Chegg notes A&P topics
what is anal canal
"funnel"
what does species resistance mean and what causes it to occur
- " I get sick but Pusheen doesn't" - cells lack proper receptors - incompatible environment for these pathogen - this would be can example of adaptive ( specific: b and t) immunity
what is anabolism
- "add" - to build up
what do collectins do
- (collects) sticks to non-self items - ex: Kazery collecting trash items around room
what is the muscularis externa made of
- 2 layers of smooth muscle 1. circular 2. longitudinal
what are the 3 parts of an ECG wave
- P-wave: little change - QRS complex: big electrical change - T-wave: bigger than first, but still small electrical change
what are the first two fatty acid tails of triglyceride and example of
- a saturated fat - the carbon can't be bonded to anything else
what does cortisol do
- affects carbs, fats, and protein metabolism -fats will broken down into smaller things fatty acids -proteins will be broken down to amino acids -catbs will be built up
ACTH is released and stimulates what?
- alpha cells -beta cells - delta cells
what do cytokines do in WBC
- assist in activating T cells and B cells - activates macrophages
what are the functions of blood
- blood helps transport nutrients/ gases -helps distribute heat - helps regulate pH -assists with injury - great defense: when you get a cut and bacteria gets in
Describe filtration through capillary beds
- blood pressure pushes stuff through - hydrostatic pressure: "4 lanes change to 2" - at arteriole end fluid pushes out of slits, plasma leaves
what is arterial pressure affected by
- blood volume -heart rate -friction -viscosity
what happens in the buccal phase
- bolus gets pushed back - shit off of soft palate - voluntary
describe syncytium
- cardiac muscle fibers connected by intercalated discs and gap junctions to from a syncytium - if any part of the syncytium is stimulated, the entire network contracts
what does neuropeptide y do
- comes from hypothalamus -enhances appetite
what do defensins do (3)
- complement antibodies - attack non self cells - make holes
what is blood composed of
- connective tissue: - plasma: mostly water, 1% ions and waste - plasma proteins: proteins floating around with specific jobs - formed elements: RBC, WBC, platelets( thrombocytes)
Capillaries change blod flow by
- constricting and relaxing - vasomotion
what does insulin do in the endocrine system
- decrease glucose ( a.k.a Build up glycogen) - stimulates adipocytes- fat cells
what are three types of exchange that can occur in capillary beds
- diffusion -filtration -osmosis
what are the 3 layers of lymphatic vessels
- endothelium: continuous - smooth muscle - connective tissue
what happens to fats in gluconeogenesis
- fats break down to glycerol and are converted to glucose -fats break down to fatty acids and are converted to acetyl CoA ( cellular respiration Krebs cycle)
what are the functions of lymph node
- filters potentially harmful par tiles from lymph - monitors fluid
what are the functions of the lymphatic system
- fluid balance: lymph - lipid absorption: lacteals -defense: lymphocytes ( primary cells): respond to specific pathogens
what are examples of chemical barriers, what type of immunity does it belong to
- gastric juices: acidic- not much can survive enzymes - tears: enzymes - sweat: salty, a lot can't - nonspecific immunity
what is our primary fuel source
- glucose ( carb) - for cellular respiration
what are the two classes of leukocytes
- granular leukocytes -agranular leukocyres
What are your two types of palates and what are they made of
- hard: bone - soft: just muscle
what makes up a lymph node
- hilum - efferent vessel: leaving - afferent vessel: coming in - capsule extends inward: makes little rooms ( compartments)
where are electrolytes absorbed
- in GI tract : there will absorb some - NA+, Cl-, HCO3-
Describe type 2 diabetes
- insulin resistance: not being recognized, sugar isn't being taken up like it normally does - usually occurs in overweight people
what do interferons do
- interfere with enemy - ex: call while being murdered before murderer goes to kill someone else
what happens in autoimmunity
- loss of ability to tolerate self- antigens aka: can't tolerate own antigens -autoantibodies
The nodule (capsule) of lymph node contains...
