Chapter 7: Social and Personality Development in Infancy
infant interactions
- research shows that infants may develop multiple attachment relationships - variations in attachment show that developing relationships is an ongoing process throughout our lifetimes - every person has equal opportunity to develop attachment with baby
the development of self
- self awareness: knowledge of oneself, begins as early as 12 mo - at around 17-24 mo, children begin to show awareness of their own capabilities - childrens cultural upbringing also impacts the development of self recognition
stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
- stranger anxiety and separation anxiety represent important social progress
does temperament matter
- temperament and attachment to adult caregivers - certain temperaments may be more adaptive than others - influence on consequences of a particular temperament and cultural differences
stranger anxiety
- the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering and unfamiliar person - common after 6 mo
separation anxiety
- the distress displayed by infants when a customary care giver departs - 7-8 mo, peak at 14 mo
social referencing
- the intentional search for information about others feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events; feeling what others feel - first occurs 8-9mo - parental attitudes may have lasting consequences - whats the implications
mom vs dad attachment
- the nature of attachment between infants and mothers on the one hand and infants and fathers on the other hand is not identical - one reason for qualitative differences in attachment involves the differences in what fathers and mothers do w/ their children - cultural influences too
attachment
- the positive emoitional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual - 6 mo - children feel pleasure and comfort from significant adults - with independence children roam progressively from their secure base
the characteristics that make infants unique
- the theory suggests that developmental change occurs throughout ppl lives in eight distinct stages - the first stages occur in infancy: a. trust vs mistrust b. autonomy vs shame and doubt - according to erikson, children from 18 mo to 3 yrs develop independence and autonomy if parents encourage exploration and freedom, within safe boundaries
smiling
- w/ age, infant social smiles become directed toward particular individuals - by the age of 18 mo, social smiling becomes more frequent than smiling directed toward non-human objects
autonomy vs shame and doubt
-about child sense of independence - occurs when child is able to act independently - shame and doubt results when parents are overprotective
family life in 21st century
increasing number of single parent families in last 3 decades - avg family size is shrinking - 57% of moms w/ infants work outside the home - 45% of children under 18, lived in low income households, up from 2006
mutual regulation model
infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond appropriately
irritability
irritable infants - fuss a great deal - are easily upset and difficult to soothe when they cry - show relatively stable irritability throughout their early lives
family life and stress
many infants are being raised in environment in which substantial stressors are present - usually difficult to raise children - society is adapting to the new realities of family life - new institutions are evolving to help with child care
activity level
proportion of active time periods to inactive time periods
producing attachment
signals an infant send may inpart determine how successful the mother will be in responding - sensitivity to infants needs and desires is the hallmark of moms with securely attached kids - similar attachment patterns from on generation to the next (mom learns from their mom)
social smiling
smiling in response to other individuals
attention span and persistence
the amount of time a child devotes to an activity and the effect of distraction on that activity
quality of mood
the contrast of the amount of friendly, joyful and pleasant behavior with unpleasant, unfriendly behavior
distractibility
the degree to which stimuli in the environment alter behavior
intensity of reaction
the energy level or reaction of the childs response
threshold of responsiveness
the intensity of stimulation need to elect a response
goodness of fit
the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised
regularity
the regularity of basic functions such as hunger, excretion, sleep, and wakefulness
approach withdrawal
the response to a new person or object, based on whether the child accepts the new situation or withdraws from it
personality
the sum of the enduring characteristics that differential one individual from another
moms sensitivity
- overly responsive and under-responseive moms may have insecurely attached kids - communicative interactional synchrony: caregivers respond to infants appropriately and both caregiver and child match emotional states
the consequences of temperament
- parents who display more warmth and consistency in their response are more likely to have children who avoid later problems - goodness of fit
temperament
- patterns of arousal and emotionality that represents consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual - temperament refers to how children behave, as opposed to what they do or why they do it
personality development
- personality - eriksons theory of psychosocial development
ambivalent
- positive and negative reactions to mother - child shows great distress when the mother leaves, but simultaneously seek close contact, hit and kick her
early attachment researcher: harry harlow
- preference for warm cloth monkey for contact comfort
secure
- mother is home base - children use mother as a home base and are at ease when she is present - when mother leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns
parental interaction
