CHAPTER 5 - States of Consciousness, Chapter 6 - Learning, Chapter 7 - Memory, Chapter 8 - Cognition and Thinking
"Discuss several factors that contributed to the economic collapse of late-2008," asks a question in the midterm paper of an economics course. Such a question is a test of _____ memory. a. procedural b. recall c. recognition d. nondeclarative
b. recall
When given a fill in question with no choices provided, the form of retrieval is a. relearning. b. recall. c. retention. d. recognition.
b. recall.
Apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious are called ______ memories. a. false b. repressed c. implicit d. flashbulb
b. repressed
The tip-of-the tongue phenomenon is a failure of a. storage. b. retrieval. c. memory. d. retention.
b. retrieval.
Forgetting older information because of more recent information is called a. active interference. b. retroactive interference.
b. retroactive interference.
The "date-rape drug" is ________; it is a ________. a. phenobarbital; narcotic b. rohypnol; depressant c. rohypnol; narcotic d. phenobarbital; stimulant
b. rohypnol; depressant
Johnny received a quarter when he made his bed all week without being told to do so. The quarter is a ____ reinforcer. a. primary b. secondary
b. secondary
Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events
constructive processes
Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs rather than intermittently is called ____________ reinforcement.
continuous
A schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs.
continuous reinforcement schedule
Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces a solution that is based primarily on knowledge and logic.
convergent thinking
The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways.
creativity
Some theorists argue that a ___________ ___________ exists for language development early in life in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language.
critical period
Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory.
cue-dependent forgetting
Steve has been binge drinking at a pub with his friends. His vision is blurred, and he does not seem to understand why his friends are telling him to call a cab to go home. He is confused and thinks that he is already at his home. Steve's symptoms indicate that the percentage of alcohol in his blood is most likely around a. 0.10 percent. b. 0.50 percent. c. 0.01 percent. d. 0.30 percent.
d. 0.30 percent.
People in their 20s spend about ________ percent of their sleep in stage 2, and approximately ________ percent of their sleep in REM sleep. a.50; 35 b. 25; 50 c. 25; 20 d. 50; 20
d. 50; 20
When do children typically begin producing two-word combinations, the building blocks of sentences? a. After 6 months b. By age 5 c. After the age of 3 d. After the age of 1
d. After the age of 1
Which of the following is considered a depressant? a. Cocaine b. Marijuana c. Nicotine d. Alcohol
d. Alcohol
What field examines how to use technology to imitate humanlike thinking? a. Availability heuristics b. Formal logic c. Syllogistic reasoning d. Artificial intelligence
d. Artificial intelligence
Which of the following best encapsulates autobiographical memory? a. Autobiographical memory is more accurate than other types of memory. Some periods of one's life are recalled more easily than others. b. Autobiographical memory is just as inaccurate as other types of memory. The different periods of one's life are remembered with equal ease. c. Autobiographical memory is more accurate than other types of memory. The different periods of one's life are remembered with equal ease. d. Autobiographical memory is just as inaccurate as other types of memory. Some periods of one's life are recalled more easily than are others.
d. Autobiographical memory is just as inaccurate as other types of memory. Some periods of one's life are recalled more easily than are others.
Some psychologists consider classical conditioning to be a form of implicit memory. Which of the following is probably the best reason for suggesting that classical conditioning is a type of implicit memory? a. Classical conditioning requires conscious awareness. b. Classical conditioning allows us to learn from experience. c. Classical conditioning is one mechanism whereby we learn actions and skills that we can recollect intentionally. d. Classical conditioning occurs outside awareness.
d. Classical conditioning occurs outside awareness.
Which of the following is key to a person becoming hypnotized? a. High intellect b. Being gullible c. Ability to meditate d. Deep relaxation
d. Deep relaxation
How is binge drinking defined for men? a. Two or more drinks in one sitting b. Fifteen or more drinks in one sitting c. Ten or more drinks in one sitting d. Five or more drinks in one sitting
d. Five or more drinks in one sitting
______ reasoning is data driven and one puts the data together to form a conclusion. a. Convergent b. Deductive c. Divergent d. Inductive
d. Inductive
What is the name of the psychiatrist who proposed the activation-synthesis theory of dreams? a. Sigmund Freud b. Charles Darwin c. Santiago Ramon y Cajal d. J. Allan Hobson
d. J. Allan Hobson
Jerry is at a party. He is introduced to three different people in the span of a moment. Later, he is approached by the first person he met and cannot remember her name. Which of the following is most likely the source of Jerry's difficulty? a. Jerry's working memory capacity was exceeded by the number of people he met. b. Jerry experienced interference in retrieving the woman's name. c. Jerry failed to rehearse the woman's name sufficiently. d. Jerry failed to encode the woman's name.
d. Jerry failed to encode the woman's name.
Which is the third of the three steps in problem solving? a. Preparation b. Arrangement c. Production d. Judgment
d. Judgment
Euphoria is most likely to be experienced by users of which of the following drugs? a. Narcotics b. Stimulants c. Antidepressants d. Marijuana
d. Marijuana
What is a common and dangerous amphetamine? a. Rohypnol b. Crack c. Heroin d. Meth
d. Meth
When there is no clear solution to a problem, and you are forced to choose the best of multiple imperfect solutions, what is a pitfall you should be aware of? a. The tendency to select the simplest solution b. The tendency to select the most complex solution c. Preferring the solution that popped into your head randomly d. Preferring the solution you worked on
d. Preferring the solution you worked on
During which stage of sleep does the heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate increase? a. Stage 4 sleep b. Hypnagogic state c. Stage 3 sleep d. REM stage
d. REM stage
What are the characteristics of stage 1 sleep? a. Slow, regular brain wave patterns b. Very slow and regular with little responsiveness to outside stimuli c. Slow with high peaks and low valleys d. Rapid, low-amplitude brain waves
d. Rapid, low-amplitude brain waves
Which of the following is an example of semantic memory? a. Fay has little memory of her 18th birthday celebrations. b. Megan remembers how to ride a bike even though she has not ridden one in a long time. c. Cooper has fond memories of his first kiss with his girlfriend. d. Ryan is aware that "beleiv" is the incorrect spelling of "believe."
d. Ryan is aware that "beleiv" is the incorrect spelling of "believe."
What is the active ingredient in marijuana? a. Amphetamine b. MDMA c. Rohypnol d. THC
d. THC
Positive reinforcement occurs when something that an individual wants _____ in an effort to increase a behavior. a. is taken away from that individual b. is always available, regardless of what the individual does, c. is not available, no matter what, d. is presented to that individual
d. is presented to that individual
Rehearsal increases the a. length of time that information can be held in sensory memory. b. amount of information that can be held in short-term memory. c. amount of information that can be held in sensory memory. d. length of time that information can be held in short-term memory.
d. length of time that information can be held in short-term memory.
Freud believed that if someone dreamed of climbing up a stairway that it symbolized a wish for sexual intercourse. In this scenario, the stairway is the ______ content of the dream. a. interpretive b. evolutionary c. latent d. manifest
d. manifest
You are thinking of how to play a hand in a poker game. In other words, you are using ____ to figure out what to do. a. an availability heuristic b. a category c. an algorithm d. mental imagery
d. mental imagery
Which of the following is likely to be a secondary reinforcer? a. food b. electric shock c. water d. money
d. money
The removal of something pleasant to decrease a behavior is called a. positive punishment. b. a negative reinforcer. c. a positive reinforcer. d. negative punishment.
d. negative punishment.
Scientists have suggested that we sleep so that a. hormones can be released. b. we can express our unconscious desires. c. we can commune with spirits. d. neurons can rest.
d. neurons can rest.
Engrams are a. are a myth. b. have clear evidence. c. the equivalent of random memories. d. not yet determined.
d. not yet determined.
What signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response?
A discriminative stimulus
Require the problem solver to rearrange elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion.
Arrangement problems
Which type of problem requires the problem solver to rearrange elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion?
Arrangement problems
(Select all that apply) Which of the following are categories of problem? Arrangement problems Preparation problems Problems of inducing structure Representational problems Transformation problems
Arrangement problems Problems of inducing structure Transformation problems
Is the field that examines how to use technology to imitate human thinking, problem solving, and creative activities.
Artificial intelligence
The field that examines how to use technology to imitate human thinking, problem solving, and creative activities
Artificial intelligence
Judges the probability of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples.
Availability heuristic
When we judge the likelihood of an event occurring on the basis of how easily we can bring to mind examples of the event.
Availability heuristic
_____________ is the term for meaningless speechlike sounds uttered by infants.
Babble
Drugs such as Nembutal, Seconal, and phenobarbital, that are a central nervous system depressant and are frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress.
Barbiturates
_____________are a form of central nervous system depressant. They include drugs such as Nembutal, Seconal, and phenobarbital. They produce a sense of relaxation and are frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress.
Barbiturates
An amphetamine-like stimulant that can produce euphoria but also paranoia and agitation.
Bath salts
_____________ is the system of rules applied to language.
Grammar
The decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus.
Habituation
A part of the brain's limbic system, it plays a central role in the consolidation of memories.
Hippocampus
_______________ is a state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
Hypnosis
The nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it are unclear.
Ill-defined problem
Which problem is that the nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it are unclear
Ill-defined problem
Narcotics have which of the following effects? (select all that apply) a. Increase relaxation b. Increase alertness c. Relieve pain d. Increase alertness
Increase relaxation Relieve pain
______________ reasoning goes from the specific to the general.
Inductive
(Select all that apply) Which elements are related to the nativist approach to language development? Innate linguistic capability Negative reinforcement Universal grammar Positive reinforcement
Innate linguistic capability Universal grammar
The term for when people talk to themselves in their heads.
Inner speech
______________ is the term used to describe the sudden "flash" of revelation that often accompanies the solution to a problem.
Insight
Which of the following are true of a mental image? (select all that apply) It can be visual or auditory, but does not involve our other senses. It can be auditory, as well as visual. It is always visual. It is some representation in the mind of an object or event.
It can be auditory, as well as visual. It is some representation in the mind of an object or event.
Strategies for organizing information in a way that makes the information more likely to be remembered.
Mnemonics
Occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it.
Source amnesia
______________ conditioning describes learning that occurs as a result of reinforcement.
Operant
Refers to narcotics derived from natural substances—morphine, heroin, and codeine.
Opiates
____________ refers to narcotics derived from natural substances—morphine, heroin, and codeine
Opiates
Refers to synthetic narcotics—Vicodin, Percocet, fentanyl, and OxyContin.
Opiods
What is it called when R E M-deprived sleepers spend significantly more time in REM sleep than normal.
Rebound effect
__________________is the process of retrieving a specific item from memory.
Recall
______________ effect is when items presented at the end of a list is remembered best.
Recency
On a list items that are best remembered are items presented late.
Recency effect
Apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious.
Repressed memories
Are apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind pushed them into the unconscious.
Repressed memories
Locating material and bringing it into awareness so that it can be used.
Retrieval
(Select all that apply) What are the three processes of memory? Retrieval Elaboration Sensation Storage Encoding
Retrieval Storage Encoding
A stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory.
Retrieval cues
________________ interference occurs when material is difficult to retrieve because of subsequent exposure to other material; ______________ interference refers to difficulty in retrieving material as a result of the interference of previously learned material.
Retroactive, proactive
Eliminating unnecessary information that accumulates throughout the day.
