Chegg notes A&P topics

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what is anal canal

"funnel"

what does species resistance mean and what causes it to occur

- " I get sick but Pusheen doesn't" - cells lack proper receptors - incompatible environment for these pathogen - this would be can example of adaptive ( specific: b and t) immunity

what is anabolism

- "add" - to build up

what do collectins do

- (collects) sticks to non-self items - ex: Kazery collecting trash items around room

what is the muscularis externa made of

- 2 layers of smooth muscle 1. circular 2. longitudinal

what are the 3 parts of an ECG wave

- P-wave: little change - QRS complex: big electrical change - T-wave: bigger than first, but still small electrical change

what are the first two fatty acid tails of triglyceride and example of

- a saturated fat - the carbon can't be bonded to anything else

what does cortisol do

- affects carbs, fats, and protein metabolism -fats will broken down into smaller things fatty acids -proteins will be broken down to amino acids -catbs will be built up

ACTH is released and stimulates what?

- alpha cells -beta cells - delta cells

what do cytokines do in WBC

- assist in activating T cells and B cells - activates macrophages

what are the functions of blood

- blood helps transport nutrients/ gases -helps distribute heat - helps regulate pH -assists with injury - great defense: when you get a cut and bacteria gets in

Describe filtration through capillary beds

- blood pressure pushes stuff through - hydrostatic pressure: "4 lanes change to 2" - at arteriole end fluid pushes out of slits, plasma leaves

what is arterial pressure affected by

- blood volume -heart rate -friction -viscosity

what happens in the buccal phase

- bolus gets pushed back - shit off of soft palate - voluntary

describe syncytium

- cardiac muscle fibers connected by intercalated discs and gap junctions to from a syncytium - if any part of the syncytium is stimulated, the entire network contracts

what does neuropeptide y do

- comes from hypothalamus -enhances appetite

what do defensins do (3)

- complement antibodies - attack non self cells - make holes

what is blood composed of

- connective tissue: - plasma: mostly water, 1% ions and waste - plasma proteins: proteins floating around with specific jobs - formed elements: RBC, WBC, platelets( thrombocytes)

Capillaries change blod flow by

- constricting and relaxing - vasomotion

what does insulin do in the endocrine system

- decrease glucose ( a.k.a Build up glycogen) - stimulates adipocytes- fat cells

what are three types of exchange that can occur in capillary beds

- diffusion -filtration -osmosis

what are the 3 layers of lymphatic vessels

- endothelium: continuous - smooth muscle - connective tissue

what happens to fats in gluconeogenesis

- fats break down to glycerol and are converted to glucose -fats break down to fatty acids and are converted to acetyl CoA ( cellular respiration Krebs cycle)

what are the functions of lymph node

- filters potentially harmful par tiles from lymph - monitors fluid

what are the functions of the lymphatic system

- fluid balance: lymph - lipid absorption: lacteals -defense: lymphocytes ( primary cells): respond to specific pathogens

what are examples of chemical barriers, what type of immunity does it belong to

- gastric juices: acidic- not much can survive enzymes - tears: enzymes - sweat: salty, a lot can't - nonspecific immunity

what is our primary fuel source

- glucose ( carb) - for cellular respiration

what are the two classes of leukocytes

- granular leukocytes -agranular leukocyres

What are your two types of palates and what are they made of

- hard: bone - soft: just muscle

what makes up a lymph node

- hilum - efferent vessel: leaving - afferent vessel: coming in - capsule extends inward: makes little rooms ( compartments)

where are electrolytes absorbed

- in GI tract : there will absorb some - NA+, Cl-, HCO3-

Describe type 2 diabetes

- insulin resistance: not being recognized, sugar isn't being taken up like it normally does - usually occurs in overweight people

what do interferons do

- interfere with enemy - ex: call while being murdered before murderer goes to kill someone else

what happens in autoimmunity

- loss of ability to tolerate self- antigens aka: can't tolerate own antigens -autoantibodies

The nodule (capsule) of lymph node contains...

- lymphocytes -B and T cells - macrophages -and spaces for lymph flow

what is the white pulp in the spleen

- macrophages and lymphocytes - can trigger immune response

Describe the alimentary canal

- muscular tube -all covered with mucous membrane - all along this tube have folds for SA- this means it can absorb more

what are the three types of granular leukocytes

- neutrophils -eosinophils -basophils

what are the two types of immunity

- nonspecific ( innate) - specific (adapt)

what is hypoglycemia and what causes it

- not enough sugar in your blood - high insulin, strenuous excercise, etc

describe cappillaries

- only one cell thick -made of endothelium: only layer just continuous -semipermeable -silts

what are sources of cellulose and what's unique about it

- parallel lines, no branching - undigestable -vegetables -dietary fiber

what are the three types of salivary glands

- parotid - submandibular - sublinqual

what are the two sets of teeth you have

- primary (20) - secondary (32)

what causes the "dupp" sound

- pulmonary and aortic (valves in center) closing - second sound heard

calcitonin is triggered by what

- reading the concentration in blood levels (c cells read the blood Ex: direct glandular response

what do electrocardiograms (ECG/EKG) do

- recording of electrical activity in the heart - detects the cells of your heart de/re polarizing - can be detected at surface

where are the two places cell division happens ( in t cells )

- red bone marrow - tissues

what do eosinophils do

- reduce allergic reactions -parasite defense

Describe phagocytosis ( what cells do it, what immunity this is characteristic of )

- remove foreign material - neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes - nonspecific immunity

veins have the same ___ as arteries

- same 3 layers - tunica intima, media, and externa

what do the platelets secrete and what does this secretion cause

- secrete ADP and CA+2 - this cause platelet aggregation ( makes platelets stick to them)

what are disaccharides and some sources of them

- sucrose, maltose, lactose - milk, sugar, cane/beet sugar molasses

Describe the distribution in the blood reservoir:

- systemic venous system: 64% - pulmonary circuit: 9% - heart: 7% - systemic system: 13% - Systemic capillaries: 7%

Describe what happens in primary response

- takes a couple days for B+T cells to activate -IgM comes first then dwindles, then IgG comes then dwindles as you better

what does endogenous pyrogen do when you have a fever

- tells the liver and spleen to hold on to Fe2+ that we've been recycling -inhibits pathogen

what is deglutition

- the act of swallowing - voluntary but becomes automatic

what causes the "lubb" sound

- the aortic valves closing -this is the first sound

what do T cells do?