- lymphocytes -B and T cells - macrophages -and spaces for lymph flow
what is the white pulp in the spleen
- macrophages and lymphocytes - can trigger immune response
Describe the alimentary canal
- muscular tube -all covered with mucous membrane - all along this tube have folds for SA- this means it can absorb more
what are the three types of granular leukocytes
- neutrophils -eosinophils -basophils
what are the two types of immunity
- nonspecific ( innate) - specific (adapt)
what is hypoglycemia and what causes it
- not enough sugar in your blood - high insulin, strenuous excercise, etc
describe cappillaries
- only one cell thick -made of endothelium: only layer just continuous -semipermeable -silts
what are sources of cellulose and what's unique about it
- parallel lines, no branching - undigestable -vegetables -dietary fiber
what are the three types of salivary glands
- parotid - submandibular - sublinqual
what are the two sets of teeth you have
- primary (20) - secondary (32)
what causes the "dupp" sound
- pulmonary and aortic (valves in center) closing - second sound heard
calcitonin is triggered by what
- reading the concentration in blood levels (c cells read the blood Ex: direct glandular response
what do electrocardiograms (ECG/EKG) do
- recording of electrical activity in the heart - detects the cells of your heart de/re polarizing - can be detected at surface
where are the two places cell division happens ( in t cells )
- red bone marrow - tissues
what do eosinophils do
- reduce allergic reactions -parasite defense
Describe phagocytosis ( what cells do it, what immunity this is characteristic of )
- remove foreign material - neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes - nonspecific immunity
veins have the same ___ as arteries
- same 3 layers - tunica intima, media, and externa
what do the platelets secrete and what does this secretion cause
- secrete ADP and CA+2 - this cause platelet aggregation ( makes platelets stick to them)
what are disaccharides and some sources of them
- sucrose, maltose, lactose - milk, sugar, cane/beet sugar molasses
Describe the distribution in the blood reservoir:
- systemic venous system: 64% - pulmonary circuit: 9% - heart: 7% - systemic system: 13% - Systemic capillaries: 7%
Describe what happens in primary response
- takes a couple days for B+T cells to activate -IgM comes first then dwindles, then IgG comes then dwindles as you better
what does endogenous pyrogen do when you have a fever
- tells the liver and spleen to hold on to Fe2+ that we've been recycling -inhibits pathogen
what is deglutition
- the act of swallowing - voluntary but becomes automatic
what causes the "lubb" sound
- the aortic valves closing -this is the first sound
what do T cells do?
- the directly attack specific invaders - "detectives"
what does the thymus secrete
- thymosin - stimulates lymphocytes that have migrated to other areas
what are the three layers of an artery
- tunica intima -tunica media - tunica externa
Veins art assisted by
- valves to prevent back flow -muscle and lungs
what are the three stages of hemostasis
- vascular stage -platelet phase -coagulation
what is the body of the stomach also called and what substance does it contain
-"mixing bowl" -chyme
follicular cells secrete what
-2 hormones -these hormones affect metabolism
how many glands make up parathyroid
-4 glands on back side of thyroid - produces PTH
what are the plasma componets
-92% water - 7% proteins (plasma proteins)
what aids in RBC production
-B12 + folic acid - Fe
Gases and nutrients
-CO2, O2, N2 - simple sugars, amino acids, lipids
what is most common typer of antibodies
-IgG - make up 80%
Describe secondary response
-IgM's still produces - IgG"s take off immediately no recognition needed bc memory cells
what are two types of cells lymphocytes have
-T cells - B cells
what does the tricuspid valve do
-a.k.a right av valve - prevents back flow of blood - chordae tendineae to papillary muscles
about how many thrombocytes does everyone have
-about 250,00/mm3 -if you get into the hundred thousand usually disease
what are the two lobes of the pituitary gland
-adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) - neurohypophysis (posterior lobe)
what are the two parts of the adrenal gland
-adrenal medulla -adrenal cortex
Describe osmosis at capillary beds
-aid water movement -proteins left in capillaries (Plasma proteins, ex: albumins) -water goes back in capillary at venule end
what are the 3 plasma proteins
-albumin -globulin -fibrinogen
lymph nodes located
-along path of larger lymphatic vessels - clustered particularly in cervical, axillary, inguinal regions and pelvic, abdominal, and thoracic cavities
How does the liver help with protein metabolism
-amination: making amino acids -transamination: changing one a.a to another -demination: breaking down a.a -clotting factors
what are the three types of non-steroid (protein) hormones?
