Chapter 7 Outline

For low frequency sounds (below ___ Hz), the basilar membrane does vibrate in synchrony with the sound wave in accordance with frequency theory. The pitch of the sound is identified by the frequency of impulses and the loudness is identified by the number of firing cells.

100

Most adult humans can hear vibrations from __ to almost 20,000 Hz.

15

Cells outside area _1 respond best to auditory "objects" such as animal cries, machinery noise, music, etc.

A

_____: Intensity of a sound wave

Amplitude

______, a chemical found in hot peppers and jalapeños, also stimulates pain receptors.

Capsaicin

Number of compressions per second, measured in hertz (Hz) of a sound.

Frequency

____ Theory: We perceive certain pitches when the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing the axons of the auditory nerve to produce action potentials at the same frequency.

Frequency

Vigorous scratching produces mild pain, and pain inhibits itch. _____ reduce pain and increase itch. The _____ relationship between pain and itch is evidence that itch is not a type of pain.

Opiates inhibitory

_______ and Endorphins 1. i. Bind to receptors in the _____ cord and periaqueductal gray area to block the release of Substance P and decrease prolonged pain.

Opiods spinal

strong pain causes the release of both glutamate and Substance

P

Opiods and Endorphins 1. i. Bind to receptors in the spinal cord and periaqueductal gray area to block the release of Substance ___ and decrease ____ pain.

P prolonged

Examples of touch receptors are pain receptors, Ruffini endings, Meissner's corpuscles, and _____ corpuscles.

Pacinian

_____ corpuscles detect sudden displacements or high-frequency _____ on the skin.

Pacinian vibrations

_____: The experience evoked by a harmful stimulus, directing our attention towards danger.

Pain

___information also ascends to the reticular formation of the medulla, where it projects to the limbic system to generate ___ associations and memories

Pain emotional

___: The perception of frequency (the higher the frequency of a sound, the higher its pitch).

Pitch

___ Theory -: Each area along the basilar membrane is tuned to a specific frequency and vibrates whenever that frequency is present. Each frequency activates hair cells at only one place along the basilar membrane, and the brain distinguishes frequencies by which neurons are activated.

Place

T/F: Conductive or middle-ear deafness: Failure of the bones of the middle ear to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea. Conductive deafness can be caused by diseases, infections, or tumorous bone growth near the ear. This deafness can be corrected by surgery or hearing aids.

T

T/F: Gate Theory: Information not related to pain travels to the spinal cord and closes the "gates" for each pain message, thereby modulating the subjective experience of pain.

T

T/F: Itch is useful because it directs you to scratch the itchy area and remove whatever is irritating your skin.

T

T/F: Placebo: A drug that has no pharmacological effects, yet reduces the perception of pain

T

T/F: The body also has mechanisms to increase pain after tissue has been damaged and inflamed

T

T/F: The somatosensory system involves the sensation of the body and its movements, including discriminative touch, deep pressure, cold, warmth, pain, itch, tickle, and the position and movements of joints.

T

____: The stimulation of taste buds. Taste differs from flavor, which is the combination of taste and smell.

Taste

_____: Frequent or constant ringing in the ear. Tinnitus is common in people with nerve deafness and is due, in some cases, to a phenomenon like phantom limb.

Tinnitus

____ principle of pitch discrimination: The auditory cortex as a whole can have volleys of impulses up to about____ per second, even though no individual axon approaches this frequency alone.

Volley 4000

______-fiber pattern principle: Receptors of a sensory system respond to a wide range of stimuli and contribute to the perception of each of them.

across

Frequency Theory: We perceive certain pitches when the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing the axons of the auditory nerve to produce ____ potentials at the same frequency.

action

Chemicals that ___ one receptor but not others have been used to identify taste receptor types.

alter

The tympanic membrane is attached to three tiny bones (hammer, _______, and stirrup).

anvil

Primary _____ cortex (area A1): Ultimate destination of auditory information is located in the superior temporal cortex. Area A1 also is important for auditory imagery.

auditory

When fluid in the cochlea vibrates, a shearing action occurs, which stimulates hair cells; these cells then stimulate the____ nerve cells (eighth cranial nerve).