- the directly attack specific invaders - "detectives"

what does the thymus secrete

- thymosin - stimulates lymphocytes that have migrated to other areas

what are the three layers of an artery

- tunica intima -tunica media - tunica externa

Veins art assisted by

- valves to prevent back flow -muscle and lungs

what are the three stages of hemostasis

- vascular stage -platelet phase -coagulation

what is the body of the stomach also called and what substance does it contain

-"mixing bowl" -chyme

follicular cells secrete what

-2 hormones -these hormones affect metabolism

how many glands make up parathyroid

-4 glands on back side of thyroid - produces PTH

what are the plasma componets

-92% water - 7% proteins (plasma proteins)

what aids in RBC production

-B12 + folic acid - Fe

Gases and nutrients

-CO2, O2, N2 - simple sugars, amino acids, lipids

what is most common typer of antibodies

-IgG - make up 80%

Describe secondary response

-IgM's still produces - IgG"s take off immediately no recognition needed bc memory cells

what are two types of cells lymphocytes have

-T cells - B cells

what does the tricuspid valve do

-a.k.a right av valve - prevents back flow of blood - chordae tendineae to papillary muscles

about how many thrombocytes does everyone have

-about 250,00/mm3 -if you get into the hundred thousand usually disease

what are the two lobes of the pituitary gland

-adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) - neurohypophysis (posterior lobe)

what are the two parts of the adrenal gland

-adrenal medulla -adrenal cortex

Describe osmosis at capillary beds

-aid water movement -proteins left in capillaries (Plasma proteins, ex: albumins) -water goes back in capillary at venule end

what are the 3 plasma proteins

-albumin -globulin -fibrinogen

lymph nodes located

-along path of larger lymphatic vessels - clustered particularly in cervical, axillary, inguinal regions and pelvic, abdominal, and thoracic cavities

How does the liver help with protein metabolism

-amination: making amino acids -transamination: changing one a.a to another -demination: breaking down a.a -clotting factors

what are the three types of non-steroid (protein) hormones?

-amine hormones -peptide hormones -protein hormones

what's another name for starch and what are sources of it

-amylose -comes from grains and vegetables: we can't make starch

what is peptidase and what does it do

-an enzyme - works on peptides, break down amino acids

Saturated fats origin and characteristics

-animal origins - solid at room temp - meats, eggs, milk, lard, coconut oil

where is adrenocorticotropic hormone secreted and what does it act on

-anterior pituitary -adrenal gland

what does the large intestine start

-at the cecum -compaction of feces

Describe the cardiac cycle

-atria contract (systole) as ventricles relax (diastole), and vice versa -blood pressure to rise and fall pulse

Describe hasimoto's disease

-autoantibodies attack thyroid -hypothyroidism -symptoms: cold, low metabolism, mental dullness

what is happening in graves disease

-autoantibodies on TSH receptors -thyroid works when it shouldn't -hyperthyroidism -Symptoms: hot all the time, weight loss, hyper

Describe type 1 diabetes

-autoimmune - adipocytes not stored so now in blood: can cause bad before

What happens in the cephalic phase

-before reaching stomach -stimulated by CNS -ex: thinking of food and stomach growling

what happens in direct glandular response

-blood with glucose goes to pancreas -pancreas stabilizes sugar by secreting insulin -insulin goes throughout body telling cells to absorb extra glucose

describe the adrenal cortex

-bulk of the adrenal gland -outer structure -divided into three zones

what are the three phases of the stomach

-cephalic phase -gastric phase - intestinal phase

What are the actions of the heart

-chambers function in coordinated fashion -cardiac cycle

what is a neurotransmitter and what does it do

-chemical released by cell -nerve takes input to destination

Describe the esophagus

-collapsible tube -4 layers - no serosa, now called adventitia -esophageal hiatus in diaphragm - lower esophageal sphincter

what are the nonprotein nitrogenous sources

-creatine, creatinine, urea, uric acid -Levels remain stable.... -blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

what will some T cells become after division

-cytotxic T cells -these secrete perforin

adrenal glands

-deals with kidney's getting rid of water -help with stress

what are teeth made of

-dentin and enamel - are not bone

the thymus's size

-differs with age - slowly shrinks after puberty

steps in regulating high blood pressure

-dilation of blood vessels -suppression of thirst -inhibition of antagonistic hormones -Na+ and water loss from kidneys -homeostasis restored

what happens to fix erythroblastosis fetalis

-doctor gives mother antibodies to destroy babies RBC inside of mom will last a couple months before out of body ex: artificial passive immunity

what makes up lymphoid tissue

-dominated by lymphocytes: no CT capsule - malt, tonsils, appendix

what causes the stomach rupture

-due to blockage of sphincter -gases caused extra pressure

what is one type of cytokine

-endogenous pyrogen - means " fire maker from within"

what are lymph capillaries made of

-endothelium - because they're just one layer thick, so continuous

triglycerides provide a lot of

-energy - about 9 calories/ gram

what is intestinal lipase

-enzyme -breaks down fats

what are sucrase, maltase, and lactase and what do they have in common

-enzymes -all disaccarides -but disaccarides are still too big to digest

the cardiac cycle is affected by

-exercise: increases heart rate - temperature - ion concentration

Describe the tunica externa

-external layer - connective tissue sheath

what is coagulation triggered by

-extrinsic factors -intrinsic factors -both lead to prothrombinase -ends with fibrinogen becoming fibrin (insoluble)

