sides). b. their respective time periods: Acheulean tools were the precursors to Oldowan tools, being used millions of years earlier. c. how they were used: Oldowan were used for large mammals (like mammoths) while Acheulean were used for small mammals (like deer). d. who made them: men are known to have made Acheulean tools for their hunting purposes, while women made Oldowan tools for tasks associated with gathering.

a. how they were made: Oldowan are unifacial (flakes taken from one side), whereas Acheulean are bifacial (flakes taken from both sides). page 103 paragraph 2 and 4

23. Coprolites are a. preserved feces. b. a type stone used to make tools. c. a form of rock art. d. the charred remains of a structure after a fire.

a. preserved feces. page 98 box 5.1 paragraph 5

16. The majority of archaeological sites have been found in Europe. This is because a. the archaeological discipline was developed in Europe, and Eurocentric attitudes and interests meant that other areas around the world have not received as much attention as they should. b. the majority of sites where prehistoric peoples lived exist in Europe, so it makes sense that they would be more often found and excavated there. c. only European-trained archaeologists have sufficient skillsets to excavate archaeological sites, and many of them complete excavations close to home. d. Europe has less strict policies regarding prehistoric assemblages and remains; it is therefore the preferred destination for archaeologists worldwide.

a. the archaeological discipline was developed in Europe, and Eurocentric attitudes and interests meant that other areas around the world have not received as much attention as they should. page 26 (not sure)

18. If you found an atlatl in a site, it would likely belong a. to the Upper Paleolithic time period. b. to the Middle Paleolithic time period. c. to the Lower Paleolithic time period. d. sometime between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic time periods.

a. to the Upper Paleolithic time period. page 97 table 5.2

25. Some of the earliest appearances of bones and tools (indicating butchering and eating meat) are a. up to 2.5 million years old and are usually associated with Homo habilis. b. up to 1 million years old and are usually associated with Homo erectus. c. up to 500,000 years old and are usually associated with Homo erectus. d. up to 50,000 years old and are usually associated with Homo heidelbergensis.

a. up to 2.5 million years old and are usually associated with Homo habilis. page 97 paragraph 2

17. The time period, region, and one example of people from the Lower Paleolithic period is: a. 300,000 to 40,000 years ago; Africa, West Asia, Europe; Neandertals b. 2.5 million to 300,000 years ago; Africa, Asia, Europe; Homo erectus c. 40,000 to 15,000 years ago; mostly Europe; Homo sapiens d. prior to 2.5 million years ago; Africa; Australopithecus afarensis

b. 2.5 million to 300,000 years ago; Africa, Asia, Europe; Homo erectus page 96 table 5.1

28. Which of the following would not have likely been a hunting scenario for early humans? a. Several people coordinated in bringing down a mastodon. b. An individual using an atlatl to fell a mammoth. c. Thrusting a spear into a caribou. d. A group of people chasing an antelope for days until it was too exhausted to run anymore.

b. An individual using an atlatl to fell a mammoth. page 100 paragraph 1 it would be very dangerous before the invention of throwing spears.

19. In order to reconstruct the diets of people living in prehistoric times, a. archaeologists work in collaboration with dieticians to make inferences about past diets based on contemporary populations. b. archaeologists can use plant and animal remains, human skeletal remains, and many other aspects of the fossil record. c. one would need a time machine, because it is a well-known fact that is it virtually impossible to accurately reconstruct prehistoric diets (food does not preserve well in the archaeological record). d. one needs to find perfectly preserved food remains, which, although possible, remains quite rare.

b. archaeologists can use plant and animal remains, human skeletal remains, and many other aspects of the fossil record. page 97 paragraph 1

26. The meat-gathering strategies of early humans a. were not complex and only consisted of opportunistically scavenging dead animals. b. could have included scavenging dead animals and/or purposefully hunting, but they are not definitively known. c. are known to have only been comprised of simplistic hunting methods such as chasing animals until they were exhausted. d. did not exist, as carbon isotope analysis has proven that only modern humans ate meat.

b. could have included scavenging dead animals and/or purposefully hunting, but they are not definitively known. page 100

20. When examining plant and animal remains in relation to prehistoric diets, archaeologists must be able to a. have extremely well-preserved specimens of each in order to draw any conclusions. b. distinguish between naturally occurring plants or animal life and the remains that people actually ate. c. compare the remains with the contemporary flora and fauna of the region. d. identify which plants were eaten by animals.

b. distinguish between naturally occurring plants or animal life and the remains that people actually ate. page 98 box 5.1 plant and animal remains in good cultural context

15. The idea that cave art, ceramic technology, and spear throwers originated in prehistoric Europe is a. impossible, since humans first evolved in Africa. b. possible, but a Eurocentric focus has skewed the archaeological record. c. proof that Neandertals were more evolved than humans. d. the result of European archaeologists being the best trained in the world.

