Chapter 5
decline of Mauryan Empire
*economic crisis follows death of Ashoka *high costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue *frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries *regions begin to abandon Mauryan empire -disappears by 185 B.C.E. despite Ashoka's achievements, dynasty fell apart 50 years after his death in 232 BCE no leader that followed showed same talent for governance nor ability to control expanding government over time, army became ineffective and government officials became idle people lost confidence in government into power vacuum, 2 invading empires from northwest: Bactria and Kushan empire attempted to rule subcontinent succeeded from around 180 BCE to 180 CE both empires stretched from central Asia into northern India
Confucianism and family
largely because of Confucianism, family became most important unit in Chinese society status of man's family, not wealth or accomplishments, determined his place in society family typically included mother and father, their sons and sons wives, and any unmarried daughters all family members lived in same house and shared household duties father was head of household - older he was, more respect and authority he had fathers arranged children's and grandchildren's marriages upper-class fathers decided on sons education and careers all fell under concept of filial piety women had few rights and weren't usually educated - were expected to remain subservient to men and boys, regardless of age mothers and mothers-in-law were greatly respected, married daughters tended to be treated like servants in the husband's households
scientific and mathematics achievements
like Ashoka, Gupta's helped improve health care in empire - built free hospitals and encouraged advances in medicine Indian physicians pioneered surgical procedures to set broken bones and transplant skin grafts - performed 1st inoculations (infecting person with mild form of disease for immunity) doctors in southwest Asia and Europe eventually adapted these and other Indian medical practices other advances shaped modern world: Indian mathematics developed numerical symbols 0-9 used today they're called Arabic numerals cause they were introduced into Europe by Arabs, who'd learned about them through trade with India
governing the empire
like Mauryan rulers, Gupta's divided their empire into provinces in some cases, they kept former kings as provincial rulers other provinces were ruled by Gupta princes - all of these officials were responsible to emperor in Gupta capital city, Pataliputra city became intellectual and cultural center of empire
dalits
lowest rung in hierarchy people outside of all varnas once called untouchables performed most unpleasant work in society: disposing dead bodies cleaning sewer systems work was so dirty that touching them would supposedly pollute members of castes
Han dynasty
(202 BC - 220 AD) dynasty started by Lui Bang; a great and long-lasting rule, it discarded the harsh policies of the Qin dynasty and adopted Confucian principles; Han rulers chose officials who passed the civil service exams rather than birth; it was a time of prosperity Han Wudi (141-87 BCE) was Han's most significant emperor oversaw vast expansion of empire, as China invaded and took over Korea and northern Vietnam sent Chinese forces into central Asia, almost all the way west to Bactria, to defeat nomadic Xiongnu peoples, who'd been raiding Chinese villages for years to maintain control of new western lands, Wudi relocated landless Chinese farmers into Central Asia to establish agricultural colonies
Confucius
(551-479 BCE) A Chinese philosopher known also as Kong Fuzi and created one of the most influential philosophies in Chinese history. born during Zhou decline historians have sorted through stories of his early life and reached conclusion: probably born into poverty, might've had many different jobs as part of Chinese bureaucracy, while developing his own thoughts about individual's relationship to state falling-out with local powers in home state led him to travel across China, speaking to people and gaining disciples as he went his ideas became foundation for belief system Confucianism after he died, his disciples compiled his teaching, and probably added some of their own thoughts, in complex work called Analects (selected saying)
Mauryan government
350 B.C. - 150 B.C. able to unite Northern India using military force and economic benefits. Buddhism spreads rapidly because of the conversion of Ashoka. empire divided into segments called provinces each province had capital city and ruled by prince who governed as representative of emperor each prince assisted by council of ministers, while another council advised emperor provinces divided into districts governed by minister each minister in charge of districts bureaucrats, whose jobs ranged from maintaining public health to regulating trade local officials usually hired from among people of each district army kept peace in empire and large spy system kept government informed of any unrest brewing high costs of government paid by heavy taxes on landowners and value of crops that farmers raised
social organization: the caste system
Aryan people who began to settle in the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE developed a very well-defined social hierarchy to identify groups, Aryans originally used word varna - "color" to distinguish themselves (who had "wheat-colored complexions") and darker-skinned Dravidians intermarriage between 2 groups slowly erased skin tone distinctions Portuguese traders began traveling to India in 16th century and used own word casta - "class" to describe what they saw based on that word, system of social hierarchy in India became known as the caste system