triglycerides characteristics

-fats and oils - glycerol and 3 fatty acids - can't absorb so must be broken down

how blood supply goes

-first 2 branches f aorta- coronary arteries -to the myocardium -returns by coronary sinus

what is the cardiac skeleton made of and what does it do

-flexible connective tissue - encircles heart valves -stabilizes and isolates during contraction

what happens in the gastric phase

-food enter stomach - distention -releases gastrin

what are the origins of lymphocytes

-formed in red bone marrow - start as stem cells ( hemocytoblasts

what are the three main parts your stomach

-fundus -body -pylores

what are monosaccharides and where do they come from

-glucose, fructose, galactose - found in honey and fruits

What does segmentation happen and what motor function is it an example of

-happens in small intestine ex. of mixing

where do waves occur and what motor function is an example of

-happens in stomach ex. of mixing

what are antibodies

-have the opposite types as antigens ex: blood type A- A antigens, B antibodies

what are some secondary organs of the endocrine system

-heart -digestive tract -gonads

what does fibrinogen do and what is it's % in plasma proteins

-helps with blood clotting: coagulation ( process of blood clotting - 4%

what does your thyroid gland do

-helps with metabolism speed up -helps with calcium

What is erythroblastosis fetalis?

-hemolytic disease of the newborn - can cause miscarriage if not tracked -mothers cells attack fetus

What is HDL

-high density lipoproteins, low fat -ex: rock sinks in pond

Endocrine

-hormones -going to the blood stream -distance to receptor cell

Describe what allergies are and what's happening

-hypersensitivity -allergens have antigens -interacts with IgE and basophil then release histamine

what are the three ways to restore or stop production

-hypothalamus -direct nervous stimulation -direct glandular response

what are the main organs of endocrine system

-hypothalamus -pituitary gland -thyroid gland -parathyroid -adrenal glands -pancreatic islets -pineal gland

what are the types of teeth

-incisors: first 4 teeth, scissor like, tearing - canines ( cuspids): ripping, tearing on sides - premolars/ molars: for grinding food , in the back

what is positive feedback and what's an example of it

-increasing the reaction to make a change - the platelets secreting more and more is an example

Describe the adrenal medulla

-innermost portion of adrenal gland: made up of loose cells- these cells produce two hormones

Describe the tunica intima and its functions

-internal most layer -made of endothelium -connective tissue with elastin (Stretch) and collagen (strength) - secretes substance to inhibit platelet aggreagtion

what else aids in secretion from the small intestine

-intestinal glands -produces enterokinase: takes tryspinogen and convert to trypsin

what is inside the cell

-intracellular proteins -hemoglobin (HB) - 95% of all proteins in the cell are now hemoglobin

Describe the condition gioter

-iodine deficiency - or the pituitary gland is not being stimulated

what does parathyroid hormone stimulate

-kidneys to reabsorb -intestines to absorb - osteoclast stimulation

what is hypo secretion and what's and example of someone affected by it

-less hormone is secreted -ex: people with dwarfism

paracrine factors

-local hormone -interstitial fluid (ISF)

what does growth hormone affect

-long bone growth -amino acid movement : move into cells and building -mitosis rate: increase

Describe the jejunum

-longer, not fixed -chemical digestion and absorption

Describe the lleum

-longest -lymph nodules found here "MALT" -gut flora

what is LDL

-low-density lipoprotein - lipids low, high fats within it

what are immunoglobulins made of

-made of amino acids chains with free tips (bc antibodies are proteins) - ends are specific shapes for antigens

what does the sublingual gland produce

-mainly mucous - more viscous

what is diabetes mellitus

-means too much sugar in your blood - diabetes: more urine - mellitus: sweet, honey

what are sources of glycogen

-meats, liver, muscles -we make glycogen

what do endocrine glands help in regulating

-metabolic processes: rate of reaction -water balance regulating rate: try to keep it steady; blood pressure -growth and development

what are the 2 motor functions of the digestive systems

-mixing -propelling ( one direction)

what are the two types of agranular leukocytes

-monocytes -lymphocytes

give hypersecretion definition and example

-more hormone secreted -Ex: someone with gigantism -Ex: after puberty: acromegaly

lymph movement

-muscles contracting - pressure change by breathing - valves: preventing back flow

what does aldosterone do

-needed to regulate your body -helps kidneys reabsorb NA+ and release K+

what is natural passive immunity

-not making antibodies yourself, someone else gave them to you ex: mother giving antibodies to baby in fetus through lucent or through great milk gone after 6 months to a year

what does suprarenal mean?

-on top of kidneys ex: suprarenal gland

what does albumin do and what % does it make up of plasma proteins?

-osmotic pressure -60% -edema

what all do the acini cells secrete

-pancreatic amylase -pancreatic lipase - trypsin -chymotrypsin -carboxypeptidase

what is another name for parietal pericardium

-pericardial sac

what happens in the esophageal phase

-peristaltic waves (tooth paste ex) - just moving food, digestion ( no mechanical or chemical)

Unsaturated fats origin and characteristics

-plant origin -liquid at room temp: veg. oil, seeds, nuts, plant oils

what are not in the lymph

-plasma proteins -plasma proteins stay in the blood

where is oxytocin secreted and what does it do?

