Chapter 6: Memory- Remembrance of Things Past and Future
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission that follows brief, rapid stimulation
Repression
in Freud's psychodynamic theory, the ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from conscious awareness
Displace
in memory theory, to cause information to be lost from short-term memory by adding new information
Infantile amnesia
inability to recall events that occur prior to the age of three or so; also termed childhood amnesia
Context-dependent memory
information that is better retrieved in the context in which it was encoded and stored, or learned
State-dependent memory
information that is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned
Dissociative amnesia
loss of memory of personal information that is thought to stem from psychological conflict or trauma
Nonsense syllables
meaningless sets of two consonants, with a vowel sandwiched in between, that are used to study memory
Episodic memory
memories of events that happen to a person or that take place in the person's presence
Retrospective memory
memory for past events, activities, and learning experiences, as shown by explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit memories
Explicit memory
memory that clearly and distinctly expresses (explicates) specific information
Implicit memory
memory that is suggested (implied) but not plainly expressed, as illustrated in the things that people do but do not state clearly
Prospective memory
memory to perform an act in the future, as at a certain time or when a certain event occurs
Maintenance rehearsal
mental repetition of information to keep it in memory
Encode
modifies information so that it can be placed in memory; encoding is the first stage of information processing
Paired associates
nonsense syllables presented in pairs in experiments that measure recall
Priming
the activation of specific associations in memory, often as a result of repetition and without making a conscious effort to access the memory
Summarize Long-Term Potentiation (LTP).
LTP can occur via the action of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and glutamate at synapses. Structurally, LTP can also occur as shown in Parts A and B, when dendrites sprout new branches that connect with transmitting axons, increasing the amount of stimulation they receive.
Working memory
another term for short-term memory
Hippocampus
a structure in the limbic system that plays an important role in the formation of new memories
Define memory and differentiate between types of memories.
Memory is the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Explicit memory—also referred to as declarative memory—is memory for specific information. Two kinds of explicit memories are identified according to the type of information they hold: episodic memories are memories of the things that happen to us or take place in our presence ("I remember...") and semantic memory refers to general knowledge ("I know...") Implicit memory—also referred to as nondeclarative memory—is memory of how to perform a procedure or skill; it is the act itself, doing something, like riding a bike. Retrospective memory is the recalling of information that has been previously learned. Episodic, semantic, and implicit memories involve remembering things that were learned. Prospective memory refers to remembering to do things in the future.
Describe the biological aspects of memory.
Psychologists assume that mental processes such as the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information—that is, memory—are accompanied by changes in the brain. Much research on the biology of memory focuses today on the roles of stimulants, neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, and structures in the brain.
Identify contributors to forgetting.
Recognition, recall, and relearning are three basic memory tasks that have been used by psychologists to measure forgetting. Nonsense syllables have been used in studying each of them. According to interference theory, we forget material in short-term and long-term memory because newly learned material interferes with it. The two basic types of interference are retroactive interference and proactive interference. According to Sigmund Freud, we are motivated to repress painful memories and unacceptable ideas because they produce anxiety, guilt, and shame. Freud also believed that young children repress memories of aggressive impulses and perverse lusts toward their parents, which would explain why people could not recall episodes in their early childhoods (infantile amnesia). Adults also experience amnesia, although usually for biological reasons, as in the cases of anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
Explain the stages of memory.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that there are three stages of memory: (a) sensory memory, (b) short-term memory, and (c) long-term memory. Part a shows that sensory information impacts on the registers of sensory memory. Memory traces are held briefly in sensory memory before decaying. If we attend to the information, much of it can be transferred to short-term memory (STM). Part b: Information may be maintained in STM through maintenance rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal. Otherwise, it may decay or be displaced. Part c: Once information is transferred to long-term memory (LTM), it may be filed away indefinitely. However, if the information in LTM is organized poorly, or if we cannot find cues to retrieve it, it can be lost.
Explain the processes of memory.
The first stage of information processing is changing information so that we can place it in memory: encoding. When we encode information, we transform it into psychological formats that can be represented mentally. To do so, we commonly use visual, auditory, and semantic codes. The second memory process is storage. Storage means maintaining information over time. The third memory process is retrieval. The retrieval of stored information means locating it and returning it to consciousness. The phrase 'THUNSTOFAM' might be more easily recalled if you think of it as an acronym of the first two letters of the name of a nation.
Method of savings
a measure of retention in which the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to re-learn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated
Icon
a mental representation of a visual stimulus that is held briefly in sensory memory
Echo
a mental representation of an auditory stimulus (sound) that is held briefly in sensory memory
Chunk
a stimulus or group of stimuli that are perceived as a discrete piece of information
Schema
a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or an expectation, that can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations
Memory trace
an assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus
Engram
an assumed electrical circuit in the brain that corresponds to a memory trace
Anterograde amnesia
failure to remember events that occurred after physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma
Retrograde amnesia
failure to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma
Semantic memory
general knowledge, as opposed to episodic memory
Savings
the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
the feeling that information is stored in memory although it cannot be readily retrieved; also called the feeling-of-knowing experience
Proactive interference
the interference by old learning with the ability to retrieve material learned recently
Retroactive interference
the interference of new learning with the ability to retrieve material learned previously
Elaborative rehearsal
the kind of coding in which new information is related to information that is already known
Retrieval
the location of stored information and its return to consciousness; the third stage of information processing
Eidetic imagery
the maintenance of detailed visual memories over several minutes
Storage
the maintenance of information over time; the second stage of information processing
Memory
the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved
Echoic memory
the sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of auditory stimuli
Iconic memory
the sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of visual stimuli
Serial-position effect
the tendency to recall more accurately the first and last items in a series
Long-term memory
the type or stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage
Sensory memory
the type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus; sensory memory holds impressions briefly, but long enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically continuous
Short-term memory
the type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays; also called working memory
Interference theory
the view that we may forget stored material because other learning interferes with it