auditory

Receptors are _____nerve endings, some of which also respond to acid and heat

bare

For high frequency sounds (above 5000 Hz), we use a mechanism similar to place theory. High frequency vibrations strike the basilar membrane, causing a traveling wave. This causes displacement of hair cells near the _____ (where the stirrup meets the cochlea). Low frequency sounds produce displacement ______ along the membrane.

base farther

Frequency Theory: We perceive certain pitches when the _____ membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing the axons of the auditory nerve to produce action potentials at the same frequency.

basilar

The current theory combines modifications of ____frequency and place theories

both

Mammalian taste receptors are located in taste ___, which are located in papillae (structures on the surface of the tongue)

buds

Sound waves reach the tympanic membrane through the auditory________. The tympanic membrane is attached to three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup).hed to three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup).

canal

Receptors for heat and cold can be stimulated by certain ______ as well as ___ stimulation.

chemicals mechanical

The auditory receptors (hair cells) lie between the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane in the _____.

cochlea

The inner ear consists of the oval window, which receives vibrations from the tiny bones of the middle ear, and the _____, which contains three fluid-filled tunnels: the scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani.

cochlea

Sound waves are periodic________ of air, water, or another medium.

compressions

Electrical Stimulation of the Nervous System: Stimulation of pain pathways in spinal cord or thalamus can disrupt constant pain, presumably by interrupting the _____ stimulation of the pain receptors

continuous

The somatosensory cortex receives information primarily from the_________side of the body.

contralateral

The pain signal ascends the ____ spinal cord to the _____ and from there projects to the primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe

contralateral thalamus

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs _____ pain by_____ the release of chemicals from damaged tissue

decrease reducing

Each spinal nerve has a sensory component and a motor component. Each sensory spinal nerve innervates a limited area of the body called a _____

dermatome

Similar to the visual system, the auditory system needs _____ to develop normally. Both constant noise and lack of exposure to sound will impair the development of the auditory system.

experience

Taste: The stimulation of taste buds. Taste differs from _____ which is the combination of taste and smell.

flavor

The stirrup causes the oval window to vibrate, setting in motion all the ____ in the cochlea

fluid

We have long known of the existence of at least ____types of "primary" tastes: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.

four

Nerve or inner-ear deafness: Damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve that causes a permanent impairment in hearing in one to all ranges of ____. Nerve deafness can be inherited or caused by prenatal problems and early childhood disorders.

frequencies

Tone deafness or amusia: a disorder where individuals are seriously impaired at detecting small changes in________. The explanation for this disorder is unknown

frequency

For low frequency sounds the pitch of the sound is identified by the _______ of impulses and the loudness is identified by the_____ of firing cells

frequency number

Calcium carbonate particles (otoliths) lie next to ____cells in the otolith organs and excite them when the head ___ in different directions.

hair tilts

Somatosensory information from the _____ enters the CNS through the cranial nerves.

head

The vestibular organ monitors ___ movements and directs ______ movements of the eyes

head compensatory

Damage to the primary auditory cortex leads to deficits in processing auditory information, not a loss of ____

hearing

Pain sensitization is a result of the body releasing _____, nerve growth factor, and other chemicals that are necessary to repair the body

histamine

The three semicircular canals are filled with a _____ like substance and are lined with hair cells. Acceleration of the head causes this substance to push against hair cells, which in turn causes action potentials from the vestibular system to travel via part of the eighth cranial nerve to the brainstem and cerebellum.

jelly

Labeled-line principle: Receptors of a sensory system that respond to a ____range of stimuli and send a ___ line to the brain

limited direct

We localize high frequencies by _____ness differences.

loudness

The inner ear consists of the oval window, which receives vibrations from the tiny bones of the middle ear, and thecochlea, which contains three fluid-filled tunnels: the scala vestibuli, scala____, and scala tympani.

media

Auditory information passes through several subcortical structures with an important crossover in the ____ that enables each hemisphere of the forebrain to get its major auditory input from the opposite ear

midbrain

Cells outside area A1 respond best to auditory "______" such as animal cries, machinery noise, music, etc.

objects

We can localize a sound of any frequency by its time of _____, if the onset is sudden enough. Most speech sounds are localized by differences in time of onset.