-posterior pituitary -muscle contraction in the uterus

where is antidiuretic hormone secreted and what does it do

-posterior pituitary -stops you from having to urinate -gets your kidneys to reabsorb the water -increases vasoconstriction

what do B cells do

-produce antibodies - drones

what Follicle stimulating hormone produce and stimulated

-production of sex cells ( produces sperm and matures eggs) -stimulates estrogen

What are the two cardiovascular circuits

-pulmonary -systemis

what happens in the intestinal phase

-pyloric sphincter opens and releases contents into intestine -inhibits secretions

what does thyroxine do

-regulated metabolism: releases energy, speeds up metabolism -accelerates growth -maturation of nervous system: if you don't have this you can have intellectual disabilities

what does calcitonin do

-regulates CA2+ and PO4- -tries to lower calcium -osteoclast vs. osteiblasts

what are some ways of controlling hormone secretion

-removed by breaking them down in the liver by enzymes - by excreting them in the urine (kidneys)

what results from the erythrocytes specific shape

-results in higher surface area - allows it to be more flexible -forms stacks: helps get through blood vessels, reduces congestion

what is peristalsis

-ring of contractions - then pushes

what is bile made of

-salts -some cholesterols -bile pigments: bilirubin

what happens in direct nervous stimulation

-sends impulse to adrenal gland+ releases adrenaline -action stops once you feel safe

what does the hypothalamus do

-serves as a link between the nervous system and the endocrine system -communicates with pituitary gland

what are micelles

-small fat droplets -what bile helps with

describe the tunica media and its function

-smooth muscle - some elastin -ANS controls this : -Vasoconstriction: blood vessel constricting - vasodilation: blood vessel dilating

what happens in the vascular phase

-smooth muscle spasms and constricts -endothelia and collagen becomes sticky at break

what does gastrin do? (what stage is it released at)

-stimulates juices and motility (mixing waves) -gastric phase

what are some things the liver does?

-stores vitamins and iron -removes toxins/ alcohol -aids in carbohydrate metabolism -aids with lipid metabolism -makes cholesterol -makes bile: does not store bile -protein metabolism

what does Ghrelin do

-stretch receptors from stomach tell to be released (when empty) - enhances appetite

where are the places from blood from

-superior and inferior vena cava -coronary sinus

What is the nasopharynx?

-superior to soft palate - leads to nasal cavity

Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic regarding digestion

-sympathetic: stressed, don't digest well - parasympathetic: when works

what are the classes of lymphocytes

-t cells : 80% - b cells : 15% -NK cells : 5 %

what happens in the pharyngeal phase

-tactile ( touch) receptors stimulate -brain stem sends motor command - larynx elevates closing epiglottis

what do lacteals do

-take up excess fluid - water/ solutes from plasma: lymph

what do lymph capillaries do

-take up interstitial fluid - lymph

what does the rectum do

-temporary storage for feces -"prison wallet"

what is the digestive system controlled by?

-the ANS - stretch and chemoreceptors ( nerves that go to CNS)

what is the largest organ in your body

-the liver -a.k.a detox center

what is the difference between diarrhea and vomit

-the sphincter -things that get past pyloric sphincter diarrhea

SA/ AV node

-these nodes are specialized cardiac muscle -keep the rhythm of heart steady

what do memory T cells do

-they're not active at first but will be next -will convert to cytotoxic T cells w/o delay

how do exocrine gland secrete

-through ducts to the exterior ex: sweat gland, digestive juices, saliva

what are three types of thyroid hormones

-thyroxine (T4) -Triiodothyronine(T3) -Calcitonin (CT)

where is the visceral peridcardium

-touches heart - aka. epicardium "on top of heart"

what does globulin do and what is the % in plasma proteins?

-transports lipids -can also be antibodies -36%

what is the colloid in follicles store

-two hormones secreted by follicular cells -iodine here and etc

what things does the mucosa layer have

-villi: projections -lamina propria (CT): blood vessels here -muscularis mucosa

what substances does the stomach absorb

-water -salts -alcohols -some lipids: from things like milk and butter

what is feces composed of

-water -undigested material -electrolytes -mucous: epithelial cells too from rubbing off -bacteria

what is the porta hepatis?

-where everything enters and leaves the liver - "window" "liver"

How many antibodies can 1 plasma cell make in an hour

100 million

How long do red blood cells last

120 days

how long is the small intestine

18-20 ft in length

what percentage of cells that go into the thymus come out

2 %

The pulmonary valve sends blood to

3 semilunar valves

the aortic valve sends blood to the

3 semilunar valves

How long does the gastric phase last

3-4 hours then goes to intestinal phase

how many chamber/ valves does the heart have

4

How long do erythrocytes last before they wear out?

4 months

what is the average white blood cell count

4,500-10,000/ mm3

what is the average capacity of a stomach

4l

how many classes of antibodies are there and what are their names

5 -IgG - IgE -IgD -IgM -IgA

there are about ___ different types of bacteria in your mouth

700

what are the 4 blood types

A, B, AB, O

what blood type is the universal recipient

AB

what regulates the cardiac cycle and how does it regulate it?

ANS - sympathetic vs parasympathetic

what controls the internal anal sphincter

ANS, smooth muscle, involuntary

what is the submucosa made of

CT: blood vessels here

what do steroid hormones alter?

DNA transcription and rate of protein synthesis: activates genes and protein products affect metabolism

what lasts much longer than neurotransmitters

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

what stimulates RBC

Erythropoietin

what antibodies are the first ones released after encounter

IgM's

what do interferons stimulate

NK and macrophages

what blood type is the universal donor

O

what type of structure does hemoglobin have

Quaternary

what is an erythrocyte

RBC cell

An RH+ person has

Rh factor aka antigens

the thymus has lobules where

T lymphocytes mature ( are NOT made here)

what are your lingual tonsils

WBC covered with mucous membrane

During a fever the body mobilizes defense meaning

WBC more vigorous

where are interferons released from

WBC or infected cells

what shape do erythrocytes have?