Reverse learning
The eliminating of unnecessary information that accumulates throughout the day.
Reverse learning
What is called the "date rape drug" because when mixed with alcohol, it can prevent resistance to sexual assault?
Rohypnol
______________ is sometimes called the "date rape drug" because when it is mixed with alcohol, it can prevent victims from resisting sexual assault.
Rohypnol
A severe depression that increases in the winter.
Seasonal affective disorder
________________ memory is a subdivision of declarative memory that is concerned with general knowledge and facts.
Semantic
(Select all that apply) Declarative memory is subdivided into which two parts? Semantic memory Short-term memory Procedural memory Episodic memory
Semantic memory Episodic memory
(Select all that apply) Which of the following are common effects of amphetamines. Sense of energy Time management Heightened confidence Talkativeness
Sense of energy Heightened confidence Talkativeness
___________ memory is the first stage of memory where information from a stimulus is stored briefly.
Sensory
Refers to the initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant.
Sensory memory
Using psychoanalytic In his unconscious wish fulfillment theory, who proposed that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled.
Sigmund Freud
A behavior reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence.
Stimulus control training
Behavior reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence.
Stimulus control training
The idea that consequences of a behavior can increase or decrease the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated is referred to as which of the following? a. law of effect b. habituation c. classical conditioning d. extinction
a. law of effect
Unlike primary reinforcers, secondary reinforcers are a. learned. b. discriminable. c. innate. d. generalizable.
a. learned.
When we cannot quite recall some information, but we once knew it, we are having a failure of a. long-term memory retrieval. b. recognition adaptation. c. short-term memory retrieval. d. explicit memory retrieval.
a. long-term memory retrieval.
The most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving is a. means-end analysis. b. algorithm. c. trial and error. d. transformation.
a. means-end analysis.
Continued Ecstasy use may be associated with a. memory difficulties. b. decreased testosterone production. c. flashbacks. d. lung damage.
a. memory difficulties.
Some people cannot prevent themselves from falling asleep, no matter what activity they are participating in. They may be described as having a. narcolepsy. b. insomnia. c. sleep terrors. d. somnambulism.
a. narcolepsy.
The reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time is known as a ______ reinforcement schedule. a. partial (or intermittent) b. continuous c. positive d. negative
a. partial (or intermittent)
Punishment will tend to a. reduce the frequency of a behavior. b. have little effect on behavior. c. extinguish an undesirable behavior. d. increase the frequency of a behavior.
a. reduce the frequency of a behavior.
Which of the following correctly pairs a learning style with one of its characteristics? a. relational style and perceiving information as part of the total picture b. relational style and focusing on detail c. analytical style and displaying good memory for relevant, verbal material d. analytical style and displaying improvisational, intuitive thinking
a. relational style and perceiving information as part of the total picture
In the context of the potential influence of a written language on the recall ability of a culture's members, research has a. revealed that a written language probably has little influence on people's memory ability. b. not yielded a definitive conclusion as yet. c. shown that a written language tends to increase people's memory ability. d. revealed that a written language tends to decrease people's memory ability.
a. revealed that a written language probably has little influence on people's memory ability.
When we reconstruct memories from our past, we tend to remember information in terms of a. schemas. b. accurate processes. c. categorize information. d. engrams.
a. schemas.
Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information is ______ networks. a. semantic b. working c. long-term d. short-term
a. semantic
The teacher wants her students to complete all of the morning work within 2 hours. Each day when the assignments are completed closer to the 2-hour requirement she rewards the students. This technique is called a. shaping. b. scheduled interval. c. reward reinforcement. d. involuntary rewards.
a. shaping.
Albert Bandura's perspective on learning is referred to as a(n) ________ approach to learning because of its reliance on observation of others. a. social cognitive b. classical conditioning c. latent d. operant conditioning
a. social cognitive
During ________, images sometimes appear, as if we were viewing still photos. a. stage 1 sleep b. stage 4 sleep c. stage 3 sleep d. stage 2 sleep
a. stage 1 sleep
When in a hypnotic state, people are a. susceptible to suggestion. b. unaware of their surroundings. c. unconscious. d. asleep.
a. susceptible to suggestion.
A person's ______________________ memories are the person's recollections of life experiences and incorporate his or her episodic memories.
autobiographical
Our recollections of our own life experiences.
autobiographical memory
(Select all that apply) The difference between well-defined and ill-defined problems is that for well-defined problems, the information necessary to solve them is _____. (Choose every correct answer.) available clear not clear unavailable
available clear
In which memory store does information first have meaning? a. Explicit memory b. Short-term memory c. Long-term memory d. Sensory memory
b. Short-term memory
Which of the following best defines divergent thinking? a. The ability to think in logical and precise steps b. The ability to think of creative solutions to problems c. The preference for complex stimuli
b. The ability to think of creative solutions to problems
People with a ___________ ___________ style master material best through understanding the "big picture" about something.
rational learning
People with a ______________ __________ style master material best through understanding the "big picture" about something.
rational learning
Activation-______________ theory suggests that dreams are the result of random electrical activity in the brain that stimulates memories.
synthesis
When the taste of a particular food is associated with unpleasant symptoms such as nausea or vomiting.
taste aversion
Leaving out words that are not critical to the understanding of an idea, such as the sentence "I hear song", is an example of ____________ speech.
telegraphic
Sentences in which only essential words are used, typically including only nouns and verbs.
telegraphic speech
Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data.
thinking
The broad term psychologists use to describe the manipulation of mental representations of information is ______________.
thinking
The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory.
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
While with a group of friends at a dance, Eva bumps into a man she dated last month. But when she tries to introduce him to her friends, she cannot remember his name. What is the term for this occurrence?
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Secondary reinforcers make up the heart of ___________ ______________ sometimes used in the treatment of some psychological disorders for those who are in institutions, where a patient is rewarded for showing desired behavior with a token such as a poker chip.
token systems
New research shows that a brain implant that works like a pacemaker helps improve memory. In the research, a method called _____________ _______________ ____________ ___________________ (____) stimulates the brain and in turn improves memory in experimental settings
transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS)
Solving a problem by trying to reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state is known as a ______________.
transformation
A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
unconditioned response (UCR)
A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled.
unconscious wish fulfillment theory
The nativist approach argues that the human brain contains an inherited neural system, which Chomsky calls ______________ _____________, that lets us understand the structure language provides.
universal grammar
The nativist approach argues that the human brain contains an inherited neural system, which Noam Chomsky calls ______________ _______________, that lets us understand the structure language provides.
universal grammar
A _____________-interval schedule is one where reinforcement occurs based on the time since the last reinforcement, but without a consistent pattern.
variable
A ________________ interval schedule is one where reinforcement occurs based on the time since the last reinforcement, but without a
variable
A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.
variable-interval schedule
A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes is called a ______________-_______________schedule.
variable-ratio
A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable.
variable-ratio schedule
Holds and manipulates material relating to language, including speech, words, and numbers.
verbal store
Specializes in visual and spatial information.
visual store
In _______________ ____________________, we are awake and aware of our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.
waking consciousness
We are awake and aware.
waking consciousness
Freud's theory of unconscious ___________ ___________ states that the actual wishes an individual expresses in dreams are disguised because they are threatening to the person's conscious awareness.
wish fulfillment
A memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information.
working memory
Spreading activation refers to the fact that a. short-term memory requires a lot of cognitive resources. b. short- and long-term memory are two distinctive types of memory. c. memories for events are easier to remember when given context. d. one memory may trigger related memories.
d. one memory may trigger related memories.
Children often use standard grammar rules, even when this is not appropriate. For example, they may say "goed" for went, or "tooths" for teeth. These are examples of a. phonology. b. babble. c. telegraphic speech. d. overgeneralization.
d. overgeneralization.
Hallucinogens produces changes in a. sensation. b. learning. c. social behavior. d. perception.
d. perception.
Fabricated information that is made to look and sound like legitimate news, with the intent of persuading readers to accept false information.
fake news
(True or false) Sleeping pills are the most commonly used depressant.
false
When a person remembers information that did not happen or remembers it in an inaccurate way.
false memory
The type of heuristic that leads us to prefer familiar objects, people, and things to those that that are unfamiliar or strange to us
familiarity heuristic
A schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed.
fixed-interval schedule
A pattern of reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses is known as a _____________ - _____________ schedule.
fixed-ratio
A schedule in which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
fixed-ratio schedule
You have a very vivid memory of the events of September 11, 2001. This is probably a ______________ memory.
flashbulb
Memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery.
flashbulb memories
A friend tells you, "I know exactly where I was and what I was doing when I heard that Prince died." What is this type of memory phenomenon called?
flashbulb memory
Select all that apply Which of the following are primary reinforcers? money food warmth from the cold praise
food, warmth from the cold
A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
insight
At one point or another, almost every person has difficulty sleeping—known as ______________ .
insomnia
The ______________ approach to language development incorporates both genetic and environmental influences in language development.
interactionist
The view that language development is determined by genetic and social factors, produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and the social world in which one is raised.
interactionist approach (to language development)
Difficulty in accessing a memory because of the presence of other information is known as _____________.
interference
The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information.
interference
A fixed-____________ schedule provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has relapsed.
interval
Bandura's ______________ theory of learning states that people learn through watching a _______________ (another person displaying the behavior of interest).
observational, model
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response's favorable or unfavorable consequences.
operant conditioning
__________ refers to synthetic narcotics—Vicodin, Percocet, fentanyl, and OxyContin.
opioids
When you think of the concept "chair," you immediately think of a comfortable easy chair. A chair of this type could be thought of as a ______________ of the category "chair."
prototype
Typical, highly representative examples of a concept.
prototypes
Drugs that affect a person's consciousness are referred to as _______________.
psychoactive
_________________ drugs influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior.
psychoactive
Drugs that influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior.
psychoactive drugs
People believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living.
psychological drug dependence
When people believe they need the drug to respond to daily stress.
psychological drug dependence
A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again.
punishment
The period of sleep characterized by quick, back-and-forth eye movements; increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; and the experience of dreaming.
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences
syntax
Dreams that are initiated in the brain's pons, which sends random signals to the cortex.
Activation information modulation (A I M) theory
An amphetamine college students often abuse. That was developed to help those who suffer from ADHD.
Adderall
_______________ is an amphetamine college students often abuse. It was developed to help those who suffer from ADHD, or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Adderall
People with alcohol-abuse problems, who come to rely on alcohol and continue to drink even though it causes serious difficulties.
Alcoholics
A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities.
Alzheimer's disease
Dexedrine and benzedrine, popularly known as speed, are strong stimulants known as?
Amphetamines
_____________________, popularly known as speed, are strong stimulants, which stimulate the central nervous system—bring about a sense of energy and alertness, talkativeness, heightened confidence, and a mood "high."
Amphetamines
A part of the brain's limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion.
Amygdala
______________ is one of a number of stimulants, drugs whose effect on the central nervous system causes a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
Caffeine
______________ is a memory strategy used to group information whereas, _____________ is repeating information over and over.
Chunk, rehearsal
_____________ _____________ are internal bodily processes that occur on a daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms
A preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns.
Cognitive complexity
The preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex thoughts and solutions to problems.