b. possible, but a Eurocentric focus has skewed the archaeological record. page 69 paragraph 1(not sure)

21. If you found unblemished fox bones near a site, you might infer a. that foxes constituted a critical aspect of the site's inhabitants' diet. b. that foxes were part of the natural environment around the site, but there is no proof they were part of the site's inhabitants' diet. c. that foxes were kept by the inhabitants as pets and buried ceremoniously. d. that foxes were used as bait by the inhabitants to lure and trap larger animals.

b. that foxes were part of the natural environment around the site, but there is no proof they were part of the site's inhabitants' diet. page 98 box 5.1 bones show no evidence of butchery with a tool.

29. Because of exogamous practices, it is extremely unlikely that early groups of people a. would exceed more than 30 individuals in number. b. were isolated - instead, they interacted with neighboring bands. c. were in contact with each other - rather, they preferred to remain as isolated as possible. d. would exceed more than 70 individuals in number.

b. were isolated - instead, they interacted with neighboring bands. page 100 paragraph 2

13. Which of the following is not an example of an archaeologist trying to contextualize possible bias? a. Understanding that the past environment looked very different from today. b. Understanding that just because ceramics were found at a site, this does not mean that organic matter was not also important. c. Finding a large midden and concluding that its inhabitants were a destructive culture. d. Finding a very old site and concluding that its lack of artifacts does not mean there was a lack of physical culture.

c. Finding a large midden and concluding that its inhabitants were a destructive culture. (not sure) page 95 paragraph 5

37. An atlatl is essentially an extension of what body part? a. The leg. b. The eyes (vision-related). c. The arm. d. The thumb.

c. The arm. page 103 paragraph 6

22. Carbon isotopes are used to a. date the age of the site and/or remains. b. determine the date range of petroglyphs and rock art. c. analyze bones or teeth for clues into dietary habits, such as meat eating. d. strengthen the integrity of tools (such as the Acheulean handax).

c. analyze bones or teeth for clues into dietary habits, such as meat eating. page 98 box 5.1 paragraph 4

27. What evolutionary advantage of humans led to the ability of "persistence hunting"? a. Brachiation. b. Larger brains. c. Opposable thumbs. d. Bipedalism.

d. Bipedalism. page 100 paragraph 1

33. Which of the following is not a consequence of controlling fire? a. Expansion into new territories (a result of the ability to have heat in cold regions). b. Social interactions and protection against animals (a result of light). c. Ceramic production, including strengthened materials (a result of technological abilities provided by fire). d. Disease and negative health effects (e.g., caused by smoke inhalation, etc.).

d. Disease and negative health effects (e.g., caused by smoke inhalation, etc.). page 101 paragraph 4

30. Which of the following is not true regarding a division of labor among early humans? a. Males were likely the primary hunters; females were likely the primary gatherers (it would have been difficult to hunt when pregnant or caring for children). b. A division of labor likely created a need for a home base for the group. c. The gatherers' job of collecting plant food often served more significant for overall dietary needs than the meat brought back by the hunters. d. Males, being the likely hunters, were considered more important and considered superior to females.

d. Males, being the likely hunters, were considered more important and considered superior to females.

24. What is a disadvantage when researching coprolites? a. They are so rare that many researchers end up vying to use the same sample for their own research. b. There is not much more that can be learned about these tools. c. As an ideology, it is difficult to research abstract notions in the physical archaeological record. d. When reconstituting such remains, the unpleasant smell of feces often returns.

d. When reconstituting such remains, the unpleasant smell of feces often returns. page 98 box 5.1 paragraph 6

38. The purpose of the Paleolithic Venus figurines is a. as erotica, as they are known to have been created as a kind of "prehistoric Barbie doll." b. to protect the dead (which is why they are always found in burials). c. as a calendar, since they assisted with tracking the skies/stars/planetary movements. d. assumed to be sexual, but is likely a form of art (whether for rituals, social alliances, self-portraits, or other reasons).

d. assumed to be sexual, but is likely a form of art (whether for rituals, social alliances, self-portraits, or other reasons).