a biconcave shape

what is coagulation

a complex chain reaction with many clotting factors

what is the structure of a steroid hormone

a lipid with a complex carbon-ring

what can cause blood flow to decrease in the heart

a thrombus/ embolism

How long do thrombocytes live

about 10 days

How much glucose does a person need a day

about 150g/ day of glucose

what is the average red blood cell count

about 5 million/ mm^3

How long is the food tube

about 8m or 24 feet in length

what does the large intestine do

absorbs water, electrolytes, and even some vitamin

what creates, stores, and releases digestive enzymes

accessory organs

where do the pancreatic juices come from

acini cells

where is adrenal androgen secreted from

adrenal cortex

where is cortisol secreted from

adrenal cortex

what is norepinephrine the same as

adrenaline

what is serosa in the thoracic cavity called

adventitia

when does natural active immunity develop

after primary immune response Ex: I got chicken pox at 5 but never again

what hormone can you not survive long with

aldosterone

what is another word for the G.I tract

alimentary canal

what type of secretions do acini cells produce

alkaline (basic)

amine hormones are derived from

amino acids

what does the second messenger do

amplifies response, starts chain reactions

what do serous cells produce

amylase

what is another name starch

amylose

what is an arrhythmia

an abnormal pattern in the heart

what is metabolism

anabolism and catabolism

what is the sex hormone in males

androgens

where is thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted

anterior lobe of pituitary gland

where is follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted

anterior pituitary gland

what do B cells produce

antibodies

what do b cells produce to attack pathogens

antibodies

what do plasma cells make

antibodies

What antigen does Rh blood group have

antigen D

what is an antigen ( in terms of lymphatic system

any substance that induces immune response

ECG's can detect what

arrhythmias: abnormal patterns

what can dilate and constrict

arteries

A vaccination is an example of what

artificial active immunity

what are the four parts of the colon

ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid

where is bile released

at hepatopancreatic sphincter

what is systole

atria contracting

what do macrophages do regarding the foreign antigen

attach to foreign antigen by a self protein produced by MHC

where is the parietal pericardium

attached to diaphragm, sternum, etc

what do IgA's do

attack externally (in tears, saliva, semen, along respiratory and digestive tract)

what is chemotaxis

attracted to specific chemical

How do B cells activate

b cells activate after interacting with activated ( helper) T cells ( physical and chemical stimulation)

what happens to B cells after division

become memory B cells , larger, and plasma cells

when do specific defenses (immunity) happen?

before you were born

what do antigen- presenting cells do

begin the immune response

gastric lipase

begins butterfat digestion in gastric glands

pepsin

begins protein digestion in gastric glands

What cells do type 1 diabetes attack

beta cells: reduces insulin

what type of of buffer does saliva have

bicarbonate buffer

what type of nucleus do eosinphils have

bilobed nucleus

the spleen is filled with

blood

what carries nutrients to the liver from the small intestine villi

blood

what does hemostasis mean

blood stop

what is endocardium continuous with

blood vessels

what are mesenteries a route for

blood vessels, lymph vessels , and nerves

what is an essential nutrient

body can't make it, can't be synthesized must get these from your diet

acromegaly

bones thickened

what does gastric lipase do

break down fats (in milk and butter)

what does pancreatic lipase do

break down lipids( spilts glycerol and fatty acids into something smaller)

intestinal lipase

break downs fats into fatty acids and glycerol in intestine

what does chymotrypsin do

break proteins into peptides (smaller proteins)

what is catabolism

breaking down larger things

sucrase, maltase, lactase

breaks down disaccharides into monosacchardes in intestine

pancreatic lipase

breaks down fat into fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides

what does glucagon do

breaks down glycogen in the lier

nucleases

breaks down nucleic acid into nucleotides in pancreas

peptidase

breaks down peptides into amino acids in intestine

carboxypeptidase

breaks down peptides into amino acids in pancreas

trypisin, chymotrypsin

breaks down proteins or partially digested proteins into peptides in pancreas

lingual ipase

breaks down triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids

what color is oxyhemoglobin

bright red -affects RBC - Hb O2

what are on the outside of the small intestines villi

brush border: has enzymes and absorption

what are the 3 stages of deglutition

buccal, pharyngeal, esophageal

what do osteoblast do

build up done take it out of the blood and build more

what is atherosclerosis

build up of lipids : can cause blockage in heart

what are papillae

bumps for friction, for moving food around

how do epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate

by attaching to the cell membrane and getting G activate second messenger (cyclic amp)

what does pepsinogen do

by itself nothing but with help from HCL breaks down to pepsin- breaks down proteins into smaller proteins (peptides)

what can be the 2nd messenger in other cells

ca2+

what do clear cells release

calcintonin

what will calcitonin do regarding osteoclasts and osteoblast

calcitonin will inhibit osteoclasts and stimulate osteoblasts

what does the parathyroid assist with

calcium and potassium regulation (increasing)

What happens to the cells that don't come out of the thymus

can become B cells or NK cells

where does exchange occur

capillary beds

what varies with metabolic needs

capillary density

what's the first thing your body wants to use

carbohydrates

what are macronutrients

carbs, lipids, proteins

what is myocardium

cardiac muscle tissue

what are the chambers separated by? (syncytium)

cardiac skeleton

what does the submucosa do

carries away nutrients

what are the follicles in the thyroid gland

cavities lined with cuboidal cells

what are memory T cells produced from

cell division

What activates T cells

cell to cell contact

what do cells do before you're born

cells inventory before birth

what are intrinsic factors

chemical comes in contact with a foreign cell

what are extrinsic factors

chemical from tissue that was damaged

what is nutrient

chemical supplied from the environment required for survival

what do steriod hormones derive from

cholesterol

what lipid is found in yolk, dairy, and meats

cholesterol

where do steroids come from

cholesterol

Liver can convert to

cholesterol, triglyceride, phospholipids, lipoproteins

what cells are found in the adrenal medulla

chromaffin cells: modified ganglionic nerve fibers

what does melatonin regulate

circadian rhythm: light+ dark cycle

Are lymph capillaries closed or open ended

closed ended

what is an embolus

clot that broke free, can travel

what stimulated leukocytes

colony stimulating factor (CSF)

what does leptin do

comes from adipocyte/ suppresses appetite

what type of carbohydrate is a polysaccharide

complex carbohydrate

bile in the gallbladder is

concentrated

what does the nervous system require

continuous supple of sugars

lipids are stored in adipocytes or

converted to glucose ( glucongeogenesis)

enterokinase/ enteropeptidase

converts trypsinogen to trypsin in duedenum

what type of steroids does the adrenal cortex secrete

corticosteroids

what happens if you don't have enough B12 and folic acid

could mean can't produce protein

1st messenger give rise to

cyclic: amp (second messenger)

where does the hepatopancreatic sphincter back up to

cystic duct: if it's there for along time just becomes concentrated

what do WBC release

cytokines (Cell signal)

what do T cells secrete?