Gupta religion
as in other classical cultures, religion was dominant force in India - particularly noticeable in education, art, and literature Hindu children from upper castes studies Vedas and other great works of literature in school entire universities were devoted to study of specific subjects: government, astronomy, math, art painting and architecture 1 of most ancient universities in world was Nalanda, located in northeastern India in Sarnath (northern central India) Buddhist scholars established university devoted to study of Buddhist teachings with strong support from Gupta government, painting, sculpture, and literature flourished unified practice of religion was not important, like religion is - both Mauryan and Gupta allowed religious freedom with Gupta's support, Hinduism spread to become India's main religion, which it remains today
legalism
Chinese philosophy developed by Hanfeizi; taught that humans are naturally evil and therefore need to be ruled by harsh laws sharp contrast to Confucianism and Daoism philosophy less concerned with questions of meaning of life, and more with how people behaved since human nature was understood to be essentially bad, legalists believed that society needed system of strict laws and punishments to control people - cause most citizens, according to Legalism, should live lives as either farmers or soldiers, education was not considered especially necessary legalists argue that society should discourage people from becoming teachers, merchants, poets, or artists another tenet of Legalism was collective responsibility of family or community for every member 1 should observe's ones relatives and neighbors and turn them into authorities if they break law led by 2 philosophers, Han Fei Zu and Li Si - ideas struck chord with many people during often-violent Qin Dynasty after dynasty ended and following dynasty brought greater stability, Legalism faded failed to have long-term impact of either Confucianism or Daoism
daoism
Chinese religion that believes the world is always changing and is devoid of absolute morality or meaning. They accept the world as they find it, avoid futile struggles, and deviate as little as possible from 'the way' or 'path' of nature. also spelled Taoism dates back to late 500s BCE, at time of Zhou dynasty origins shrouded in mystery, but its founder is usually said to be Laozi (the old master) had many disciples who collected his teachings (like Confucius) followers gathered ideas together in Dao De Jing (the classic way and the virtue) followers seek happiness and wisdom by way of path, or dao to follow dao is to renounce worldly ambitions and society and instead seek harmony with nature key symbol of daoist philosophy is Yin and Yang - 2 sides come together in harmony: Yin (humanity's submissive and feminine side) and Yang (humanity's aggressive and masculine side) - goal is to keep 2 sides in balance Daoism appealed to China's peasants cause of their connection to natural forces and land - ideas had wide influence in China medical doctors focused on restoring natural balance among forces in person's body poet's wrote bout nature and human involvement with it scholars tried to understand natural properties of metals and how 1 might be transformed into another architects attempted to create structures that integrated well with their natural surroundings
paper, calendar, and farming
Chinese science and technology prospered under Han rule Chinese invented paper around 100 CE, calculated a year was 365.25 days, improved iron plow and developed yoke that didn't put pressure on animal's windpipe, which made farming more productive
filial piety
In Confucian thought, one of the virtues to be cultivated, a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors. duty of family members to subordinate their needs and desires to those of the male head of the family, or its ruler
Gupta dynasty
Indian Empire (320 CE-550 CE) known for re-establishing Hinduism and for achievements in math and science. second (and last) major Indian dynasty of classical era was Gupta though size of empire was smaller than Mauryan, Gupta era (began 3rd or 4th century CE and ended mid 6th century CE) was golden age for India during peak of dynasty's power, trade increased with foreign merchants - perhaps, because their predecessors - Kushans - had come from foreign lands to west, dynasty had extensive contact with European merchants as fair west as Rome India thus became an important destination on the silk roads
disease, inequality, and unrest
Pax Sinica didn't last - 1 problem for late Han dynasty was spread of diseases, which came to China along Silk roads with movement of traders and other migrants smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague were most destructive of these epidemic diseases, which reduced population of China by as much as 1/4 another problem was economic - many small farmers lost land to large landowners to satisfy their debts, so inequality increased 1 non-Han emperor Wang Mang (ruled 9-23 CE) attempted to redistribute land from large landowners to landless peasants - this land reform wasn't well received, creating more unrest and leading to his replacement by a member of the Han family 126 CE - peasants began what became a series of revolts, which further weakened Han rule subsequent Han emperors also failed to address land distribution problem and associated famines - inspired more peasant uprisings, most notably the Yellow Turban Rebellion - so named cause of the scarves worn by peasants involved - death toll probably reached several million, making it 1 of the bloodiest conflicts in world before 1900s dynasty came to end when emperor was overthrown in 220 CE and China was divided into 3 kingdoms