Cognitive complexity
______________ are cognitive categories that help us to better understand and remember complex information.
Concepts
_________________ are categorizations of objects that share common properties.
Concepts
_____________ ______________ describes the phenomenon of favoring an initial hypothesis and ignoring subsequent competing hypotheses.
Confirmation bias
What is it called when memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory?
Consolidation
When memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory.
Consolidation
____________ is the ability to generate unique ideas and novel solutions.
Creativity
___________ is the loss of information in memory through nonuse.
Decay
______________ reasoning is reasoning from the general to the specific.
Deductive
Chooses familiar items to be seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar.
Familiarity heuristic
(Select all that apply) Which of the following reflect some of the beliefs of those who reject Freud's view of dreams? Dreams typically represent unconscious wishes. Particular objects and events in a dream are symbolic. Dreams reflect events happening in the dreamer's environment as they are sleeping. The direct action of the dream is the focal point of its meaning.
Dreams reflect events happening in the dreamer's environment as they are sleeping. The direct action of the dream is the focal point of its meaning.
Occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion.
Elaborative rehearsal
Occurs when the information is considered and organized in some fashion.
Elaborative rehearsal
Recording information in a form usable to memory.
Encoding
What are some of the effects of marijuana? (select all that apply) Irritability associated with THC release Euphoria Nausea More intense sensory experiences
Euphoria More intense sensory experiences
Fabricated information that is made to look and sound like legitimate news.
Fake news
(True or False) Recognition is much more difficult than recall.
False
(True or false) Children begin producing two-word combinations after the age of 4.
False
Language production and language comprehension develop in infants about the same time. (True or false)?
False
___________ memories develop when an individual are unable to recall the source of the memory and it becomes unclear if it really happened.
False
Cognitive learning theorists are concerned only with overt behavior, not with its internal causes. True or false?
False; cognitive learning theorists are primarily concerned with mental processes
Third step in problem solving, evaluating solutions.
Judgment
A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story.
Korsakoff's syndrome
Produces vivid hallucinations and is one of the most powerful mind-altering chemicals.
LSD
______________ is communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules.
Language
______________ theory assumes that language acquisition is based on principles of operant conditioning and shaping.
Learning
___________________ involves changes brought about by experience, whereas maturation describes changes resulting from biological development.
Learning
____________-______________-______________ theory states that the more a person analyzes a statement, the more likely he or she is to remember it later.
Levels-of-processing
What is it called when certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned?
Long-term potentiation
When certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned.
Long-term potentiation
Produces feelings of increased energy, euphoria, and empathy; but may contribute to memory and intellectual problems.
MDMA
Two hallucinogens drugs that affect the operation of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, causing an alteration in brain-cell activity and perception.
MDMA, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
_____________ is a learned technique for refocusing attention to bring about an altered state of consciousness.
Meditation
_______________ is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information.
Memory
___________________ ________________ are representations in the mind of an object or event.
Mental images
The tendency to solve problems in a certain way, based on past experience, thereby hindering one's ability to come up with other solutions.
Mental set
A synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user's biological cravings without the "high."
Methadone
_______________ is a drug that has been used to treat people with heroin addiction
Methadone
A synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user's biological cravings without the "high."
Methadone:
A white, crystalline drug that U.S. police now say is the most dangerous street drug. "Meth" is highly addictive and relatively cheap, and it produces a strong, lingering high.
Methamphetamine
_______________ or "meth," is a white, crystalline drug that produces a strong, lingering high
Methamphetamine
Fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior suggests that the capacity to imitate others may be innate
Mirror neurons
Which neuron fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior?
Mirror neurons
Strategies for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered.
Mnemonics
Uncontrollable sleeping for short periods while a person is awake.
Narcolepsy
Uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a person is awake.
Narcolepsy
(Select all that apply) The interactionist approach to language development is a combination of what approaches? Nativist approach The hypothesis Phonological approach Learning-theory approach
Nativist approach Learning-theory approach
Weakens a response through the removal of something pleasant. For example, no more video games.
Negative punishment
What weakens a response through the removal of something pleasant?
Negative punishment
_______________ is found in cigarettes, and smokers develop a dependence.
Nicotine
Sudden awakenings from non-R E M sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, or anxiety.
Night terrors
____________ _____________ are sudden awakenings from non-R E M sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, or anxiety.
Night terrors
Unusually frightening dreams.
Nightmares
__________________________ are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep.
Nightmares
In contrast to the modern cognitive psychological understanding of human learning _____________ believed that people could learn through mechanistic unthinking manner.
Pavlov
Ivan _______________ was the researcher who originally described classical conditioning.
Pavlov
_____________ is the name of the scientist responsible for discovering the learning phenomenon known as ______________ conditioning, whereby an organism learns a response to a stimulus to which it normally would not respond.
Pavlov, classical
Intense, irrational fears of specific objects or situations are referred to as:
Phobias
Weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus. For example, spanking.
Positive punishment
What weakens a response by applying an unpleasant stimulus?
Positive punishment
Suffered by some war veterans and others who have had traumatic experiences,
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
A disorder suffered by some war veterans and others.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
First step in problem solving, understanding and diagnosing problems.
Preparation
The tendency to more heavily weigh options that are closer to the present than ones further away.
Present bias
On a list items that are best remembered are items that come early.
Primacy effect
Second step in problem solving, generating solutions.
Production
Dreams most often occur in _____ sleep
REM
A painkiller that reduces the withdrawal symptoms from heroin and comes in tablet form as well as small film strips, both of which are put under the tongue to dissolve quickly.
Suboxone
__________ ___________refers to the phenomenon in which young children omit nonessential portions of sentences.
Telegraphic speech
Which of the following are some of the bodily functions that follow circadian rhythms? (select all that apply) Sexual arousal Temperature Thirst Blood pressure Hormone production
Temperature Blood pressure Hormone production
Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Thorndike's law of effect
Which law says, responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Thorndike's law of effect
A brain implant that works like a pacemaker and helps improve memory. It stimulates the brain and in turn has improved memory in experimental settings.
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS)
Consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state.
Transformation problems
Which type of problem consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state
Transformation problems
(True or False) Forgetting helps keep unwanted and unnecessary information from interfering with retrieving information that is wanted and necessary.
True
(True or False) Episodic memories relate to particular contexts.
True
(True or false) Language is tied to the way in which we think and understand the world in which we live.
True
(True or false) There is a critical period in infancy during which if a child is not exposed to language, he or she will have extreme difficulty ever learning to speak.
True
A great deal of neural activity goes on during sleep. True or false?
True
Freud believed that the meaning of a dream is disguised by its manifest content. (True or False)
True
In his theory of language acquisition, Chomsky argues that language acquisition is an innate ability tied to the structure of the brain. (True or false)?
True
The effects of LSD can recur long after the drug has been taken. True or false?
True
There is no definitive answer as to why sleep is essential. (true and false)
True
An injection that lasts about a month and prevents withdrawal symptoms, and it prevents heroin from producing the positive effects that users crave if heroin is used.
Vivitrol
The nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it are available and clear.
Well-defined problem
Which problem is that the nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it are available and clear.
Well-defined problem
_____________ memory is the memory system that holds information while actively manipulating the information.
Working
Which of the following is the first step in the hypnosis process? a. A person is made comfortable in a quiet environment. b. The subject is brought to a highly relaxed state. c. The hypnotist explains what is going to happen. d. The hypnotist tells the person to concentrate on a specific object or image.
a. A person is made comfortable in a quiet environment.
How does use of a schema improve memory? a. A schema provides a framework to use in interpreting a situation. b. A schema prevents the erosion of implicit memories. c. A schema improves memory for details. d. A schema helps avoid making errors in remembering the details of a situation.
a. A schema provides a framework to use in interpreting a situation.
_____ results in a gradual decline in cognitive abilities. a. Alzheimer's disease b. Retrograde amnesia c. Korsakoff's syndrome d. Anterograde amnesia
a. Alzheimer's disease
Which of the following is less likely to consume alcoholic beverages? a. An Asian American b. A Caucasian c. An African American
a. An Asian American
Teenagers in ______ drink more than teenagers in the United States. a. Europe b. South America c. Asia d. Africa
a. Europe
Identify the theory of forgetting that has been correctly matched with its description. a. Interference—Information in memory disrupts the recall of other information stored in memory. b. Retroactive interference—Information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material. c. Cue-dependent forgetting—Forgetting occurs because other information in memory disrupts the retrieval of the information one is trying to remember. d. Decay—Material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier.
a. Interference—Information in memory disrupts the recall of other information stored in memory.
Which of the following statements is true of REM sleep? a. It is a shallower state of sleep than stage 3 sleep. b. Skeletal muscles become hyperactive during this stage. c. It is the state of transition between wakefulness and sleep. d. The heart rate slows down as a person moves from stage 3 to REM sleep.
a. It is a shallower state of sleep than stage 3 sleep.
Which of the following is true of the familiarity heuristic? a. It leads people to prefer known objects, people, and things to those that that are unknown to them. b. It is a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem. c. It increases the time required to make decisions. d. It involves judging the likelihood of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples.
a. It leads people to prefer known objects, people, and things to those that that are unknown to them.
________ is the final stage in problem solving. a. Judgment b. Insight c. Production d. Preparation
a. Judgment
________ involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists. a. Means-ends analysis b. Insight c. Trial and error d. Forming subgoals
a. Means-ends analysis
What is a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness? a. Meditation b. Memorization c. Stimulation d. Daydreaming
a. Meditation
______ is a stimulant and makes smoking addictive. a. Nicotine b. Tobacco c. Tar d. Toxin
a. Nicotine
When referring to REM sleep, what does REM stand for? a. Rapid eye movement b. Regular eye movement c. Resting energy momentum d. Resting eye momentum
a. Rapid eye movement
Why does considering reinforcers as nothing but rewards oversimplify things? a. Reinforcers can be positive or negative; rewards are only positive. b. Rewards imply money, but reinforcers do not require money. c. Reinforcers are negative, whereas rewards are positive. d. Reinforcers are positive, whereas rewards are negative.
a. Reinforcers can be positive or negative; rewards are only positive.
______ memories involve general knowledge and facts. a. Semantic b. Long-term c. Working d. Episodic
a. Semantic
Which of the following is a state of transition between wakefulness and sleep? a. Stage 1 sleep b. Stage 2 sleep c. Stage 3 sleep d. Stage 4 sleep
a. Stage 1 sleep
______ is Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see satisfied. a. Unconscious wish fulfillment theory b. Dreams-for-survival theory c. Activation-synthesis theory
a. Unconscious wish fulfillment theory
Which of the following scenarios exemplifies negative reinforcement? a. Vanna fastens her seatbelt as soon as she gets in her car to stop the annoying alert sound. b. Maria now buys a different brand of cigarettes to get two packs for the price of one. c. Drake no longer cuts class, now that his parents have confiscated his iPod. d. Nate no longer arrives late at work following a reprimand from his boss.
a. Vanna fastens her seatbelt as soon as she gets in her car to stop the annoying alert sound.
Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? a. a reward for good behavior b. turning off the beeping sound when buckling a seat belt in a car c. a parking ticket d. taking away TV from a child
a. a reward for good behavior
Positive punishment is the a. addition of a stimulus to decrease a behavior. b. addition of a stimulus to increase behavior. c. removal of a stimulus to increase a behavior. d. removal of a stimulus to decrease a behavior.
a. addition of a stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Positive punishment is the a. addition of a stimulus to decrease a behavior. b. removal of a stimulus to decrease a behavior. c. addition of a stimulus to increase behavior. d. removal of a stimulus to increase a behavior.
a. addition of a stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Babies typically learn to understand some language ______ they learn to produce some words. a. before b. after c. at the same time that
a. before
Which of the following uses techniques like reinforcement scheduling, shaping, generalization training, discrimination training, and extinction to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors and decrease the incidence of unwanted ones? a. behavior modification b. cognitive therapy c. evolutionary analysis d. psychotherapy
a. behavior modification
Which of the following uses techniques like reinforcement scheduling, shaping, generalization training, discrimination training, and extinction to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors and decrease the incidence of unwanted ones? a. behavior modification b. evolutionary analysis c. cognitive therapy d. psychotherapy
a. behavior modification
People who suddenly stop drinking coffee may experience headaches or depression. This is best characterized as a. biological dependence. b. ineffability. c. psychological dependence. d. neurosis.
a. biological dependence.
Consciousness includes a. both our environment and our private internal world. b. only our environment and our internal world. c. only our private internal world. d. our feelings and emotions only.
a. both our environment and our private internal world.
During daydreaming, a. brain areas that are associated with complex problem solving become activated. b. the brain engages in reverse learning to eliminate unnecessary information. c. receptor cells get some necessary rest that helps increase their sensitivity during periods of wakefulness. d. brain activity is reduced as a result of weakened neural connections to conserve energy.
a. brain areas that are associated with complex problem solving become activated.
Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs is called _________ reinforcement. a. continuous b. intermittent c. immediate d. ongoing
a. continuous
If a child is not exposed to language by the time she or he is 5, it is unlikely that she or he will easily learn to speak. This suggests that there is a __________ for language development. a. critical period b. language acquisition device c. maximal period d. personological variable
a. critical period
The loss of information through nonuse is called a. decay. b. amnesia. c. forgetting. d. interference.
a. decay.
Memory for factual information, names, faces, dates, and the like is called ______ memory, whereas memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, is called procedural memory. a. declarative b. short-term c. working d. sensory
a. declarative
If you have been exposed to a piece of information but it did not register with you, it would be said that the information was not properly a. encoded. b. systemized. c. retrieved. d. stored.
a. encoded.
Which of the following sequences best reflects the order in which memory processes occur, from first to last? a. encoding → storage → retrieval b. storage → encoding → retrieval c. encoding → retrieval → storage d. storage → retrieval → encoding
a. encoding → storage → retrieval
A dog has learned to salivate to a bell, but the bell no longer means that food is coming. If this failure to pair the bell with food occurs often enough, the dog will stop salivating to the bell. In other words, the salivation response will have been a. extinguished. b. habituated. c. unconditioned. d. conditioned.
a. extinguished.
The pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses is called a a. fixed-ratio schedule b. variable-interval schedule c. fixed-variable schedule d. variable-ratio schedule
a. fixed-ratio schedule
According to the levels-of-processing theory, recall depends on the degree to which information is initially processed. Hence, to enhance memory and ensure maximum retention, one should a. focus on the meaning of the information and relate it to what one knows. b. repeatedly read aloud the information. c. visualize the pages containing the information and then "read" the material contained in them. d. highlight the information so that it stands out in comparison to other information.
a. focus on the meaning of the information and relate it to what one knows.
According to Sigmund Freud, dreams provide a way to a. fulfill our wishes. b. resolve our problems. c. relive what we did recently. d. plan for tomorrow.
a. fulfill our wishes.
Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is incorrectly matched with an illustrative problem? a. functional fixedness—water jar problem b. mental set—water jar problem c. functional fixedness—candle problem d. confirmation bias—problem of security in the Middle East
a. functional fixedness—water jar problem
Unlike sensory memory, short-term memory a. has incomplete representational capabilities b. stores information for less than a second. c. receives information from the working memory. d. holds a relatively full and detailed representation of the world.
a. has incomplete representational capabilities
In the context of problem solving, identify an ill-defined problem. a. how to find a good life partner b. how to calculate the price of an item for sale c. how to navigate to a museum in a nearby city d. how to find out where several well-known authors were born
a. how to find a good life partner
Which of the following problem types is correctly matched with its description? a. inducing structure—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships b. transformation—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships c. transformation—rearranging or recombining elements to satisfy a particular criterion d. arrangement—moving from an initial to a goal state according to a specific method
a. inducing structure—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships
In rehearsal, as long as a piece of information is repeated, it a. is maintained in short-term memory. b. undergoes a high level of analysis and processing. c. is retained in sensory memory. d. acts as a retrieval cue for recalling purposes.
a. is maintained in short-term memory.
The distinction between long- and short-term memory a. is supported by the effects of certain kinds of brain damage. b. is somewhat artificial.is supported by the distinction between c. declarative memory and procedural memory. d. has failed to gain empirical support in memory research.
a. is supported by the effects of certain kinds of brain damage.
The idea that consequences of a behavior can increase or decrease the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated is referred to as which of the following? a. law of effect b. extinction c. classical conditioning d. habituation
a. law of effect
Arjun is a psychology student. He attempts to replicate Hermann Ebbinghaus's work on forgetting. In his experiment, Arjun decides to read the first 10 pages of a book. If Arjun were to try and remember what he read in the first few pages of the book a couple of hours later, what is he most likely to find? a. that he has forgotten most of it, although he remembers a news article from the previous day b. that he remembers most of what he read in the first 10 pages of the book c. that he remembers everything he read in the first 10 pages of the book d. that he remembers what he read in the first page, but he may not be able to recall the following pages
a. that he has forgotten most of it, although he remembers a news article from the previous day
Working professionals are likely to have a vocabulary of about 75,000 words. They are likely to know about aspects related to different departments in their organization. They may also be aware of the knowledge required to be an expert in their field of work. In addition, they are likely to have no difficulty remembering their childhood. These professionals are able to remember such details because a. the capacity of their long-term memory is vast. b. this information is stored in their sensory memory. c. these memories are catalogs in their working memory. d. they receive retrieval cues for all of these memories on a daily basis.
a. the capacity of their long-term memory is vast.
Every time second-grader Sarah raises her hand in class and gives the correct answer, her teacher gives her a sticker. Receiving a sticker increases the likelihood of Sarah's participation. This is an example of a. the law of effect. b. observational learning. c. classical conditioning. d. extinction.
a. the law of effect.
Ian wants his sister to drive him to the movies. He is imagining various ways of achieving this. In other words, he is a. thinking. b. using artificial intelligence. c. categorizing. d. organizing.
a. thinking.
How often and for how long should meditation be practiced to realize its benefits? a. twice daily, for 20 minutes at a time b. twice weekly, for 20 minutes at a time c. once a month for two hours d. daily, for several hours at a stretch
a. twice daily, for 20 minutes at a time
Dreams are initiated in the brain's pons, which sends random signals to the cortex.
activation information modulation (AIM)
Hobson's theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain.
activation-synthesis theory
Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible.
addictive drugs
A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem.
algorithm
All other states of consciousness are considered _____________ ____________ ___ ____________________.
altered states of consciousness
All other states of consciousness are considered.
altered states of consciousness
Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties is known as ______________.
amnesia
Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties.
amnesia
The_____________ plays an important role in the storage of memories involving emotion.
amygdala
People with an _______________ ___________ style do best when they first analyze the component parts.
analytical learning
Those with an ____________ ___________ style do best when they first analyze the component parts.
analytical learning
Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury.
anterograde amnesia
Marissa is at a pub with her friends. She has been drinking beer for the past two hours. She can feel that her speech has become slurred, and she has problem holding and lifting her glass. Although she finds walking a little difficult, she manages to walk to the restroom by herself. The percentage of alcohol in Marissa's blood is most likely around a. 0.05 percent. b. 0.10 percent. c. 0.30 percent. d. 0.50 percent.
b. 0.10 percent.
_______ disease results in a gradual decline in cognitive abilities and typically begins as simple forgetfulness but progresses to profound memory loss. a. Amnesia b. Alzheimer's c. Parkinson's d. Dementia
b. Alzheimer's
______ is a form of memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. a. Exterior amnesia b. Amnesia c. Anterior amnesia d. Retro amnesia
b. Amnesia
Anya pulled all-nighters both last night and the night before. Tonight, finally, she anticipates going to bed at her usual time. Which of the following alternatives most accurately describes and identifies what Anya is likely to experience? a. Anya will spend a greater proportion of her sleep time than usual in the REM stage. This phenomenon is called restoration. b. Anya will spend a greater proportion of her sleep time than usual in the REM stage. This phenomenon is called rebound. c. Anya will spend a greater proportion of her sleep time than usual in the NREM stages. This phenomenon is called rebound. d. Anya will spend a greater proportion of her sleep time than usual in the NREM stages. This phenomenon is called restoration.
b. Anya will spend a greater proportion of her sleep time than usual in the REM stage. This phenomenon is called rebound.
Which of the following refers to the recollections of life experiences that include the episodic memories we hold about ourselves? a. Selective memory b. Autobiographical memory c. Autoimmune memory d. Procedural memory
b. Autobiographical memory
At what age do children understand how to make words plural? a. By age 5 b. By age 3 c. By age 4 d. By age 2
b. By age 3
What helps us to organize complex phenomena into simpler and more easily usable cognitive categories? a. Thoughts b. Concepts c. Images d. Cognitions
b. Concepts
______ typically occur while people are awake. a. Dreams b. Daydreams c. Sleep walks d. Night terrors
b. Daydreams
Identify an accurate statement about the relationship between the memory modules of long-term memory. a. Both episodic and semantic memory are components of procedural memory. b. Declarative memory and procedural memory are the major components of long-term memory. c. Both declarative and semantic memory are types of episodic memory. d. Sensory and semantic memory are the major types of procedural memory.
b. Declarative memory and procedural memory are the major components of long-term memory.
Which of the following is true of solving the different categories of problems? a. They can all be solved using the exact same skills, methods, and knowledge. b. Each requires somewhat different kinds of psychological skills and knowledge. c. Each requires completely different skills, abilities, and knowledge.
b. Each requires somewhat different kinds of psychological skills and knowledge.
Psychoactive drugs influence which of the following? a. Personality, motivation, and emotions b. Emotions, perceptions, and behavior c. Personality, learning, and memory
b. Emotions, perceptions, and behavior
How is binge drinking defined for women? a. Two or more drinks in one sitting b. Four or more drinks in one sitting c. Ten or more drinks in one sitting d. Seven or more drinks in one sitting
b. Four or more drinks in one sitting
________ is defined as the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed. a. Heuristics b. Grammar c. Creativity d. Phonology
b. Grammar
Which of the following is TRUE of the neuroscience of memory? a. The process called consolidation shows that certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned. b. In the process of consolidation, memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory. c. The initial encoding of information aided by the amygdala is passed along to the hippocampus where it is actually stored. d. The engram is a part of the brain's limbic system that consolidates memories, stabilizing them after they're acquired.
b. In the process of consolidation, memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory.
Which of the following statements is true of learned taste aversion? a. It requires repeated presentations of the same stimulus. b. It can occur even with a gap of up to 8 hours between exposure to the stimulus and the response. c. It illustrates the social cognitive approach to learning. d. It occurs when a previously conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
b. It can occur even with a gap of up to 8 hours between exposure to the stimulus and the response.