-amine hormones -peptide hormones -protein hormones
what's another name for starch and what are sources of it
-amylose -comes from grains and vegetables: we can't make starch
what is peptidase and what does it do
-an enzyme - works on peptides, break down amino acids
Saturated fats origin and characteristics
-animal origins - solid at room temp - meats, eggs, milk, lard, coconut oil
where is adrenocorticotropic hormone secreted and what does it act on
-anterior pituitary -adrenal gland
what does the large intestine start
-at the cecum -compaction of feces
Describe the cardiac cycle
-atria contract (systole) as ventricles relax (diastole), and vice versa -blood pressure to rise and fall pulse
Describe hasimoto's disease
-autoantibodies attack thyroid -hypothyroidism -symptoms: cold, low metabolism, mental dullness
what is happening in graves disease
-autoantibodies on TSH receptors -thyroid works when it shouldn't -hyperthyroidism -Symptoms: hot all the time, weight loss, hyper
Describe type 1 diabetes
-autoimmune - adipocytes not stored so now in blood: can cause bad before
What happens in the cephalic phase
-before reaching stomach -stimulated by CNS -ex: thinking of food and stomach growling
what happens in direct glandular response
-blood with glucose goes to pancreas -pancreas stabilizes sugar by secreting insulin -insulin goes throughout body telling cells to absorb extra glucose
describe the adrenal cortex
-bulk of the adrenal gland -outer structure -divided into three zones
what are the three phases of the stomach
-cephalic phase -gastric phase - intestinal phase
What are the actions of the heart
-chambers function in coordinated fashion -cardiac cycle
what is a neurotransmitter and what does it do
-chemical released by cell -nerve takes input to destination
Describe the esophagus
-collapsible tube -4 layers - no serosa, now called adventitia -esophageal hiatus in diaphragm - lower esophageal sphincter
what are the nonprotein nitrogenous sources
-creatine, creatinine, urea, uric acid -Levels remain stable.... -blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
what will some T cells become after division
-cytotxic T cells -these secrete perforin
adrenal glands
-deals with kidney's getting rid of water -help with stress
what are teeth made of
-dentin and enamel - are not bone
the thymus's size
-differs with age - slowly shrinks after puberty
steps in regulating high blood pressure
-dilation of blood vessels -suppression of thirst -inhibition of antagonistic hormones -Na+ and water loss from kidneys -homeostasis restored
what happens to fix erythroblastosis fetalis
-doctor gives mother antibodies to destroy babies RBC inside of mom will last a couple months before out of body ex: artificial passive immunity
what makes up lymphoid tissue
-dominated by lymphocytes: no CT capsule - malt, tonsils, appendix
what causes the stomach rupture
-due to blockage of sphincter -gases caused extra pressure
what is one type of cytokine
-endogenous pyrogen - means " fire maker from within"
what are lymph capillaries made of
-endothelium - because they're just one layer thick, so continuous
triglycerides provide a lot of
-energy - about 9 calories/ gram
what is intestinal lipase
-enzyme -breaks down fats
what are sucrase, maltase, and lactase and what do they have in common
-enzymes -all disaccarides -but disaccarides are still too big to digest
the cardiac cycle is affected by
-exercise: increases heart rate - temperature - ion concentration
Describe the tunica externa
-external layer - connective tissue sheath
what is coagulation triggered by
-extrinsic factors -intrinsic factors -both lead to prothrombinase -ends with fibrinogen becoming fibrin (insoluble)
triglycerides characteristics
-fats and oils - glycerol and 3 fatty acids - can't absorb so must be broken down
how blood supply goes
-first 2 branches f aorta- coronary arteries -to the myocardium -returns by coronary sinus
what is the cardiac skeleton made of and what does it do
-flexible connective tissue - encircles heart valves -stabilizes and isolates during contraction
what happens in the gastric phase
-food enter stomach - distention -releases gastrin
what are the origins of lymphocytes
-formed in red bone marrow - start as stem cells ( hemocytoblasts
what are the three main parts your stomach
-fundus -body -pylores
what are monosaccharides and where do they come from
-glucose, fructose, galactose - found in honey and fruits
What does segmentation happen and what motor function is it an example of
-happens in small intestine ex. of mixing
where do waves occur and what motor function is an example of
-happens in stomach ex. of mixing
what are antibodies
-have the opposite types as antigens ex: blood type A- A antigens, B antibodies
what are some secondary organs of the endocrine system
-heart -digestive tract -gonads
what does fibrinogen do and what is it's % in plasma proteins
-helps with blood clotting: coagulation ( process of blood clotting - 4%
what does your thyroid gland do
-helps with metabolism speed up -helps with calcium
What is erythroblastosis fetalis?