Qin dynasty of China
Qin Shihuangdi unified China over his rule, brought new government and prosperity From 221 BCE to 210 BCE Army of 300,00 guarding the empire Led to creation of Terra-Cotta soldiers instability of zhou ended when in 221 BCE, ambitious leader Qin Shihuangdi raised his own army and defeated what remained of zhou leaders 1 by 1, also conquered nearby regional authorities, taking control of all of China and establishing own dynasty, Qin (or Ch'in) dynasty which was brief, lasting only til 207 BCE - memorable - in part due to cruelty of its leader not content to just be king, title claim by Qin, Shihuangdi, means "first emperor" - created very centralized state with all of the government under his personal control in particular, abolished local laws and appointed magistrates to replace local leaders books that weren't in keeping with Qin's own beliefs were burned, and 100's of scholars burned alive anyone who resisted authority could be executed or sent into exile many dissenters were sent north, to work on building network of walls to keep out invaders - workers who died while building these walls buried within walls themeslves 100's of 1000's conscripted to construct northern walls and to toil on other infrasctructure projects
spread of Buddhism
contacts increased with China, cause of silk road trades and cause many Chinese were curious to learn about Buddhism monasticism has spread through south Asia, encouraging intense study of religion Buddhist shrines became popular pilgrimage locations for followers Chinese missionaries visited Buddhist sites as early as 5th century CE, thus paving way for Buddhism to spread in China Buddhism ended up gaining many more followers in east Asia and southeast Asia than in south Asia
new religions emerge in India
individual, reflection, and meditation became focal points of 2 new religions, Jainism and Buddhism, which emerged in northern India during late 6th century and 5th century BCE
Mauryan Empire
The first state to unify most of the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 324 B.C.E. and survived until 184 B.C.E. From its capital at Pataliputra in the Ganges Valley it grew wealthy from taxes. spiritually and social organization stand out most out of all continuities in Indian histories, strong political centralization doesn't - rarely has entire south Asian region been unified under 1 government : Persian armies invaded Indus Valley from west and made it a part of their empire about 520 BCE almost 200 years later, Alexander the Great (Greek ruler) defeated Persians and took over empire 327 BCE - led his army into Indus Valley and added it to conquests Alexander left India 2 years later after his troops mutinied however, 2 dynasties managed to wield centralized authority over most of subcontinents at times: Mauryans and Guptas Mauryan dynasty emerged 4th century BCE kingdom of Magadha had grown in prominence, for there were no other comparable competitors in Northern India under a conquer Chandragupta Maurya, kingdom began consolidating and seizing control of additional territory 3rd century BCE (at its height) empire established centralized government through most of subcontinent with exception of land south of Deccan Platteau (central India), all of India and Pakistan (modern-day) were under Mauryan control
central government
Wudi supported Confucianism and expanded efficient, centralized government started by Qin 1 of his most important accomplishments was introduction of civil service examination - people were hired based on their test-taking abilities instead of their personal or family connections cause at 1st not many young men were qualified for government positions, Wudi created a national university to prepare them for employment combination of exams and university began China's tradition of having a well-trained and highly respected bureaucracy to administer government policies - China prospered for many years as a result period during and following Wudi's rule is sometimes referred to as Pax Sinica, Chinese peace during it, country enjoyed peace, economy grew and population increased as common people prospered, so did rich, who created thriving market for luxury goods
Jainism
a religion founded in India in the sixth century BC, whose members believe that everything in the universe has a soul and therefore shouldn't be harmed. Mahavira founded this religion. founded by Mahavir Jain, born in 500's BCE Jainism drew on ideas 1st experienced in Upanishads (traditional Hindu texts) Upanishads states that all creatures on Earth were part of larger soul, Brahma Mahavir reasoned that because each living creature was part of Brahma and thus possesses godly soul, individuals should show mercy to all animals followers took steps to do no harm: strict vegetarian diets wore masks to avoid swallowing insects only a few engaged in farming cause it involved killing pets as a result of demanding lifestyle, Jainism gained few followers ethical standards, including its doctrine of ahimsa (nonviolence) influenced later generations: Mahatma Gandhi's steadfast commitment to nonviolence stemmed from belief in ahimsa today, followers make up small % of India's religious population, but many Hindu's identify it ethics within their own beliefs
Ashoka's achievements