cytokines (because they're WBC)

what color is the spleen

dark red, hard to see

what color is deoxyhemoglobin

darker red - affects - Hb

what is the parietal pericardium made of

dense connective tissue and epithelial lining

what is it called when ventricles relax and pressure drops

diastolic pressure

what do osteoclast do

digest and break up bone and release it into the blood so you can have more

What does the small intestine do?

digest, absorb, transport: anything not digested is transported on

what are chief cells

digestive enzymes

what is the role of the digestive system in the body

digestive system provides the nutrients the cells need

what does the pituitary gland do

does a lot with your metabolism

why do erythrocytes have their specific shape

due to lack of organelles

what are the three parts of small intestine

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

what do monocytes do

eats bacteria and debris

what cytokine is released when you have a fever

endogenous pyrogen

what is endocardium made of

endothelium

what does -ase mean

enzyme

what is chemical digestion

enzymes break down from big sugar to small sugar

what is secreted from the adrenal medulla

epinephrine and norepinephrine

what hormone is released when your blood pressure is low

erythropoietin

what is it called if a fatty acid cannot be converted by the liver

essential fatty acids

what can adrenal androgen convert to

estrogen

what is artificial passive immunity

ex: snakebite by poisonous snake: take antivenoum: this antibody ex: erythroblastosis fetalis

what do you want the kidneys to do to lower calcium levels

excrete the calcium

what are some factors affecting red blood cell count

exercise, altitude

what type of nucleus do lymphocytes have

extremely large, little cytoplasm to see

what is the atrial syncytium generally separated from the ventricular syncytium by

fibrous rings

What do IgGs do?

fight against viruses bacteria, toxins

what is stimulated by epinephrine and norepinephrine

fight or flights response

what does the lymph node do

filters lymph

what is colloid

fluid in middle of follicle

the small intestine has many

folds and vili

what is a bolus

food mush in mouth

what is the purpose of lipids

for structure, transport, steroids

where is prolactin secreted

from anterior lobe of pituitary gland

what is the laryngopharynx

from epiglottis cricoid

where is the temporary storage for bile

gallbladder

where do stomach secretions come from

gastric pits and glands

what do oblique muscles do

give strength to your stomach, help with churning

what do alpha cells produce

glucagon

what is lipogenesis

glucose being converted to fat

what is a source of short term energy storage

glycogen

If there are carbohydrates attached to our protein it is now a

glycoprotein

what type of cells secrete from the small intestine

goblet (mucous) cells

what is the inter ventricular space

groove that separates the left and right ventriceles

what is the artioventricular sulcus

grove between the atrium and ventricle

what hormone does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secrete

growth hormone

what is special about myocardium

has it's own blood supply and nerve fibers

what is calor and what is it caused by

head, infection site is warmer

what does the cardiovascular system consist of?

heart, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins (then starts back over)

what do pancreatic islets do

help regulate sugar

what does pancreatic amylase do

helps breakdown starch and glycogen into smaller sugars

what does your parathyroid do

helps with metabolism and calcium

what does the pineal gland do

helps with sleep cycle

what does each chain include

heme - holds fe+ - Fe2+ loosely binds to O2

what do basophils release

histamine and heparin

what is function of cortisol

holds you over between meals

what do endocrine glands secrete

hormones to the blood

what is glycogenesis

how we make glycogen

what is another word for antibodies

immunoglobulins (Igs)

Where are the clear cells found?

in between areas of the follicle

where are lacteals found

in small intestine

where is norepinephrine made

in the adrenal gland (medulla)

where is epinephrine and norepinephrine stored and produced

in the chromaffin cells

where is the thymus found

in the mediastinum- on top of heart

where are tightly packed chief cells found?

in the parathyroid

30% of lymphocytes are found where

in your blood

where is your lower esophageal sphincter

in your stomach

Increase in blood volume means

increase in blood pressure

increase in friction ( clot, atheroschlerosis) means

increase in blood pressure

increase in heart rate means

increase in blood pressure

increase in viscosity means

increase in blood pressure

vasoconstriction means

increase in blood pressure

what happens when masticating

increase in food surface area

increase in temperature means

increase in heart rate

what does somatostatin do

inhibits alpha and beta cells

where is visceral located

inner pericardium

where is endocardium

inside the heart

what do beta cells release

insulin

what is quaternary structure

interacts with other peptiedes

what 2 sphincter muscles does the anus have

internal and external sphincters

what do parietal cells do

intrinsic factors which helps body absorb vitamin B which you need to make blood cells

what does the thyroid gland uptake

iodine

How does nonspecific immunity work

it attacks anything

how does specific immunity work

it specifically attacks; looking for specific pathogen

what happens to excess glucose

it's polymerized in liver/ muscles or adipocytes

what are lacteals

just capillaries in digestive system

what is the tongue

just muscle covered in mucous membrane

what shape is a lymph node

kidney-bean shape, all over body

describe large intestine

large in diameter, muscular tube

blood goes from the pulmonary trunk to

left or right pulmonary artery

what can less than 4,500 leukocytes result in

leukemia

What attaches the tongue to the bottom floor of the mouth

lingual frenulum

what transports micelles

lipoproteins

what time of blood pressure do veins have

low blood pressure

what is the pylores

lower tube leading to small intestine

what does too much K+ do

lowers heart rate

what does the parasympathetic part of ANS do regarding the cardiaccycle

lowers heart rate, relaxes

Veins have wide

lumens

describe order of lymph

lymph capillary --> lymph vessel --> lymph node --> lymphatic vessel --> lymphatic trunk --> collecting duct (2 L,R) --> subclavian vein

lymphatic vessels send to ___ where it acts as a filtration unit

lymph node

what system is the appendix a part of

lymphatic system, doesn't really help with digestion

lymph capillaries send to

lymphatic vessels

what is a lymph node? (Classification)

lymphoid organ

what are the two categories of nutrients

macronutrients and micronutrients

what are monocytes

macrophage: big eater

what do electrolytes do?