31. Humans have likely been using fire for a. at the latest, 100,000 years, and at the earliest, almost 500,000 years. b. at the latest, 10,000 years, and at the earliest, almost 1 million years. c. at the latest, 700,000 years, and at the earliest, almost 5 million years. d. at the latest, 40,000 years, and at the earliest, almost 2 million years.

d. at the latest, 40,000 years, and at the earliest, almost 2 million years. page 103 paragraph 3

12. When something is absent from the archaeological record, a. it means that the excavation was improperly conducted. b. your site is considered incomplete (not comprehensive) and you cannot make any theories or hypotheses about its inhabitants. c. it means that it never existed. d. it may be intangible, very old, relatively fragile, or simply not found yet.

d. it may be intangible, very old, relatively fragile, or simply not found yet.

less visible evidence are due to going further back in time

1. old site tend to be cover up 2.organic remains being preserved decreasess 3.fewer number of humans there were to leave physical evidence 4. fewer the kinds of physical evidence of culture there were

Acheulean hand ax appear in the archaeological recored about

1.7 million years ago

First evidence of atlatl appears in europe about

30,000 year ago

1.analogy with nonhuman primates and human foragers of recent and contemporary times

Group size 25 to 35 Membership would been fluid exogamous(upon mating age member would find partners from outside the group) no group lived in isolation due to exgamy people from bands interacted with other bands division of labor based on sex

Major kinds of remain that archaeologist use to reconstruct a diet

Plant and animal remains in cultural context human skeletal remains coprolites human soft tissue residue on artifacts

7. Which of the following would most likely be considered an archaeological feature? a. Remnants of a house structure. b. Animal remains. c. Petroglyphs. d. Charred wood.

a. Remnants of a house structure. page 93 paragraph 6

most important achievement in the development of human culture was the

ability to control fire.

lithic scatter

accumulation of wast flakes created and left behind from making of lithic(stone) tools

Resource processing sites

an areas where the physical remains indicated people were haresting resource or processing them. Or describe areas where poeple obtaining raw materials

artifact

any objects that has been manufactured or modified, or that show evidence of being used by people

Major kinds of archaeologists include material remains investigated by archaeologists

archaeological sites artifacts features ecofacts cultural landscapes

Oldowan

associated with homo habilis and made from a cobblestone with a to several flakes (unifacial tool)

Which of the following would most likely not be considered an artifact? a. Utilized flakes. b. A fire hearth. c. A modified human bone. d. Some ceramic fragments.

b. A fire hearth. fire hearth is a feature page 93 paragraph 6.

Major archaeological site in the time before 20,000

base camp habitation site pictographs resource processing sites

due to ecofact such as plants are less likely to be preserved then arcaeologists must be

careful to recognize the mias when make inference about dite.

The spread of human during the palaeolithci was clearly enhanced by

culture

Upper Paleolithic

culture and peoples who replaced neandertals in europe beginings about 40,000(rearely used outside of europe)

9. Which kind of information would you not expect to find if you were researching a site's paleoenvironment? a. Weather, climate (clothing, housing). b. Diets (pottery, faunal remains). c. Animal populations (clothing, faunal remains). d. Lithic sources (quarries, flakes).

d. Lithic sources (quarries, flakes).

midden

discrete accumulations of trash

Lower Palaeolithic cultural Developments

forms of stone tools and technology oldowan developed control fire base camps and division labor subsistence strategy: hunting and meat eating

nonortable item created by humans

hearths lithic scatters middens shleter/house structures

A diet rich in meat will have

high level of copper and zinc

cooking about 1.8 million associated with

homo erectus

cooking allow for

increased energetic efficiency

low archaeological visibility

it is difficult to identify archaeologicall because it archaeologist tend to focus on tangible aspect of culture

Bipedalism allow to cover

large distance and have higher endurance.

the Scavenging hypothesis has

little evidence such as extract of marrow but is disputed by show that nonhuman primate that eat meat hunt rather than scavenge

coprolites

preserved human feces and excellent way of determining diet.

earliest member of the genus Homo depend on

primarily on plants food but incorporated more meat in their diet than australopithecine ancestors

Cave art or rock art often link

religion and ritual

pictographs

rock art that are paintings on immovable rock surfaces, such as boulders, cliff faces,or cave wall.

petroglyphs

rock art which ae engraving made on rock surface.

atlatl

spear thrower that extend the arms to throw shorter spears(darts) with better distance, accuracy and velocity

persistence hunting

that small group of people would simply chase a selected animal until the animal die from exhaustion.

Difference in level of sophistication of lithic technology is based

the average amount of cutting edge produced from a single pound of stone

archaeological record

the basic facts about the past, based on the physical remains of human activity

Significance of meat and the adoption of hunting strategies clearly increased with

the emergence of homo erectus

Stratification likely started in

upper palaeolithic

The drive force of increased hunting strategies could be

using fire for cooking but is controversial

Upper Palaeolithic cultural developments

Advance in technology. undisputed evidence of deliberate human burials and art invention of atlatl(spear thower)

feature

a base camp with artifacts and ecofacts in specific pattern

hearth

a discrete campfire size fire site

11. Which of the following would be considered to have low "archaeological visibility"? a. Early human behavior. b. Tool production. c. Architecture. d. Subsistence strategies.

a. Early human behavior. page 94 paragraph 1 archaeological tend to focus on the tangible

10. Which of the following would you be least likely to find at a site? a. Flower petals, because plants do not preserve well. b. Bear bones, because people used the entire animal and left nothing to find. c. A handax, because people gathered and disposed of stone tools away from camp. d. Post moulds from a house, because once a structure is torn down or falls apart, it is nearly impossible to find evidence of it.

a. Flower petals, because plants do not preserve well. page 94 paragraph 3.