Which of the following is a disadvantage of punishment? a. It does not provide an opportunity to reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a more desirable way. b. It is ineffective if an individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. c. It tends to change behavior very slowly. d. It is ineffective if it is delivered immediately after the undesirable behavior.
b. It is ineffective if an individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given.
_____ is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. a. Habituation b. Learning c. Conditioning d. Shaping
b. Learning
_____ is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. a. Shaping b. Learning c. Conditioning d. Habituation
b. Learning
When people reach late adulthood, they are more likely to remember which of the following? a. Repressed and false memories b. Periods of major life transition c. Peaceful and noneventful times in their lives d. Events that occurred before they were one-year-old.
b. Periods of major life transition
______ is a process that allows us to teach a complex behavior by rewarding behaviors that are gradually closer to the desired behavior. a. Controlling b. Shaping c. Reinforcement d. Punishment
b. Shaping
____________ is the term used to describe our understanding of the world external to us, as well as our own internal world.
consciousness
Which of the following best characterizes research on the effect of video gaming on thinking and attention? a. The research definitively proves that gamers have better cognitive skills, but less attention. b. The research is far from definitive. c. The research disproves accusations that video gaming negatively affects attention span. d. The research shows that video gaming has no effect on cognitive skills or attention span.
b. The research is far from definitive.
Which of the following statements is true of the body's circadian rhythms? a. They are controlled by the corpus callosum. b. They speed up the heart before dawn to prepare us for the day's challenges. c. They remain unaffected by the relative amount of light and darkness to which we are exposed d. They are biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 28-day cycle.
b. They speed up the heart before dawn to prepare us for the day's challenges.
Which of the following is an example of divergent thinking? a. Using wood to build a desk b. Using a brick as a doorstop c. Using a brick to build a house d. Using wood to build a house
b. Using a brick as a doorstop
Which of the following is an accurate statement about gender differences and alcohol consumption? a. Male teenagers drink much more than female teenagers. b. Women are more susceptible to the effects of alcohol. c. Men are typically lighter drinkers than women. d. Alcohol abuse is more harmful to the women's brains than men's brains.
b. Women are more susceptible to the effects of alcohol.
Consumption of alcohol often leads to a. paranoia. b. a loss of inhibitions. c. increased heart rate and blood pressure. d. sweating and sexual arousal.
b. a loss of inhibitions.
Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again is a. a variable-ratio. b. a reinforcer. c. discrimination. d. punishment.
b. a reinforcer.
In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are presented together during a. spontaneous recovery. b. acquisition. c. extinction. d. habituation.
b. acquisition.
One can use a(n) ________ even if he or she doesn't understand why it works. a. syllogism b. algorithm c. premise d. heuristic
b. algorithm
A physical memory trace within the brain that is related to a particular memory is a. a false memory. b. an engram. c. dependent upon the memory. d. a semantic myth
b. an engram.
Caffeine's effect on the nervous system causes a. a decrease in attentiveness. b. an increase in muscular tension. c. an increase in reaction time. d. a decrease in blood pressure.
b. an increase in muscular tension.
When an infant utters sounds such as "ma," "pa," and "me" more or less randomly, they are a. using language. b. babbling. c. using telegraphic speech. d. demonstrating grammar.
b. babbling.
Operant conditioning most importantly involves forming associations between a. neutral and unconditioned stimuli. b. behavior and consequences. c. conditioned response and reflex. d. stimuli and involuntary behavior.
b. behavior and consequences.
When we retrieve information, the memory that is produced is affected not just by the direct prior experience we have had with the stimulus but also by our guesses and inferences about its meaning. Accordingly, our memories reflect a. levels of processing. b. constructive processes. c. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. d. priming.
b. constructive processes.
Researchers use _____ reasoning when they start with a general theory and ultimately test a hypothesis. a. rational b. deductive c. inductive d. algorithm
b. deductive
One sign that a person has consumed too much alcohol is a. paranoia. b. disorientation. c. schizophrenia. d. profound sweating and very low heart rate.
b. disorientation.
Bella is worried about her upcoming exams. Although she has been studying diligently for the past two months, she keeps having a dream in which her mind goes blank as soon as she starts writing her exam paper. Sometimes, in her dreams, she forgets the way to the examination hall. In the given scenario, Bella's dreams illustrate the a. activation-synthesis theory. b. dreams-for-survival theory. c. unconscious wish fulfillment theory. d. psychoanalytic theory of dreams.
b. dreams-for-survival theory.
Rewards are positive and reinforcers are a. the same thing as a reward. b. either positive or negative. c. ever-changing. d. negative.
b. either positive or negative.
Recency effect is when items presented at the _____ of a list is remembered. a. first and end b. end c. middle d. first
b. end
The physical stuff of memory—the ______—is produced by a complex of biochemical and neural processes. a. module b. engram c. schema d. semantic network
b. engram
Declarative memory is sometimes referred to as ______ memory, whereas procedural memory is referred to as ______ memory. a. implicit; explicit b. explicit; implicit c. semantic; episodic d. episodic; semantic
b. explicit; implicit
Which of the following would be considered a primary reinforcer? a. electricity, heating oil, or natural gas b. food, shelter, or water c. praise, a smile, or a thumbs-up d. money, love, or rock and roll
b. food, shelter, or water
When it comes to autobiographical memories, people tend to a. remember mostly troubling events. b. forget information about the past that is incompatible with the way they currently see themselves. c. remember the more mundane times of their lives. d. have a more precise and accurate recollection of events than in any other type of memory.
b. forget information about the past that is incompatible with the way they currently see themselves.
Ronak is a project manager. He ensures that his project is completed on time by dividing the activities in the project into two stages: production and quality check. Which problem-solving strategy is Ronak using to meet the deadline? a. trial and error b. forming subgoals c. means-ends analysis d. working backward
b. forming subgoals
The process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions is called a. cognition. b. reasoning. c. imagery. d. algorithm.
b. reasoning.
Last month, Joanna witnessed four car accidents. Although the number of motorcycle accidents is generally more than car accidents, she decides to ride her motorcycle from Atlanta to Philadelphia instead of flying. Which of the following is reflected in Joanna's decision? a. the representativeness heuristic b. functional fixedness c. divergent thinking d. the availability heuristic
b. functional fixedness
The system of rules applied to language is called a. phonemes. b. grammar. c. semantics. d. syntax.
b. grammar.
Stimulant drugs tend to increase a. hunger, thirst, and sexual interest. b. heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension. c. awareness of what the internal organs are doing. d. the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
b. heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
Knowing to quickly move out of the way of someone running out of control, straight towards you is stored in ______ memory. a. semantic b. implicit c. explicit d. echoic
b. implicit
The memories held in short-term memory are a. detailed and precise. b. incomplete representations. c. sensory in nature. d. long-lived.
b. incomplete representations.
Which type of reasoning do psychologists use when they study a sample of participants and then use the information they observe to form a conclusion about the broader population from which the sample is drawn? a. divergent b. inductive c. syllogistic d. analogical
b. inductive
The scientific evidence relating to the safety of marijuana a. has determined that it is addictive. b. is mixed. c. has determined that it does not have long-term effects on the brain. d. is conclusive.
b. is mixed.
The linguistic-relativity hypothesis states that a. humans are genetically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways. b. language shapes and helps determine the way people perceive and understand the world. c. language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning. d. language acquisition takes place in the same manner in both humans and animals.
b. language shapes and helps determine the way people perceive and understand the world.
When a behavior is learned, but not demonstrated until there's a reason to do so, this is known as a. classical conditioning. b. latent learning. c. obervational learning. d. operant conditioning.
b. latent learning.
According to the cognitive view of classical conditioning, a. learning does not require active thought. b. learners actively develop expectations about the link between a UCS and CS. c. conditioning occurs best through frequent reinforcement. d. classical conditioning can be used to condition physical responses but not emotional reactions.
b. learners actively develop expectations about the link between a UCS and CS.
Most research shows that marijuana use is ______ the use of tobacco and alcohol. a. more harmful than b. less harmful than c. equally as harmful as
b. less harmful than
False memories are beneficial in that they a. are devoid of emotional meaning. b. may allow people to maintain a positive self-image. c. keep us from having relationships with others unless we have overly positive views of them. d. allow for a reality check when their inaccuracy is determined.
b. may allow people to maintain a positive self-image.
Fawn consumed a large amount of the most popular street drug at a party. It gave her a sense of energy and alertness although she also became anxious and irritable. Which of the following drugs has she most likely consumed? a. marijuana b. methamphetamine c. heroin d. rohypnol
b. methamphetamine
Strengthening a response in operant conditioning means it will occur a. the same as without operant conditioning. b. more often. c. less often. d. with great intensity.
b. more often.
According to an examination of more than 500 million tweets and their inclusion of words with positive and negative asociations, researchers found that people tended to be happier during which part of the day? a. mid-day b. morning c. at the end of the workday (variable times) d. early afternoon
b. morning
Morphine and heroin are both classified as a. depressants. b. narcotics. c. stimulants. d. antidepressants.
b. narcotics.
When removal of a stimulus in response to a behavior increases the frequency of that behavior, ______ is said to have occurred. a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. negative punishment d. positive punishment
b. negative reinforcement
Sandy had had a rough day, and his son's noisemaking was not helping him relax. Not wanting to resort to scolding, Sandy told his son in a serious manner that he was very tired and would like the boy to play quietly for an hour. This approach worked. For Sandy, the change in his son's behavior was a. positively reinforcing. b. negatively reinforcing.
b. negatively reinforcing
Although it has been 5 years since he last played basketball, Robert can still shoot consecutive hoops with ease. Robert's memory is an example of a. explicit memory. b. nondeclarative memory. c. sensory memory. d. episodic memory.
b. nondeclarative memory.
Learning by watching the behavior of another person or model is called a. classical conditioning. b. observational learning. c. latent learning. d. operant conditioning.
b. observational learning.
Which of the following sequences correctly orders the components of a language, from the smallest or most specific to the broadest? a. syntax → semantics → phoneme b. phoneme → syntax → semantics c. phoneme → semantics → syntax d. syntax → phoneme → semantics
b. phoneme → syntax → semantics
The addition of a stimulus to decrease a behavior is known as a. negative punishment. b. positive punishment. c. a negative reinforcer. d. a positive reinforcer.
b. positive punishment.
Forgetting that occurs because previous learning conflicted with recalling newer information is called a. interference dysfunction. b. proactive interference. c. active interference. d. retroactive interference.
b. proactive interference.
Violet is 10 months old and does not yet speak, we can assume that a. she does not understand any words being said to her. b. she understands a fair amount of the language that she hears. c. she lives in an intellectually impoverished environment. d. her parents have been neglectful by not speaking enough to her.
b. she understands a fair amount of the language that she hears.
Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as a. rote learning. b. spreading activation. c. network priming. d. elaborative rehearsal.
b. spreading activation.
Night terrors usually occur during ________ sleep. a. stage 1 b. stage 3 c. stage 2 d. REM
b. stage 3
Reuben believes that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people. Whenever Reuben meets a person who is both left-handed and creative, he considers it as evidence that validates his belief. He ignores examples that seem to disprove his belief. Reuben appears to be prone to a. functional fixedness. b. the confirmation bias. c. the availability heuristic. d. deductive reasoning.
b. the confirmation bias.