became well known after this point as effective governor, instead of conqueror established efficient tax-collecting system which provided steady revenue stream for government based in capital city Pataliputra (today known as Patna), near Ganges tax revenue allowed government to build roads that connected commercial centers, which encouraged trade and travel within vast empire 1 long road connected cities in northeast with cities in northwest ended slavery and required servants be treated fairly 1 of most famous actions was to inscribe administration's policies and philosophies on rocks and pillars throughout kingdom like Hammurabi's code, Rock and Pillar Edict kept public informed of law - united empire under central power instead of making war on neighboring regions, he promote peace through diplomacy by sending out ambassadors and Buddhist monasteries some ambassadors traveled as far as Greece and Egypt 1 result of foreign policy was increase in foreign trade taxes on trade within empire provided additional income for government
the 4 castes
caste identities formed around occupations and social roles held in ancient India, forming a distinct social hierarchy, leading to 4 basic castes: brahmins: people of priestly class kshatriyas: warrior class vaishyas: merchants and artisans shudras: peasants and serfs
evolution of caste system
caste system expanded to include groups that formed around new occupations and groups of people that migrated into subcontinent over hundreds of years 100's of jatis (sub-casts) developed within original castes to accommodate complex society India long ago outlawed discrimination against dalits, or any caste, however signs of caste system are still present: last name can reveal person's social position or their families ancestral occupation in rural areas, dalits still carry out least hygienic work among educated urban elite, some people still consider caste when considering marriage choices
Ashoka Maurya
communicated his policies through his realm through inscribing his edicts on stone; unified India through conquest; established a capital city and SAFE trade routes; built roads to facilitate trade and communication; Highly-developed bureaucracy; centralized government; decline when he died ruled 268-232 BCE, often called Ashoka the Great Chandragupta's grandson; undoubtedly most celebrated of all Mauryan rulers in beginning of career, he was ferocious warrior brought large regions of east-central India under Mauryan control attack on eastern Indian kingdom Kalinga was especially brutal, with as many as 100,000 killed on each side as he gained dominion over this and other lands, military experiences he had affected him spiritually destructive battles against Kalinga prompted him to reconsider his responsibility for causing many deaths after campaign, converted to Buddhism and ended violent ways became strong advocate for Buddhism, building monasteries and sending missionaries to far-flung regions of empire, even to neighboring kingdoms: Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Bactria (kingdom west of Indus River established by Alexander's Greek descendants Ashoka's support of Buddhism encouraged his subjects to convert, another factor for Buddhism's popularity surge
achievements of Qin dynasty
despite his despotism, Qin did much to change China in ways that won him praise -expanded size of Chinese empire, mostly to south and west -gave peasants right to own land -standardized Chinese script, which had developed many local variations during Shang, therby making communications and trade easier -standardized coinage as well as weights and measures - these steps greatly aided commerce -ordered building of canals and roads, which improved trade Qin's most remarkable legacy wasn't discovered until 1974 when his tomb was unearthed inside tomb, which was untouched for 2000 years, was more than 7000 life-sized soldiers made out of Terra-cotta - an army for afterlife each solider unique, demonstrating level of realism that hadn't been seen in Chinese art to this point in 210 BCE, Qin died and son took throne - however, 4 years later, in 206 BCE, Qin general led revolt - rebels killed emperor and entire royal family and rebel general seized power he and his family began Han dynasty, which lasted for more than 400 years
trade in goods and ideas
despite invasions and foreign control, India became important trading crossroads during period silk and other goods from China passed overland through northern India to Mediterranean Indian merchants obtained spices and gemstones from kingdoms in southeast Asia traded these items, + Indian textiles and other merchandise, with Romans and other people along Mediterranean along with overland routes, goods carried in ships from ports along India's west coast to port on Red sea and along Persian gulf - from there, traders went overland to Egypt or Mediterranean these Indian ocean sea lanes connected Indian ports with east Africa and Indonesia Mauryan's had regular trading relations with Romans conquest and trade brought new cultures and ideas into India: Indian art styles influenced by Greek and Roman art statues called Gandhara Buddhas uniquely combined Greek and Roman artistic traditions with native Indian art
the teachings of Confucius
during this turbulent time in China's history, ideas of Confucius appealed to many people cause he argued for respecting social hierarchies and traditions "good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son" (Lunyu 12.11) focused on behavior in everyday life, not on beliefs about any deity: taught the importance of family, respect for elder's and reverence for ancestors believed that conducting proper rituals would lead to social harmony believed in Golden Rule - "do unto others as you would have them do unto you" - a tenet important in many other moral and philosophical traditions including Christianity and Judaism preached humility and importance of virtue, which he defined as treating others properly applied this principle to China's government and kings teachings of Confucius affected Chinese beliefs and values more than any other philosophy and continue to be important in 21st century China