-hemolytic disease of the newborn - can cause miscarriage if not tracked -mothers cells attack fetus
What is HDL
-high density lipoproteins, low fat -ex: rock sinks in pond
Endocrine
-hormones -going to the blood stream -distance to receptor cell
Describe what allergies are and what's happening
-hypersensitivity -allergens have antigens -interacts with IgE and basophil then release histamine
what are the three ways to restore or stop production
-hypothalamus -direct nervous stimulation -direct glandular response
what are the main organs of endocrine system
-hypothalamus -pituitary gland -thyroid gland -parathyroid -adrenal glands -pancreatic islets -pineal gland
what are the types of teeth
-incisors: first 4 teeth, scissor like, tearing - canines ( cuspids): ripping, tearing on sides - premolars/ molars: for grinding food , in the back
what is positive feedback and what's an example of it
-increasing the reaction to make a change - the platelets secreting more and more is an example
Describe the adrenal medulla
-innermost portion of adrenal gland: made up of loose cells- these cells produce two hormones
Describe the tunica intima and its functions
-internal most layer -made of endothelium -connective tissue with elastin (Stretch) and collagen (strength) - secretes substance to inhibit platelet aggreagtion
what else aids in secretion from the small intestine
-intestinal glands -produces enterokinase: takes tryspinogen and convert to trypsin
what is inside the cell
-intracellular proteins -hemoglobin (HB) - 95% of all proteins in the cell are now hemoglobin
Describe the condition gioter
-iodine deficiency - or the pituitary gland is not being stimulated
what does parathyroid hormone stimulate
-kidneys to reabsorb -intestines to absorb - osteoclast stimulation
what is hypo secretion and what's and example of someone affected by it
-less hormone is secreted -ex: people with dwarfism
paracrine factors
-local hormone -interstitial fluid (ISF)
what does growth hormone affect
-long bone growth -amino acid movement : move into cells and building -mitosis rate: increase
Describe the jejunum
-longer, not fixed -chemical digestion and absorption
Describe the lleum
-longest -lymph nodules found here "MALT" -gut flora
what is LDL
-low-density lipoprotein - lipids low, high fats within it
what are immunoglobulins made of
-made of amino acids chains with free tips (bc antibodies are proteins) - ends are specific shapes for antigens
what does the sublingual gland produce
-mainly mucous - more viscous
what is diabetes mellitus
-means too much sugar in your blood - diabetes: more urine - mellitus: sweet, honey
what are sources of glycogen
-meats, liver, muscles -we make glycogen
what do endocrine glands help in regulating
-metabolic processes: rate of reaction -water balance regulating rate: try to keep it steady; blood pressure -growth and development
what are the 2 motor functions of the digestive systems
-mixing -propelling ( one direction)
what are the two types of agranular leukocytes
-monocytes -lymphocytes
give hypersecretion definition and example
-more hormone secreted -Ex: someone with gigantism -Ex: after puberty: acromegaly
lymph movement
-muscles contracting - pressure change by breathing - valves: preventing back flow
what does aldosterone do
-needed to regulate your body -helps kidneys reabsorb NA+ and release K+
what is natural passive immunity
-not making antibodies yourself, someone else gave them to you ex: mother giving antibodies to baby in fetus through lucent or through great milk gone after 6 months to a year
what does suprarenal mean?
-on top of kidneys ex: suprarenal gland
what does albumin do and what % does it make up of plasma proteins?
-osmotic pressure -60% -edema
what all do the acini cells secrete
-pancreatic amylase -pancreatic lipase - trypsin -chymotrypsin -carboxypeptidase
what is another name for parietal pericardium
-pericardial sac
what happens in the esophageal phase
-peristaltic waves (tooth paste ex) - just moving food, digestion ( no mechanical or chemical)
Unsaturated fats origin and characteristics
-plant origin -liquid at room temp: veg. oil, seeds, nuts, plant oils
what are not in the lymph
-plasma proteins -plasma proteins stay in the blood
where is oxytocin secreted and what does it do?