If you found a site including pictographs and petroglyphs, you would likely be a. in or near a cave. b. near a taboo area that people were supposed to avoid. c. examining a domestic structure. d. in an area where raw stone materials were collected.

a. in or near a cave. page 93 paragraph 3

Most archaeologists agree that the evidence of widespread control of fire by

about 40,000 years

earliest undisputed evidence of art dates

about 40,000 years about

Middle palaeolithic cultural developments

advances in lithic technology and finely crafted spears deliberate burials, art, jewelry(debatable) peoples extended territories in northern latitudes

faunal remains

animal remains such as part of an animal, including bone, teeth, shell, hide, hair, fur, nails,claws and internal soft tissue

1. Which of the following is not an area encompassed by the term "archaeological record"? a. The actual physical remains of human activities. b. Contemporary structures based on past designs. c. All records associated with archaeological investigations (maps, photographs, etc.) d. Basic facts about the past based on physical remains.

b. Contemporary structures based on past designs

4. What kinds of contemporary locations would be most parallel to a past "habitation site"? a. Restaurants and/or convenient stores. b. Hotels and/or apartments. c. Malls and/or general stores. d. Pubs and/or town halls.

b. Hotels and/or apartments. page 93 paragraph 2

2. In the archaeological record, physical remains of human activity a. are a secondary source of information, less important than ethnographic data. b. are a primary source of information, but not the only one (other kinds of sources include artifacts, cultural landscapes, ecofacts, etc.). c. are the only relevant source of information. d. do not include skeletal materials.

b. are a primary source of information, but not the only one (other kinds of sources include artifacts, cultural landscapes, ecofacts, etc.). page 92 2nd paragaraph

homo habilis are usually associated with

bones and tools

ant remains in archaeological sites are

botanical remains floral remains and include seeds, nuts pollen, phytolith and wood

8. What kind of things might you expect to find if you excavated a twenty-first-century midden? a. A couch, coffee table, and television. b. A stove, pots and pans, and dishes. c. Broken objects, empty containers, and food scraps. d. Farming implements, seeds, and a watering can.

c. Broken objects, empty containers, and food scraps. page 93 paragraph 6

Artifact commonly refer to as venus figurines are often

categorized as art and associated with eurpean upper palaeolithic

3. If you found a site that is categorized as a base camp, you could expect its archaeological record to include which of the following? a. Monumental stone architecture (since they would need to easily relocate the camp). b. A spiritual focus area for religious practices. c. Evidence of farming or husbandry. d. Lithic tool and bone fragments (since they were used for butchering).

d. Lithic tool and bone fragments (since they were used for butchering).page 93 paragraph 2

increased meat eating about 2.5 million associated with

homo habilis

Archaeologist recognize that there is a very strong bias towards

inorganic materials, such as stone and ceramic artifacts due to being alb epreserve better than inorganic materials

base camps

presence of artifacts, eofas and feature

Inference about the number and organization of people living during the Palaeolithic is base on

1.analogy with nonhuman primates and human foragers of recent and contemporary times 2. archaeological evidence

The ability to control fire allow for

1.enable more kinds of food to be eaten and increased the nutritional value of some 2. provide light, increased the practice of light 3.provide heat, enable expansion into territories 4. give protection to animal 5.provide focus for social interactions 6. enable advance in technology

Upper Palaeolithic level of sophistication

120 inches of cutting edge per pound

homo(habilis/rudolfenise level of sophistication

2 inches of cutting edge per pound

Lower palaeolithic antiquity and region

2.5 million-500,000 years ago and Africa, Asia, europe

some archaeolgists only accept that it was modren homo sapiens that began burying their dead about

30,000 years

Middle Palaeolithic level of sophistication

40 inches of cutting edge per pound

Rock art appeard in the archaeological records about

40,000

Upper Palaeolithic antiquity and region

40,000 -12,000 years ago and Mostly europe

First undisputed throwing spears dated to

400,000 year ago and associated with hom heidelbergensis in germany.

Middle Palaeolithic antiquity and region

500,000-40,000 years ago and Africa,West Africa, Europe

Homo erecuts level of sophistication

8 inches of cutting edge per pound