maintains osmotic pressure and pH (Buffer)

what does perforin do

make pores, makes these pores in abnormal unwanted cells, cause the cell burst

How does the liver aid with lipid metabolism

makes lipoproteins (a.k.a: globulins) helps transport fats

what do endocrine glands do to low blood pressure

makes you thirsty

what is hemopoiesis?

making formed elements

what is gluconeogenesis

making new sugars

what is lymphopoiesis

making of lymphocytes

what is anemia

means not enough iron in your diet

what does diapedesis mean

means they can migrate out the blood stream

what is digestion

mechanical and chemical breakdown of food

what is the 1st line of defense in nonspecific immunity

mechanical barriers

what is an example of a good antioxidant

melantonin

what doe the pineal cells in the pineal gland secrete

melatonin

what is the greater omentum

membrane, greater curve, fatty pad helps protect

what is the lesser omentum

membrane, on lesser curve

what are the electrolytes released by?

metabolism (recycled)

triiodothyronine is ____ than thyroxine

more potent does all the same stuff

the digestive tract is from

mouth to anus

what does MALT stand for

mucosa associated lymphoid tissue

what are the four layers of the digestive system

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa

what does the large intestine excrete

mucous

saliva is composed of

mucous cells and serous cells

what is the mucosa layer made of

mucous epithelium

what is the small intestine villi made of

mucous membrane and lamina propria (CT)

Describe the nucleus of a neutrophil

multi-lobed

what hormone is released if your blood pressure is too high

natriuretic

secretions are controlled

neurally and hormonally

what granular leukocyte is in highest abundance

neutrophil

what granular leukocyte is 1st at the infection site

neutrophils

An Rh- person has no Rh factor..

no antibodies but they can form

Do adipocytes hold glucose

no, they only hold fat

Is cholesterol necessary in your diet

no, we make it

the phospholipid bilayer is

non polar aka cell membrane

are lipids polar or non polar?

non polar allows for diffusion

are steroid hormones polar or non polar

non polar :hydrophobic

Describe diffusion in capillary beds

non-polar gases: CO2/ O2: can diffuse across the membrane without going through slits

what need to be learned in T and B cells ( specific defense)

non-self antigens

what nucleus type do basophils have

obscured nucleus

what is lymph edema

obstruction to lymphatic system

what is an example of an essential fatty acid

omega-6/ omega-3 fatty acids

where are enzymes found

on microvilli

where is parietal located

on the outside

what's the difference between salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase

one is secreted in mouth and other is secreted in pancreas but they both break down starch and glycogen (Carbs) into disacchardies

what does the hepatopancreatic sphincter open up

only at meal time

when does the esophageal sphincter open

open when food goes down, prevents regurgitation

what does dolor mean

pain

what is elephantitis

parasitic infection resulting in extreme fluid build up

what controls the salivary glands

parasympathetic division of ANS

what two things do chief cells produce

pepsinogen and gastric lipase

what are short chains of amino acids ( less than 50)

peptide hormones

what do T cells produce

perforine

what is the type of membrane around stomach and intestine

peritoneal membrane

what do neutrophils do

phagocytize foreign material

what types of lipids are found in food

phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides

what is mechanical digestion

physically chewing and moving up

what is oxytocin associated with

pituitary

what gland is considered the master gland

pituitary gland

what are thrombocytes

platelets

what happens in the platelet phase

platelets attach to sticky area

Salivary glands are activated when

pleasant food

What is the oropharynx?

posterior to mouth

what is jaundice

premature liver, yellow skin

what is a vaccine

preparation of an antigen

what are the two types of immune response

primary and secondary

what do parietal cells in the stomach do

produce HCL

what do mucous cells in the stomach do

produce mucous to protect from acidic environment

Response to steroid's is

proportionate ( to how much you have) ex: a little testosterone a little muscle mass

what does the mucosa layer do

protect, secretes, and absorbs

what hormones are folded to specific shapes for specific receptors later on?

protein

more than 50 amino acids long describes a

protein hormone

what attaches to a receptor cell activating G protein

protein hormone

blood flows from the left atrium by

pulmonary veins

what do WBC have that help them with specific defense immunity

receptors to distinguish self from non self

what do macrophages do in specific immunity

recognize and alert lymphocytes to invader

what do lymphocytes do in immune response

recognize and bind to the invader activating T cells and chain reaction of events

Iron is ___ but some may be lost

recycled

what does rubor mean and what is it caused by

red, from blood vessels dilating

what does the digestive tract do

release hormone to help appetite

what does the heart and gonads do

release hormones

Interferons increase

resistance in uninfected cells

what are the four things that are associated with inflammation

rubor, tumor, calor, dolor

what is a solvent that dissolves food for taste and cleans mouth and teeth

saliva

what does the serosa layer do

secretes serous fluid

the thyroid gland has many

secretory parts

what type of secretion is autocrin

self secretion

the 3 types of lymphocytes are all __

sensitive to antigens

what do platelets secrete for muscle spasm

serotonin

how do thrombocytes release

serotonin: contraction of vessels

What does the submandibular gland secrete?