- mutual regulation model - reciprocal socialization
forming relationships
- newborns bring dramatic change to family dynamics - the bonds established in early life provide a foundation for a lifetimes worth of social relationships
universals in facial expressions
across every culture, infants show similar facial expressions (nonverbal encoding) relating to basic emotions
early attachment research: John Bowlby
attachment based primarily on infants needs for safety and security; genetically determined motivation to avoid predators
biological basis of temperament
behavioral genetic perspective - temperamental characteristics viewed as inherited traits that are fairly stable during childhood and across the life span - traits views as making up core of personality and playing substantial role in future development
trust vs mistrust
consistent parenting -> trust -> good relationships in adulthood
adaptability
how easily the child is able to adapt to changes in his or her environment
fathers and attachment
- limited research on fathers related to Bowlbys early work and earlier traditional social views (mom-child relationship unique) - newer research demonstrates importance of fathers attachment role
dimensions of temperament
- activity level - approach withdrawal - adaptability - quality of mood - attention span and persistence - distractibility - regularity - intensity of reaction - threshold of responsiveness
empathy
- an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings another person; evidence of growing mental capacity (24mo) - demonstrated when kids are able to do role play
early attachment researcher: karl lorenz
- attachment based on biologically determined factors - imprinting: behavior that takes place during a critical period involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed
the Ainsworth strange situation
- avoidant - secure - ambivalent - disorganized disoriented
infant infant interaction
- babies react positively to the presence of peers from early in life and engage in rudimentary forms of social interaction - infants sociability is expressed in several ways and generally rises with age 9-12mo - as infants age, they begin to imitate each other; they play social games too - to some developmentalists, the capacity of young children to engage in imitation suggests that imitation may be inborn (mirror neurons)
Erik sons theory of psychosocial development
- considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others and their own behavior - personality is dependent on social relationships
gender differences
- disagreement over extent and cause of gender differences - gender differences in boys vs girls worlds - some evidence that male newborns are more irritable, although the findings are inconsistent
avoidant
- does not seek proximity to mother - after mother leaves, child seems to avoid her when she returns its as if they are angered by her behavior
categorizing temperaments
- easy baby - difficult baby - slow to warm up baby
emerging emotions
- emotional expressions emerge at roughly these times. - expression in the first few weeks after birth do not necessarily reflect particular inner feelings - interest, distress, disgust: birth - social smile: 3mo - anger, surprise, sadness: 4 mo - fear: 5mo - shame, shyness: 5mo - contempt, guilt: 24mo
gender roles
- gender differences emerge more clearly as children age and become increasingly influences by their gender roles that society sets out for them - societal encouragement and reinforcement do not completely explain differences in behavior between boys and girls - differences in behavior between boys an girls begin in infancy, and continue throughout childhood
gender
- gender: the sense of being male or female, formed at age 2 - all cultures prescribe gender roles for males and females, but these roles differ greatly between cultures - parents play with boy and girl babies differently - the behavior exhibited by girls and boys is interpreted in different ways by adults
an illustration of the strange situation
- in this illustration of the strange situation, the infant explores the playroom on his own, as long as his mother is present - but when she leaves, baby begins to cry - on moms return, the baby is immediately comforted and stops crying - conclusion: baby is securely attached
differences among infants
- include overall personality and temperament and difference in the lives they lead - based on their gender, the nature of their families, and the ways in which they are cared for. - innate gender differences in the way adults interact with infants
disorganized disoriented
- inconsistent or contradictory behavior toward mother - child may be least securely attached
nonverbal expressions
- infant nonverbal emotional expressivity similar to adult expression but actual infant experience may differ - nonverbal infant expressions represent actual emotional experiences - infants are born with innate repertoire of emotional expressions (culturally influenced)
decoding others facial and vocal expressions
- infant vocal expressions of emotion discrimination precede the ability to interpret facial expressions - by 4mo, infants may already have begun to understand the emotions behind facial and vocal expressions - 5mo ability to discriminate between happy and sad vocal expressions
reciprocal socialization
- infants behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers, which bring about further responses from infants
emotions in infancy
- infants display a fairly wide range of emotional expressions - sequence of infant emotional development - mothers preceptions of infant emotions - individual differences in emotional expressivity
theory of mind
- infants learn to see other ppl as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves, who behave under their own power and who have the capacity to respond to infants requests - theory of mind: knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior - empathy