gender roles
epic poems taught gender role lessons in Ramayana, female protagonist, Sita follows husband Ram dutifully as he is unfairly exiled to forest for 14 years even during long separation from husband, Sita is obedient and faithful wife Sita's unselfishness and devotion provided model for how wives should subordinate themselves to their husbands inequality in gender relations, while common in religions throughout Classical period, remained prominent feature of India's social history even in Modern Era: only men could become monks; women weren't typically educated Ramayana and Mahabharata remain widely read among Hindu's today are still part of India's cultural fabric
duty in Hinduism
in same era of Jainism and Buddhism development, late 6th century and 5th century BCE, Hinduism was spreading epic poems: Mahabharata and Ramayana transmitted orally, which made them widely accessible in era when few could read poems communicated Vedic lessons through epic tales of heroism, romance, and adventure: quotation from Mahabharata instructs Arjuna to fulfill his caste duties without worrying about the fruits of his actions on earth message sent to listeners: don't worry about meditating or practicing asceticism in quest for eternal peace performing one's dharma should be goal if one wants to end birth/rebirth cycle
decline of Gupta dynasty
regionalism forms 1 of south Asia's historical continuities as a result of subcontinent's ethic diversity and vast number of languages, any administrative power had to make deliberate efforts to unify country though Gupta's presided over economically vibrant dynasty, were unable to organize a highly centralized bureaucracy unlike Ashoka, who traveled constantly within empire to keep close watch over its affairs, Gupta emperors took hands-off approach to governing - led to growing disunity among far-flung regions of empire invasions by nomads from northwest, white Huns, brought final downfall of dynasty begun to shrink by end of 5th century, when white Huns conquered northern India by 500, these Huns had taken over western India, which destroyed Gupta empire's trade with Rome 550 CE, Gupta became last of the great Eurasian empires of the 1st century CE to collapse
silk roads and capital cities
silk production increased greatly under Han - cause Chinese silk was of such high quality, silk, and silk garments could be sold as far away as Roman empire, Mesopotamia, Persia, and India routes connecting China and these other lands became known as Silk roads - would eventually bring Buddhism into China from India at east end of Silk roads lay Chang'an, capital and cultural center of empire protected by wall, this city of traders and bureaucrats featured beautiful parks, fine homes, and a few places civil unrest in Chang'an caused government to move capital to Luoyang in eastern China
ascetic
someone who rejects worldly pleasures and lives a life of self-denial
3 great philosophical traditions
while India was rarely united by central government, China often was during declining centuries of Zhou, China suffered instability period - most Chinese followed simple animistic belief in natural objects and forces and veneration of souls of dead animism coupled with shamanism, in which a shaman, or spirit guide, meditated connection between everyday world and spirit world - over time, 3 significant schools of thought evolved: Confucianism, daoism, and legalism
Buddhism
the teaching of Buddha that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct and wisdom and meditation releases one from desire and suffering and rebirth during Jain's lifetime, young kshatriya sought a different path toward salvation, Siddhartha Gautama was unfulfilled with life he led among pampered young elite in about 530 BCE, became aware that suffering plagued human race, and he set out on a quest to discover why he left his family and became ascetic legend says, as he meditated for days underneath a bodhi tree, he came to several realizations that he called enlightenment after, Gautama called himself Buddha - "the enlightened one" and his disciples came to be known as Buddhists Buddhist doctrines are summarized in the Four Noble Truths: 1. all life involves great suffering 2. all suffering stems from desires for worldly pleasures and material things 3. suffering can end when 1 eliminates all of one's earthly pleasures 4. desire can be eliminated by following Buddhism's 8 fold path path requires individual to meditate, reflect, and refrain from pursuit of earthly pleasures goal is to over time detach oneself from worldly affairs which leads to enlightenment, which leads to peaceful state in afterlife known as nirvana reaching nirvana would mean ending cycle of birth and rebirth and pain that goes with it
comparing Indian spiritual traditions
while Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism all built on belief in inward reflection and hope to end reincarnation cycle, only Hindu's believed that caste has anything to do with karma Buddhists and Jains rejected rigid social hierarchy of caste system believed it was inconsistent with ideals of showing mercy to all people and detaching oneself from worldly matters Buddhism spread quickly through India more accessible to most people became popular with members of lower castes because of caste system rejection Buddhist teachings weren't in Sanskrit (ancient language of educated elites), but in local dialects that stemmed either from Hindi or Dravidian languages by 5th century BCE, Buddhists established monasteries as would Christians 500 years later