serous and mucous cells ( a little thicker)

what does the parotid gland secrete

serous cells (watery saliva)

describe the duodenum

shortest one, fixed to wall

antibodies agglutinate with what

similar antigens (bad)

what are mechanical barriers found

skin and mucous lining, prevents entrance

there are about 7,000 microbes in the

small and large intestine

there are 4 layers found in

small intestine, large intestine , etc

what causes mixing

smooth muscle contracting in rhythm

describe the thymus

soft, bilobed

what hormone is associated with delta cells

somatostatin

what does the sympathetic part of the ANS do regarding reg of cardiac cycle

speeds up due to stress

what is the largest lymphoid organ

spleen

what do mesenteries do

stabilize organs little flap

Salivary glands allow for a little chemical digestion of

starch and glycogen (both complex carbs)

what are three types of polysaccharides

starch, glycogen, cellulose

what are hemocytoblasts

stem cell, can become some type of formed element

what are the two types of hormones

steroid and non-steroid (protein)

what do histamines do

stimulate inflammation

what stimulates thrombocytes

stimulated by thrombopoietin

what is prolactin

stimulates milk production in females

where is lutenizing hormone secreted and what does it do

stimulates secretion of sex hormone

How does the liver aid in carbohydrate metabolism

stores glycogen

what cells are found in the esophagus

stratified squamous cells

what does the sympathetic nervous system deal with

stress

What is a function of cholesterol

structural material, makes steroids

what are carbohydrates

sugars and starches

how blood flow

super/inferior vena cava -->coronary sinus --> r. atrium --->tricuspid valve-->, r.ventricle--->, pulmonary valve --> lungs ---> L. atrium --> bicuspid valve --> L. ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta

What is an antigen

surface proteins, needed for recognition

what is edema

swell from fluids

what does tumor mean and what it is caused by

swelling, blood capillaries opening up

what division of the ANS sends the signal to the adrenal medulla

sympathetic division

what is max pressure at

systolic pressure: ventricles art contracting

what does trypsin do?

takes proteins and breaks them down into peptides

what are some of the hardest substance in your body

teeth

what does insulin do

tells cells to take up extra sugar

what is mastication

the act of chewing, mostly mechanical

what is the largest artery

the aorta

what is the distribution of blood volume within the body

the blood reservoir

where do stomach secretions dominate

the body and fundus

what must you make sure of in transplants

the cells surfaces match (antigen)

what causes the "lubb-dupp" sound

the doors (valves) in your heart closing

what is appetite

the drive to seek food, controlled neurally and hormonally

If gallbladder contents precipitate what happens

the forming of gallstones

where does the pulmonary circuit go

the heart area around it

what is a releasing hormone

the hormone that goes from the hypothalamus to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

what is controlled by the hypothalamus

the hypophysis

what stimulates the anterior pituitary

the hypothalamus

what produces erythropoietin

the kidney

what is one of the only regenerating organs

the liver

what is the pericardium

the membrane layer around the heart

what is the mesocolon

the mesentery that attaches to the colon

what is the medulla directly stimulated from

the nervous systems

what increase calcium in the blood

the parathyroid

what happens to lymph movement if obstruction occurs

then tissue fluid with accumulate

what do NK cells do

there are looking for normal looking cells that are infected ( usually cancer cells

what happens to damaged red blood cells

they are phagocytized in the spleen and liver

since the protein hormones are polar this means

they cannot diffuse or get through the membrane

what do leukocytes do

they protect

what happens to sugars you intake

they will be converted to ribose, deoxyribose (RNA/DNA) and lactose

what happens to other monosaccharides

they're absorbed and converted to glucose

In gluconeogenesis what happens to proteins

they're broken down to amino acids and converted to glucose

the left ventricle is much

thicker than the right more myocardium due to pumping more long distances

lymphatic vessels are __ than veins and ___ than arteries

thinner than veins, thinner than arteries

Veins have ___ walls and are less __ than arteries

thinner walls, less elastic

what does heparin do

thins your blood to prevent clotting

what produces platelets

thrombopoietin (TPO)

what is another word for clot

thrombus

what does the thymus secrete for maturation

thymosin

what is the colloid in follicles called

thyroglobulin

what is a myocardial infarction (MI)

tissue is dying, Heart attack

what is endothelia

tissue of blood vessels

What is endothelium?

tissues of the blood vessels

what is the spleens purpose

to filter damaged red blood cells

where does the systemic circuit go

to the rest of your body systems

too little CA2+ do to heart rate

too much, too fast

what is our long term energy storage

triglycerides

what is the main lipid that we what

triglycerides

What can cause premature puberty

tumors on the pineal gland

Salivary glands are inhibited by

unpleasant food

what is the fundus

upper part of stomach "storage"

what does the liver convert nitrogen to

urea

what do IgE's do

used with basophils (release histamine and heparin) and mast cells

what is the QRS complex associated with

ventricles contracting

what is the T-wave associated with

ventricles contracting

what is diastole

ventricles relaxing

what type of nucleus does a monocyte have

very large

What is the serosa layer made of ?

visceral peritoneum

Whats helps you absorb more iron

vitamin C

What causes you to lose iron

vitamin T

what are micronutrients

vitamins and minerals

what controls the external anal sphincter

voluntary, skeletal muscle

what do endocrine glands do to high blood pressure

wants you to stop drinking

if the pathogen gets through all of these things then

we go to specific ( innate) immunity

what is atrial systole

when pressure increases

when do WBC work better

when the environment is warmer

what is cyanosis

when you don't have enough oxygen, lips, and fingers can turn blue

what does the uvula do

when you swallow this closes so no nasal entrance, part of soft palate

what is the mediastinum

where the heart is located

what are leukocytes

white blood cells (WBCs)

what zone of the adrenal cortex does cortisol come from

zona fasciculata

what zone of the adrenal cortex does adrenal androgen come from

zona reticularis

what zone of the adrenal cortex does aldosterone come from

zone glomerulosa


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