onset

The anatomy of the ear is described in terms of three regions: the____ ear, the middle ear, and the____ ear

outer inner

In adult humans, taste buds are located mainly on the ___- edge of the tongue.

outside

The inner ear consists of the_____ window, which receives vibrations from the tiny bones of the middle ear, and thecochlea, which contains three fluid-filled tunnels: the scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani.

oval

The stirrup causes the___ window to vibrate, setting in motion all the fluid in the cochlea.

oval

Capsaicin, a chemical found in hot peppers and jalapeños, also stimulates _____ receptors.

pain

The mechanical senses include touch, ___, and other body sensations, as well as _____ sensation (specialized to detect the position and movement of the head).

pain vestibular

A given ____may contain from 0 to 10 taste buds and each taste bud contains about____ receptor cells.

papilla 50

Opiods and Endorphins 1. i. Bind to receptors in the spinal cord and _____ gray area to block the release of Substance P and decrease prolonged pain.

periaqueductal

Cannabinoids: Drugs that act in ____ to block some types of pain.

periphery

Humans localize low frequency sounds by differences in ____. We can localize a sound of any frequency by its time of onset, if the onset is sudden enough. Most speech sounds are localized by differences in time of onset.

phase

The outer ear includes the ____ (structure of flesh and cartilage attached to the side of the head) and the auditory ___-.

pinna canal

Itch --- In response to contact with certain ____

plants

Vertebrate sensory systems probably do not have any ___ labeled-line codes. Taste and smell stimuli excite several kinds of neurons, and the meaning of a particular response by a particular neuron depends on the responses of other neurons.

pure

Itch ---______ to tissue damage, due to release of

response histamine

The vestibular organ is comprised of two otolith organs (the____ and ____) and three semicircular canals.

saccule utricle

The vestibular organ is comprised of two otolith organs (the saccule and utricle) and three _____ canals.

semicircular

Taste receptors are actually modified _____ cells which last only about 10-14 days before being replaced.

skin

Stimulation of touch receptors opens ______channels in the axon, possibly starting an action potential if the stimulation is strong enough

sodium

The pain signal ascends the contralateral spinal cord to the thalamus and from there projects to the primary____cortex in the _____ lobe

somatosensory parietal

Mild pain causes the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate in the ___cord,

spinal

Somatosensory Information from touch receptors below the head enters the______cord through the 31 spinal nerves and passes toward the brain.

spinal

Both forms of itch are conveyed by a single ____ pathway that tends to be ____than other tactile sensations

spinal slower

The ____ causes the oval window to vibrate, setting in motion all the fluid in the cochlea

stirrup

flavor is the combination of ____and ______

taste smell

Primary auditory cortex (area A1): Ultimate destination of auditory information is located in the superior____cortex. Area A1 also is important for auditory____

temporal imagery

Sensory information from the spinal cord is sent to the _________ before traveling to the somatosensory cortex in the ______ lobe.

thalamus parietal

The vestibular organ is comprised of two otolith organs (the saccule and utricle) and ____semicircular canals.

three

In the primary auditory cortex, cells respond preferentially to certain tones. Cells preferring a given tone in the auditory cortex cluster together providing a map of the sounds referred to as a _____ map. Thus, the cortical area with the _____ response indicates what sound or sounds are heard.

tonotopic greatest

The inner ear consists of the oval window, which receives vibrations from the tiny bones of the middle ear, and thecochlea, which contains three fluid-filled tunnels: the scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala ___-.

tympani

The middle ear is comprised of the_______ membrane (eardrum), which vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves that strike it.

tympanic

Pain is conveyed slowly over _____ axons

unmyelinated

The three semicircular canals are filled with a jellylike substance and are lined with hair cells. Acceleration of the head causes this substance to push against hair cells, which in turn causes action potentials from the ____ system to travel via part of the eighth cranial nerve to the _____ and cerebellum.

vestibular brainstem

The inner ear consists of the oval window, which receives vibrations from the tiny bones of the middle ear, and thecochlea, which contains three fluid-filled tunnels: the scala_____, scala media, and scala tympani.

vestibuli

The ______ principle is believed to be important for pitch perception below 4000 Hz, although it is unclear how the brain uses this information,

volley