Chapter 8 - Memory

Time Frame of Declarative Memory

- Retrospective memory: + involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information. In retrospective memory you may try to remember who won the Super Bowl last year or what last week's lecture covered. + Memory of past experiences and acquired information. Ex: What did I eat for dinner last night? - Prospective memory: + involves remembering to perform actions in the future. Remembering to walk the dog or to take your medication involves prospective memory. + Memory of future actions. Ex: What time is my doctor's appointment today?

Memory storage system: A-S Model

- Sensory Input --> Sensory Memory (Information not transferred is lost) --> Short-term memory (Information not transferred is lost): can be rehearsal <--> Long-term memory. - -Based on the belief that memories are processed the same way that a computer processes information. - Like the computer example of memory, information processing is a metaphor - the three storage systems do not refer to tiny "lockers" in the brain where information actually sits.

Long-term Memory (LTM)

- The final stop for memory storage is our long- term memory, an unlimited capacity storage that can hold information over long periods of time. - Consolidation occurs when unstable, new memories are converted to stable, long-term memories. - Memories can endure indefinitely, especially when we make an effort to strengthen new memories. -We can make memories more durable through repeated practice, such as continuing to practice speaking a foreign language to keep that information. - LTM relies on semantic coding. Elaborative rehearsal (focusing on the meaning of the information and forming relevant connections/associations) helps strengthen long-term memory.

Memory consolidation (STM)

- Transfer of STM to long-term memory. - One way memory consolidation can be achieved is through rehearsal.

tip of the tongue phenomenon

- When you can not retrieve information and it feels as if it's just out of your reach, you are experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. - This is a failure in retrieval, research shows that retrieval occurs more frequently when retrieval cues are present. - Context cues are types of retrieval cues that can aid our retrieval of memories. Working with context cues involves putting yourself in the context in which a memory occurred.

Flashbulb Memories

- a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. - Enduring memories of emotionally charged events that seem permanently burned into the brain. They are not necessarily more accurate than other memories. Some flashbulbs are very accurate over time, while others are subject to distortion (misinformation effect). - Example: Most people can remember where they were when they first heard about the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

short-term memory (STM)/ working memory

- a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. - Short-term memories are either discarded or stored in long-term memory. -allows us to hold information in mind for ~30 seconds and has a limited capacity, it can only store so much information at any one time.

LTM: Explicit (Declarative) Memory

- handles factual information and information that requires a deliberate effort to recall. - memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall/declare. - 2 types of Declarative memory: + Semantic - knowledge about words, concepts and language, facts (an encyclopedia). Ex: Knowing who the President is, that dogs have four legs. + Episodic - information about events we have personally experienced, what, where, when of an event. (also called autobiographical memory). Ex: Remembering your 5th birthday party.

Memory retrieval

- is the process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

LTM: Implicit/ Non-Declarative Memories

- memories that are not part of our consciousness (Formed through behaviors) - Procedural Memory: houses memory for actions (memory of "how"), conditioned responses, and emotional experiences. (Skills, and actions). Ex: how to ride a bike, tie your shoes laces, drive. - Implicit memory also includes behaviors learned through emotional conditioning. + You might have a fear of spiders but not consciously remember why or what occurred to condition that fear.

Chunking

- organizing information into manageable bits or chunks. - Rather than viewing information broken into bits, we can store multiple bits as chunks. - We can put these letters into meaningful, easy- to-memorize units, such as FBI-CIA-NBC-IBM. Going from working with 12 letters to 4 pieces/chunks to remember. - E.g. Separating phone numbers into 3 chunks.

memory encoding - getting information into memory

- process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. Must form a memory code from some stimulus. - Three ways information can be encoded: + Acoustically (by sound, remembering a melody) + Visually (a visual image, remembering the arrangement of furniture in a room) + Semantically (by focusing on the meaning of the information, you remember a new vocabulary word by using it in a sentence)

Storage

- retain information in memory - Putting things into memory would be useless process unless those data remain there (hopefully unchanged) over time. - Memory storage is where memories "hang out" until they are needed again in the future, at which time retrieval takes place. - Memory storage is the process of retaining information in memory

Sensory Memory

- storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. + Stored for up to a couple of seconds. + First step of processing stimuli from the environment. + If the information is not important, it is discarded. + If the information is valuable then it moves into our short-term memory. - is a temporary storage that preserves sensory impressions. - Information in sensory memory is held in a "sensory register. " For visual information, this is called iconic memory (photographic memory). For auditory information it is called echoic memory (sound echo). - For vision and audition, sensory memories only last .25 of a second. - You can see sensory memory, called an afterimage, when a flashlight or sparkler is moved about quickly, creating what appears to be a continuous figure. A sound echo is another form of sensory memory. - What's great about sensory memory is that it allows us to experience a visual pattern, sound, or touch even after the event has come and gone. In doing this, sensory memory gives us additional time to recognize things and bring them into memory.

memory

- the ability to store and retrieve information over time. - The system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind.

rehearsal

- the conscious repetition of information to be remembered. - Short-term memory can be extended (indefinitely) by using maintenance rehearsal.

Prefrontal cortex

-Appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks. -PET scans show activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex when completing semantic tasks. -Encoding is associated with left frontal activity. -Retrieval of information is associated with the right frontal region.

Hippocampus

-Associated with explicit memory, recognition memory and spatial memory. -Projects information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. -Involved in memory consolidation. -Damage leads to an inability to process new declarative memories. - damage of hippocampus can lead to amnesia: loss of long-term memory because of the effects of physical trauma. (Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember new information after trauma; Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory occur before trauma)

Amygdala

-Involved in fear and fear memories (memory storage is influenced by stress hormones). -Processes emotional information important in encoding memories at a deeper level and memory consolidation.

Magic 7

a type of short-term memory - Capacity is usually about 7 items +/-2 (discovered by George Miller). - This was discovered by George Miller, when he found that most participants could only remember 7 numbers, plus or minus 2 digits. - When we need to memorize more than 7 numbers, plus or minus 2 digits, the information already stored in our short-term memory is displaced. - This is why we have methods of remember more information.

Retrieval cues

are associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories. These cues are stimuli that help gain access to memories.

serial position effect

tendency to recall first and last items in a list better than items in the middle. + Called Primacy or recency effect

Cerebellum

-Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano and classical conditioning. -Damage prevents classical conditioning such as an eye-blink in response to a puff of air.

Information Processing Theory

Information --> Encoding: (Converting information into a form usable in memory)--> Storage: (Retaining information in memory) ---> Retrieval: (Bringing to mind information stored in memory)