Negative punishment is a. the addition of a neutral stimulus to decrease a behavior. b. the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. c. the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
b. the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? a. taking away TV from a child b. turning off the beeping sound when buckling a seat belt in a car c. receiving a parking ticket when your car is next to an expired parking meter d. a reward for good behavior
b. turning off the beeping sound when buckling a seat belt in a car
A privately funded program pays low-income parents $50 every two months for each child who attends school regularly during that period. This incentive illustrates a ________ schedule of reinforcement. a. variable-ratio b. variable-interval c. fixed-interval d. fixed-ratio
b. variable-interval
The pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes is called a a. fixed-ratio schedule. b. variable-ratio schedule. c. variable-interval schedule. d. fixed-interval schedule.
b. variable-ratio schedule.
Meaningless, speechlike sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year.
babble
A technique whose goal is to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors and decrease the incidence of unwanted ones.
behavior modification
Examining biases in decision making has influenced the development of a new field known as _______________ _______________.
behavioral economics
Examining biases in decision making has influenced the development of a new field known as?
behavioral economics
Examining biases in decision making has influenced the development of an influential new field known as ______________ _____________ , which examines how psychological factors can explain economic decision making
behavioral economics
Being a member of two cultures and its psychological impact.
biculturalism
In _____________ education, students for whom English is not their first language, learn some subjects in their native language while simultaneously learning English.
bilingual
A trend that is in high frequency and is, five or more drinks in one sitting for men, and four or more drinks in one sitting for women is called?
binge drinking
One trend is the high frequency of __________ ______________ where men have five or more drinks in one sitting and for women they have four or more drinks in one sitting.
binge drinking.
What is built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors?
biological constraints
The body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it
biological drug dependence
When the body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it.
biological drug dependence
John Garcia, a learning psychologist, found that some organisms were ___________ ___________ to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick.
biologically prepared
At what age to infants begin to "specialize" in the language to which they are exposed? a. 2 to 3 months b. 18 months c. 6 to 8 months d. 12 months
c. 6 to 8 months
At what age does a child's vocabulary increase from 50 words to several hundred? a. Between the ages of 3 and 5 b. Between the ages of 1 and 2 c. Between the ages of 2 and 3
c. Between the ages of 2 and 3
Clint is mentally rehearsing his golf swing in his mind's eye. Based on mental imagery, which of the following statements is most accurate? a. Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal should be different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club. b. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal should be different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club. c. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. Performing the task involves the same network of brain cells as the network used in mentally rehearsing it. d. Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal should be the same as those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.
c. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. Performing the task involves the same network of brain cells as the network used in mentally rehearsing it.
Which of the following statements is TRUE of dreams occurring in REM sleep and NREM sleep? a. Dreams occur only in REM sleep. b. Dreams are equally likely to occur in REM and NREM sleep. c. Dreams occur in NREM sleep, but less frequently than in REM sleep; NREM dreams are also less vivid than dreams in REM sleep. d. Dreams occur in NREM sleep, but less frequently than in REM sleep; however, NREM dreams are more vivid than dreams in REM sleep.
c. Dreams occur in NREM sleep, but less frequently than in REM sleep; NREM dreams are also less vivid than dreams in REM sleep.
________ rehearsal occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion. a. Primary b. Rote c. Elaborative d. Maintenance
c. Elaborative
In one experiment, baseball fans recalled details of the game their team won significantly more accurately than the game their team lost. This best reflects the effect of which of the following on memory? a. Flashbulb memories b. Priming c. Emotional meaning d. Prejudice
c. Emotional meaning
Which approach to language acquisition suggests it is primarily acquired through reinforcement and conditioning? a. Bilingual b. Interactionist c. Learning-theory d. Nativist
c. Learning-theory
Which of the following is the most widely used hallucinogen? a. Jimsonweed b. Mushrooms c. Marijuana d. LSD
c. Marijuana
A child understands that mom "drives" to work. When dad asks, "What did mom do today?" the child says, "Mom drived to work." What is this poor grammar an example of? a. Telegraphic speech b. Phonology c. Overgeneralization d. Babble
c. Overgeneralization
We owe the understanding of classical conditioning to the person who discovered a dog would salivate upon hearing sounds that were often paired with receiving food. That person was ______. a. Freud b. Curie c. Pavlov d. Thorndike
c. Pavlov
_____ are the smallest units of language that have meaning. a. Morphemes b. Words c. Phonemes d. Syntax
c. Phonemes
Which is the second of the three steps in problem solving? a. Evaluation b. Preparation c. Production d. Induction
c. Production
Which of the following is TRUE of sensory memory? a. The precision of sensory memory is low due to its brief duration. b. Sensory memory permits us to keep information in an active state briefly so that we can do something with the information. c. Sensory memory can store an almost exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed. d. Sensory memory is the memory store in which information first has meaning.
c. Sensory memory can store an almost exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed.
Which of the following supports Freud's wish fulfillment view? a. The inactivity of the association areas of the prefrontal cortex during REM sleep. b. The way that dreams reflect events occurring in the dreamer's environment as they are sleeping. c. The high activation of emotional and motivational centers of the brain during dreaming. d. The way that dreams are the result of the activation of various memories that are tied together with a logical story line.
c. The high activation of emotional and motivational centers of the brain during dreaming.
How do brain waves change as a sleeper progresses from stage 1 sleep to REM sleep? a. Their frequency decreases from stage 1 to stage 2, increases during stage 3, and then decreases again during REM sleep. b. Their frequency increases from stage 1 to stage 3 and then decreases during REM sleep. c. Their amplitude increases from stage 1 to stage 3 and then decreases during REM sleep. d. Their amplitude decreases from stage 1 to stage 2, increases during stage 3, and then decreases again during REM sleep.
c. Their amplitude increases from stage 1 to stage 3 and then decreases during REM sleep.
________ stimulus is a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. a. Normative b. Conditioned c. Unconditioned d. Neutral
c. Unconditioned
Which memory holds information temporarily while actively rehearsing that information? a. Long b. Small c. Working d. Temporary
c. Working
A group of separate pieces of information stored as single unit in short-term memory is referred to as a. working memory. b. rehearsal. c. a chunk. d. a mnemonic.
c. a chunk.
What is the definition of learning? a. the process by which a neutral stimulus elicits a response after being paired with a nonneutral stimulus b. strengthening voluntary responses depending on consequences c. a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience
c. a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience
The frequency and timing of reinforcement that follows desired behavior is referred to as a. a hierarchy of rewards. b. a plan of punishment. c. a schedule of reinforcement. d. the law of effect.
c. a schedule of reinforcement.
A computer uses its programming to mimic how physicians diagnose illness. This is an example of a. a syllogism of knowledge. b. an algorithm. c. artificial intelligence. d. a heuristic.
c. artificial intelligence.
One way to increase the amount of information that can be retained in short-term memory is to s. rehearse the information. b. take advantage of elaborative rehearsal. c. break the information into chunks. d. study the same information several times.
c. break the information into chunks.
Which of the following do traditional intelligence tests tend to assess? a. confirmation bias b. divergent thinking c. convergent thinking d. functional fixedness
c. convergent thinking
Intentionally remembering something involves a. attention. b. implicit memory. c. explicit memory. d. intentive memory.
c. explicit memory.
Taking amphetamines over long periods of time can cause a. low blood pressure. b. depressed levels of consciousness. c. feelings of being persecuted by others. d. pinpoint pupils.
c. feelings of being persecuted by others.
The tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions.
confirmation bias
Emma is a video-game programmer. She writes the code for a game in which players are awarded five points every time they complete three tasks in the game. The players are also awarded five points at midnight every day. In the context of operant conditioning, the award of five points follows the ________ of reinforcement. a. fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules b. variable-interval and fixed-ratio schedules c. fixed-ratio and fixed-interval schedules d. fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules
c. fixed-ratio and fixed-interval schedules
Which of the following would be considered a primary reinforcer? a. praise, a smile, or a thumbs-up b. electricity, heating oil, or natural gas c. food, shelter, or water d. money, love, or rock and roll
c. food, shelter, or water
"Meth" is a a. type of cocaine. b. date rape drug similar to rohypnol. c. form of amphetamine. d. form of heroin.
c. form of amphetamine.
A political science professor attempts to facilitate her students' completion of a term paper assignment by requiring to first submit a topic statement, then a list of references, then a draft of the introduction, then, finally, the completed paper. The professor is encouraging her students to use the problem-solving strategy of a. working backward. b. trial and error. c. forming subgoals. d. means-ends analysis.
c. forming subgoals.
When someone is unable to think about using an object in different ways, then he or she might be described as displaying a. a limited mental set. b. insightful problem solving. c. functional fixedness. d. trial and error problem solving.
c. functional fixedness.
Chomsky developed the concept of universal _____ to emphasize the common underlying structure he found in all of the world's languages. a. syntax b. phonemes c. grammar d. semantics
c. grammar
The primacy effect refers to the fact that a. items presented late in a list are remembered better than items presented earlier. b. the most important items in a list are remembered better than the less important items. c. items presented early in a list are remembered better than items in the middle of the list. d. items in a list which have the greatest emotional impact are those with the greatest likelihood of recall.
c. items presented early in a list are remembered better than items in the middle of the list.
According to psychoanalytic theory, objects in dreams sometimes represent something else. The object that is being disguised is referred to as the _____ content. a. manifest b. sexual c. latent d. aggressive
c. latent
Every Saturday, Adam takes the bus to the farmer's market to buy fresh produce. One Sunday, the bus service is disrupted, and he decides to drive. He is not sure he knows the route to the market. However, when he starts driving, he realizes that he knows the route from his weekly bus rides. In the context of cognitive learning, Adam's knowledge of the route to the farmer's market demonstrates a. associative learning. b. classical conditioning. c. latent learning. d. observational learning.
c. latent learning.
Bilingual education occurs when students who are not native English speakers a. are taught English in addition to other subjects. b. learn English. c. learn some information in their native language and other information in English. d. are taught in their native language, regardless of what that language is.
c. learn some information in their native language and other information in English.
Observational learning is learning that occurs when we a. become self-aware. b. understand our surroundings. c. model others. d. learn to associate one stimulus with another.
c. model others.
Taking medicine to escape pain is an example of ____ because it strengthens behavior by something being taken away. a. negative punishment b. classical conditioning c. negative reinforcement d. positive punishment
c. negative reinforcement
A ______ refers to unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. a. fixed-ratio schedule b. schedule of reinforcement c. negative reinforcer d. positive reinforcer
c. negative reinforcer
Which of the following best describes the term "transformation problems"? a. problems that involve constructing relationships among elements without identifying existing relationships among the elements b. problems that require a person to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy specific criteria c. problems that consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state d. problems that require a person to identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them
c. problems that consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state
The dreams-for-survival theory suggests that we dream because this gives us time to a. think about what to do next. b. restore the body after energy is depleted during the day. c. process critical information for our daily survival. d. restore the mind..
c. process critical information for our daily survival.
After a skiing accident, during which 70-year-old Bill hit his head on a tree, he could not remember how he got on the mountain in the first place. This is an example of a. anterograde amnesia. b. Alzheimer's disease. c. retrograde amnesia. d. dementia.
c. retrograde amnesia.
Betty hit her head in a car accident. Since then, she can remember things after the accident, but cannot recall items from before the accident. This is an example of a. anterograde amnesia. b. episodic memory. c. retrograde amnesia. d. Korsakoff's syndrome.
c. retrograde amnesia.
Organized bodies of information in memory that bias the way that new information is stored are called a. implicit memories. b. memory traces. c. schemas. d. engrams.
c. schemas.
The association between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus can be extended to include more stimuli (more stimuli related to the conditioned stimulus can elicit the conditioned response). What is this phenomenon called? a. extinction b. spontaneous recovery c. stimulus generalization d. stimulus discrimination
c. stimulus generalization
The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment.
consciousness
The association between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus can be extended to include more stimuli (more stimuli related to the conditioned stimulus can elicit the conditioned response). What is this phenomenon called? a. stimulus discrimination b. extinction c. stimulus generalization d. spontaneous recovery
c. stimulus generalization
When a child says "baby up" she may be asking to be picked up or saying that she has been picked up. In this case, "baby up" is an example of a. one-word speech. b. formal language. c. telegraphic speech. d. babbling.
c. telegraphic speech.
Cognitive psychology is the study of a. how people think. b. thought, language, memory and reasoning. c. the mistakes made when people use logic to solve problems. d. feelings and emotions.
c. the mistakes made when people use logic to solve problems.
Identify the example that illustrates the concept of explicit memory. a. taking a call while driving b. having a feeling of vague dislike for an acquaintance without knowing the reason behind that feeling c. trying to remember a phone number that was learned earlier d. jumping out of the path of an oncoming automobile
c. trying to remember a phone number that was learned earlier
The pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed is called a a. fixed-ratio schedule. b. variable-ratio schedule. c. variable-interval schedule. d. fixed-interval schedule.
c. variable-interval schedule.
What produces several reactions, and individuals can build up a biological dependence?
caffeine
A processor that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and planning.
central executive
Working memory contains a ______________ ________________ ______________ that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and planning. The central executive integrates and coordinates information from three distinct subsystems, and it determines what we pay attention to and what we ignore.
central executive processor
A ______________ is a meaningful group of stimuli that can be stored together in short-term memory.
chunk
A group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory.
chunk
Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle are called ______________ _______________.
circadian rhythms
Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle.
circadian rhythms
Even severe psychological disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be explained by _________________ conditioning
classical
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
classical conditioning
The stimulant ___________, and its derivative crack, is rapidly absorbed into the body and takes effect almost immediately
cocaine
The stimulant ______________, and its derivative crack, is inhaled or "snorted" through the nose, smoked, or injected directly into the bloodstream. It is rapidly absorbed into the body and takes effect almost immediately.
cocaine
Thinking, language, memory, and reasoning are all part of _____________ psychology.
cognitive
______________ learning theory focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
cognitive
An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
cognitive learning theory
A mental representation of spatial locations and directions.
cognitive map
a layout you create in your mind of a given region, with landmarks, pathways, relative distances, and other environmental details—at least as you understand them to be.
cognitive map
The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making.
cognitive psychology
Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people.
concepts
A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
conditioned response (CR)
A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
(Select all that apply) The learning-theory approach stresses that language acquisition follows which of the following principles? bilingualism conditioning speech production reinforcement
conditioning reinforcement
Dr. Peter Ziemer is seeing a new patient, Mrs. Aaronson. She is experiencing memory losses. Dr. Ziemer tests her language and problem-solving abilities. He also asks her if she has a history of alcohol abuse. What might the language and problem-solving tests tell Dr. Ziemer? What would the answer to the alcohol-abuse question tell him? a. The language and problem-solving tests would help Dr. Ziemer determine whether Mrs. Aaronson suffers from Alzheimer's disease on the one hand, or Korsakoff's syndrome on the other. The answer to the alcohol-abuse question would let Dr. Ziemer know whether anterograde amnesia is a possibility in her case. b. The language and problem-solving tests would help Dr. Ziemer determine whether Mrs. Aaronson suffers from anterograde amnesia on the one hand, or retrograde amnesia on the other. The answer to the alcohol-abuse question would let Dr. Ziemer know whether Korsakoff's syndrome is a possibility in her case. c. The language and problem-solving tests would help Dr. Ziemer determine whether Mrs. Aaronson suffers from Korsakoff's syndrome on the one hand, or some form of amnesia on the other. The answer to the alcohol-abuse question would let Dr. Ziemer know whether Alzheimer's disease is a possibility in her case. d. The language and problem-solving tests would help Dr. Ziemer determine whether Mrs. Aaronson suffers from Alzheimer's disease on the one hand, or some form of amnesia on the other. The answer to the alcohol-abuse question would let Dr. Ziemer know whether Korsakoff's syndrome is a possibility in her case.
d. The language and problem-solving tests would help Dr. Ziemer determine whether Mrs. Aaronson suffers from Alzheimer's disease on the one hand, or some form of amnesia on the other. The answer to the alcohol-abuse question would let Dr. Ziemer know whether Korsakoff's syndrome is a possibility in her case.
Dr. Tranh has given so many lectures that he gives little thought to what he expects might happen. He assumes students will assemble, take notes, and occasionally ask a question. That Dr. Tranh finds the process so routine reflects the development of a. a retrieval path. b. a semantic association. c. explicit memory. d. a schema.
d. a schema.
Caffeine mimics the effects of a natural brain chemical called a. adrenaline. b. acetylcholine. c. dopamine d. adenosine.
d. adenosine.
Commonly known as speed, ______ are strong stimulates that stimulate the central nervous system. a. opioids b. roofies c. barbiturates d. amphetamines
d. amphetamines
You are creating a language development timeline for a class presentation. Along the top of a display board, you write the following ages in sequence: 6 months → 1 year → 2 years → 3 years. How should you label these ages, from youngest to oldest? a. babbling → overgeneralization → first words → telegraphic speech b. overgeneralization → babbling → first words → telegraphic speech c. babbling → first words → overgeneralization → telegraphic speech d. babbling → first words → telegraphic speech → overgeneralization
d. babbling → first words → telegraphic speech → overgeneralization
Which of the following language acquisition stages or phenomena is correctly matched with an illustrative example? a. telegraphic speech—"I ran from the library to the bus stop." b. overgeneralization—"Daddy has come home." c. overgeneralization—"Drawing house" d. babbling—"Goo goo, ga ga."
d. babbling—"Goo goo, ga ga."
An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning is known as a. latent learning. b. observational learning. c. a cognitive map. d. cognitive learning theory.
d. cognitive learning theory.
Our memories reflect _______, in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events. a. source amnesia b. deep processing c. eyewitness accounts d. constructive processes
d. constructive processes
The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways is called a. intelligence. b. instinct. c. confirmation bias. d. creativity.
d. creativity.
When small amounts of ______ are taken, a temporary feeling of intoxication and euphoria can occur. a. stimulants b. adrenalin c. vitamins d. depressants
d. depressants
The first process in recording information in a form usable to memory is referred to as a. recall. b. decoding. c. retrieval. d. encoding.
d. encoding.
Having done "21 for 21" shots, Deanna barely remembers her 21st birthday. That is, her _____ memory is sketchy. a. procedural b. semantic c. working d. episodic
d. episodic
When we recall doing our last psychology assignment, we are using ____ memory. a. semantic b. short-term c. long-term d. episodic
d. episodic
The pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed is called a ______ schedule. a. variable-interval b. variable-ratio c. fixed-ratio d. fixed-interval
d. fixed-interval
When memories are connected to specific, vivid events, they are called a. accurate memories. b. photogenic memories. c. episodic memories. d. flashbulb memories.
d. flashbulb memories.
Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? a. not getting what you do not want b. getting what you do not want c. not getting what you want d. getting what you want
d. getting what you want
How can you tell if a stimulus is a reinforcer to a particular organism? a. if extinction does not occur after repeated exposure to the stimulus b. if the thought process behind the behaviors are quantifiably changed c. if the organism appears to want to learn more about the stimulus d. if a previously occurring behavior increases after the presentation of the stimulus.
d. if a previously occurring behavior increases after the presentation of the stimulus.
In a(n) ______ problem, the specifics of the problem may be unclear and the information required to solve the problem may be unclear also. a. well-defined b. artificial intelligence c. representative d. ill-defined
d. ill-defined
What makes something a reinforcer is dependent on a. the neutrality of the stimulus. b. whether it can be generalized. c. its actual worth. d. individual preferences.
d. individual preferences.
In ________ interference, information learned earlier disrupts the recall of information learned more recently; in ________ interference, recently learned information disrupts the recall of information learned earlier. a. regressive; progressive b. retroactive; proactive c. progressive; regressive d. proactive; retroactive
d. proactive; retroactive
Connie is telling her mother a story about a scary dog she encountered in the neighbor's yard. "Then I runned away," Connie concludes. How old is Connie likely to be, and which language acquisition phenomenon is mostly likely to have crossed most recently? a. about 7 years old; telegraphic speech b. about 2 years old; overgeneralization c. probably 5 to 6 years old; telegraphic speech d. probably 3 to 4 years old; overgeneralization
d. probably 3 to 4 years old; overgeneralization
When a behavior is repeated less frequently because of the consequences that followed it, this is known as a. discrimination. b. reinforcement. c. generalization. d. punishment.
d. punishment.
When you try to list all the classes you've ever taken in college, chances are you will recall your last few classes particularly well. What is this phenomenon called? a. chunking b. primacy effect c. memory consolidation d. recency effect
d. recency effect
A typical multiple-choice question on a psychology test is an example of both a _____ and an _____ test of memory. a. recognition; implicit b. recall; explicit c. recall; implicit d. recognition; explicit
d. recognition; explicit
Consumption of alcohol often leads to a. increased heart rate and blood pressure. b. paranoia. c. schizophrenia. d. reduced tension and stress.
d. reduced tension and stress.
When a behavior is repeated more frequently because of the consequences that followed it, this is known as a. punishment. b. discrimination. c. generalization. d. reinforcement.
d. reinforcement.
When answering such questions as "Who was your date to the junior prom?" or "Which costume did you wear last Halloween?" you are relying most explicitly on the memory process of a. encoding. b. storage. c. potentiation. d. retrieval.
d. retrieval.
Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of stages in the three-stage model of memory? a. working memory → short-term memory → long-term memory b. short-term memory → working memory → long-term memory c. short-term memory → sensory memory → long-term memory d. sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory
d. sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory
Incoming information from the environment is initially processed in a. short-term memory. b. long-term memory. c. iconic memory. d. sensory memory.
d. sensory memory.
LSD and Ecstasy influence the operation of the neurotransmitter ________ in the brain. a. endorphins b. norepinephrine c. acetylcholine d. serotonin
d. serotonin
During a conversation, Jerry told his friend that their favorite rock band was going to perform in their city. However, he could not remember the medium through which he got the information about the show. Jerry was experiencing a. dissociative amnesia. b. anterograde amnesia. c. retrograde amnesia. d. source amnesia.
d. source amnesia.
Which category of psychoactive drugs mentioned below is correctly matched with its effects on thought and behavior? a. depressants—capable of producing hallucinations b. narcotics—produce changes in sensory perception c. hallucinogens—slow down the nervous system d. stimulants—increase the activity of the central nervous system
d. stimulants—increase the activity of the central nervous system
Ramona takes her 4-year-old daughter to a park. While her daughter plays in the sand pit, Ramona sits and chats with her friends. When she hears two girls fighting, she does not worry as she recognizes that it's not her daughter's voice. The given scenario illustrates a. latent learning. b. extinction. c. stimulus generalization. d. stimulus discrimination.
d. stimulus discrimination.
Saving information for future use is called a. retention. b. retrieval. c. encoding. d. storage.
d. storage.
An infant's babbling reflects a. their ability to understand what is said to them. b. the accuracy of their hearing. c. their intelligence. d. the language spoken in their environment.
d. the language spoken in their environment.
Levels-of-processing theory suggests that one way to remember something is to a. hear about it. b. smell it. c. read about it. d. think about it.
d. think about it.
Fantasies that people construct while awake.
daydreams
Fantasies you construct while awake are called ________________.
daydreams
If, after learning the history of the Middle East for a class 2 years ago, you now find yourself unable to recall what you learned, you are experiencing memory ___________ , caused by nonuse.
decay
The loss of information in memory through its nonuse.
decay
Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like.
declarative memory
Reasoning from the general to the specific
deductive reasoning
Drugs that slow down the nervous system are called _____________.
depressants
Drugs that slow down the nervous system.
depressants
Which of the following are examples of responses learned through classical conditioning? (Check all that apply.) developing a phobia of dogs after being bitten by a dog not going to the dentist because one time you underwent a painful procedure getting grounded because you broke curfew studying hard to get a good grade
developing a phobia of dogs after being bitten by a dog not going to the dentist because one time you underwent a painful procedure
Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response.
discriminative stimulus
Generating unusual but appropriate approaches to a question is known as ______________ _____________ .
divergent thinking
Thinking that generates multiple and novel, although potentially appropriate, responses to problems or questions.
divergent thinking
A division or dissociation of consciousness into two simultaneous components.
divided consciousness
A division or dissociation, or division of consciousness into two simultaneous components.
divided consciousness
Which neurotransmitter has a key role in the reinforcement of behavior.
dopamine
The theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep.
dreams-for-survival theory
The two parts of ______ memory, a type of explicit memory, are episodic and semantic. a. short-term b. long-term c. explicit d. performance e. declarative
e. declarative
Stores auditory information coming from the ears.
echoic memory
The initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory.
encoding
The physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory.
engram
Contains information that represents events and occurrences—things that happen to us
episodic buffer
Contains information that represents events and occurrences—things that happen to us.
episodic buffer
Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
episodic memory
In cognitive learning theory, it is assumed that people develop a ______________ about receiving a reinforcer when they behave a certain way.
expectation
Intentional or conscious recollection of information.
explicit memory
The information stored in declarative memory can be verbally communicated to others and is sometimes called?
explicit memory
A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
extinction
When a previously conditioned response decreases and eventually disappears, _______________ has occurred.
extinction
The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use is known as ________________ _______________.
functional fixedness
The tendency to think of an object only in terms of the way it is most frequently or typically used.
functional fixedness
Thinking of an object only in terms of its typical use is known as ____________ _____________.
functional fixedness
When a person has a conditioned response to one stimulus, and later also responds to other, similar stimuli, this is known as stimulus _____________.
generalization
The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed.
grammar
The experience of sensing things such as sights, sounds, or smells that seem real but are not.
hallucinations
A drug that is capable of producing pronounced changes in perception is a ____________________.
hallucinogens
Drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings.
hallucinogens
A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision but—unlike algorithms—may sometimes lead to errors.
heuristic
When you ask your friend how best to study for your psychology final, he tells you, "I've always found it best to skim over the notes once, then read the book, then go over the notes again." What decision-making tool might this be an example of?
heuristic
A part of the brain's limbic system helps to consolidate memories, stabilizing them after they are initially acquired.
hippocampus
The __________________ is located below the cortex and is important for consolidation of memory.
hippocampus
A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
hypnosis
________________ leads to a trancelike state in which you are susceptible to suggestion.
hypnosis
Reflects information from the visual system.
iconic memory
Memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior.
implicit memory
Reasoning from the specific to the general.
inductive reasoning
The inability to understand an experience rationally or describe it in words.
ineffability
Daydreaming may contain elements of __________ ______________.
inner speech
the repetition of a ___________—a sound, word, or syllable.
mantra
The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules.
language
According to psychoanalytic theory, the disguised content of dreams is called the _____________ content.
latent
In _____________ learning, a new behavior is learned but is not shown until appropriate reinforcement is presented.
latent
When a behavior is learned, but not demonstrated until there's a reason to do so, this is known as _____________ learning.
latent
The actual, underlying wishes that the dream represents.
latent content
The manifest content, disguises the ____________ _____________, which includes the actual, underlying wishes that the dream represents.
latent content
Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it.
latent learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.
learning
Some psychologists, taking a cognitive perspective on learning, suggest that people develop particular ______________ ___________, characteristic ways of approaching material, based on their cultural background and unique pattern of abilities
learning styles
The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning.
learning-theory approach (to language development)
The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed.
levels-of-processing theory
The _______________ -relativity hypothesis proposes that language shapes the way people perceive the world.
linguistic
The idea that language shapes the way people in particular cultures perceive and understand the world is known as the ____________ - _____________ hypothesis.
linguistic-relativity
The hypothesis that language shapes and helps determine the way people perceive and understand the world.
linguistic-relativity hypothesis
The relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amounts of information for a sustained period of time is called ____________- ____________ memory.
long-term
Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.
long-term memory
To Freud, the ______________ _____________ of the dream is what we remember and report about the dream—its story line.
manifest content
What we remember and report about a dream - it's story line.
manifest content
A sound, word, or syllable—over and over.
mantra
Leslie repeats a unique sound, known as a __________ , when she engages in meditation.
mantra
A hallucinogen whose active ingredient—tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—is found in a common weed, cannabis.
marijuana
The most common hallucinogen in widespread use today is _______________, whose active ingredient—tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—is found in a common weed, cannabis.
marijuana
Repeated testing for differences between what currently exists and the desired future is __________ -ends analysis.
means
A strategy in which a problem-solver considers the ultimate goal (the end) and determines the best strategy for attaining the goal.
means-ends analysis
A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
meditation
________________ is a technique for refocusing attention and increasing relaxation by evoking an altered state of consciousness without the use of drugs. It typically does not involve interaction with another person.
meditation
The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
memory
The physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned, simply fade away or disintegrate over time.
memory traces
Representations in the mind of an object or event.
mental images
The tendency to solve problems in a certain way, based on past experience.
mental set
Behavior _____________ is a technique for increasing the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
modification
Which of the following are secondary reinforcers? (select all that apply) food money praise sex
money, praise
The onset of REM sleep stops the release of neurotransmitters called.
monoamines
What are two of the most powerful narcotics?
morphine, heroin
_____________ is a disorder characterized by uncontrollably falling asleep regardless of the activity one is currently engaged in.
narcolepsy
Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety.
narcotics
The theory that humans are genetically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways.
nativist approach (to language development)
An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
negative reinforcer
A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
neutral stimulus
What is found in cigarettes, that is another common stimulant?
nicotine
___________ is found in cigarettes, and is a stimulant.
nicotine
Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model.
observational learning
A child knows that adding -ed to certain words puts them in the past tense. As a result, instead of saying "He came," the child says "He comed." This is an example of _____________.
overgeneralization
The phenomenon by which children over-apply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error.
overgeneralization
In _______________ reinforcement, behavior is reinforced some but not all of the time.
partial
Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time.
partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule
In a _______________ reinforcement schedule, behavior is reinforced some of the time, whereas in a ___________ reinforcement schedule, behavior is reinforced all the time.
partial (or intermittent), continuous
Select all that apply Information stored in long-term memory is ______ and ______. permanent unreliable retrievable sensory
permanent retrievable
Intense, irrational fears.
phobias
The smallest units of speech that affect meaning are called ____________.
phonemes
The smallest units of speech.
phonemes
The study of the smallest units of speech, called phonemes.
phonology
Children learn to make words ___________ by adding s to nouns by age 3.
plural
________________ reinforcement is the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur.
positive
A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.
positive reinforcer
The type of heuristic, which is the tendency to more heavily weight options that are closer to the present than ones further away.
present bias
Occurs, in which items presented early in a list are remembered better.
primacy effect
Satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person's previous experience.
primary reinforcer
Satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of previous experience.
primary reinforcer
A phenomenon that occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall information related to the prime.
priming
Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later.
proactive interference
In ____________ ___ ____________ _____________ a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them.
problems of inducing structure
Which type of problem is where a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them?
problems of inducing structure
Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball; sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory or implicit memory.
procedural memory
The process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions is called ______________.
reasoning
People deprived of REM sleep—by being awakened every time they begin to display the physiological signs of that stage—show a _______________ __________ when allowed to rest undisturbed.
rebound effect
Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved.
recall
In which items presented late in a list are remembered best.
recency effect
Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives.
recognition
The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory.
rehearsal
The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.
reinforcement
When a stimulus increases the chances that a preceding behavior will be repeated, this is known as __________________.
reinforcement
Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
reinforcer
Material in memory storage that has to be located and brought into awareness to be useful.
retrieval
A stimuli that allow us to more easily recall information that is in long-term memory.
retrieval cue
The more we think about and analyze something, the more likely we are to be able to _____________ it later.
retrieve
Interference in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier.
retroactive interference
Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event but not for new events.
retrograde amnesia
The pattern of the frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior is known as the ______________ of reinforcement.
schedule
The pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior.
schedule of reinforcement
Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled.
schemas
A form of severe depression in which feelings of despair and hopelessness increase during the winter and lift during the rest of the year.
seasonal affective disorder
A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer.
secondary reinforcer
Some memory researchers believe that long-term memory is stored as associations between pieces of information in _____________ networks.
semantic
Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts.
semantic memory
Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information.
semantic networks
There appear to be two types of declarative memory: _______________ memory for knowledge and facts and ________________ memory for personal experiences.
semantic, episodic
The aspect of language referring to the meaning of words and sentences
semantics
The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant.
sensory memory
The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
shaping
Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds.
short-term memory
Dreams-for-survival theory suggests that dreams provide time to reconsider and process information critical for our daily _______________.
survival
A condition in which a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping.
sleep apnea
The person has difficulty breathing while sleeping.
sleep apnea
In Stage 2 sleep there are momentary interruptions of sharply pointed, spiky waves that are called, because of their configuration, ___________ _____________.
sleep spindles
Momentary interruptions of sharply pointed, spiky waves.
sleep spindles
Viewed as a social phenomenon, it is often referred to as a ___________ _______________ approach to learning.
social cognitive
Viewed as a social phenomenon, it is often referred to as a ____________ ______________ approach to learning.
social cognitive
The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
spontaneous recovery
Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as ___________________ _____________.
spreading activation
Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as?
spreading activation
The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves.
stage 1 sleep
A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles."
stage 2 sleep
The deepest stage of sleep, characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2 sleep.
stage 3 sleep
Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system are called _______________.
stimulants
Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
stimulants
The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another such that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.
stimulus discrimination
A process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.
stimulus generalization
The maintenance of material saved in memory.
storage
Information must be encoded and _____________ in order to be retrieved later.
stored
In infants, sleep apnea may play a role in _____________ ____________ ___________ _______________ (____)
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
What part of the brain controls our circadian rhythms
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
circadian rhythm is controlled by the brain's _____________________ __________ (____)
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).