-posterior pituitary -muscle contraction in the uterus
where is antidiuretic hormone secreted and what does it do
-posterior pituitary -stops you from having to urinate -gets your kidneys to reabsorb the water -increases vasoconstriction
what do B cells do
-produce antibodies - drones
what Follicle stimulating hormone produce and stimulated
-production of sex cells ( produces sperm and matures eggs) -stimulates estrogen
What are the two cardiovascular circuits
-pulmonary -systemis
what happens in the intestinal phase
-pyloric sphincter opens and releases contents into intestine -inhibits secretions
what does thyroxine do
-regulated metabolism: releases energy, speeds up metabolism -accelerates growth -maturation of nervous system: if you don't have this you can have intellectual disabilities
what does calcitonin do
-regulates CA2+ and PO4- -tries to lower calcium -osteoclast vs. osteiblasts
what are some ways of controlling hormone secretion
-removed by breaking them down in the liver by enzymes - by excreting them in the urine (kidneys)
what results from the erythrocytes specific shape
-results in higher surface area - allows it to be more flexible -forms stacks: helps get through blood vessels, reduces congestion
what is peristalsis
-ring of contractions - then pushes
what is bile made of
-salts -some cholesterols -bile pigments: bilirubin
what happens in direct nervous stimulation
-sends impulse to adrenal gland+ releases adrenaline -action stops once you feel safe
what does the hypothalamus do
-serves as a link between the nervous system and the endocrine system -communicates with pituitary gland
what are micelles
-small fat droplets -what bile helps with
describe the tunica media and its function
-smooth muscle - some elastin -ANS controls this : -Vasoconstriction: blood vessel constricting - vasodilation: blood vessel dilating
what happens in the vascular phase
-smooth muscle spasms and constricts -endothelia and collagen becomes sticky at break
what does gastrin do? (what stage is it released at)
-stimulates juices and motility (mixing waves) -gastric phase
what are some things the liver does?
-stores vitamins and iron -removes toxins/ alcohol -aids in carbohydrate metabolism -aids with lipid metabolism -makes cholesterol -makes bile: does not store bile -protein metabolism
what does Ghrelin do
-stretch receptors from stomach tell to be released (when empty) - enhances appetite
where are the places from blood from
-superior and inferior vena cava -coronary sinus
What is the nasopharynx?
-superior to soft palate - leads to nasal cavity
Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic regarding digestion
-sympathetic: stressed, don't digest well - parasympathetic: when works
what are the classes of lymphocytes
-t cells : 80% - b cells : 15% -NK cells : 5 %
what happens in the pharyngeal phase
-tactile ( touch) receptors stimulate -brain stem sends motor command - larynx elevates closing epiglottis
what do lacteals do
-take up excess fluid - water/ solutes from plasma: lymph
what do lymph capillaries do
-take up interstitial fluid - lymph
what does the rectum do
-temporary storage for feces -"prison wallet"
what is the digestive system controlled by?
-the ANS - stretch and chemoreceptors ( nerves that go to CNS)
what is the largest organ in your body
-the liver -a.k.a detox center
what is the difference between diarrhea and vomit
-the sphincter -things that get past pyloric sphincter diarrhea
SA/ AV node
-these nodes are specialized cardiac muscle -keep the rhythm of heart steady
what do memory T cells do
-they're not active at first but will be next -will convert to cytotoxic T cells w/o delay
how do exocrine gland secrete
-through ducts to the exterior ex: sweat gland, digestive juices, saliva
what are three types of thyroid hormones
-thyroxine (T4) -Triiodothyronine(T3) -Calcitonin (CT)
where is the visceral peridcardium
-touches heart - aka. epicardium "on top of heart"
what does globulin do and what is the % in plasma proteins?
-transports lipids -can also be antibodies -36%
what is the colloid in follicles store
-two hormones secreted by follicular cells -iodine here and etc
what things does the mucosa layer have
-villi: projections -lamina propria (CT): blood vessels here -muscularis mucosa
what substances does the stomach absorb
-water -salts -alcohols -some lipids: from things like milk and butter
what is feces composed of
-water -undigested material -electrolytes -mucous: epithelial cells too from rubbing off -bacteria
what is the porta hepatis?
-where everything enters and leaves the liver - "window" "liver"
How many antibodies can 1 plasma cell make in an hour
100 million
How long do red blood cells last
120 days
how long is the small intestine
18-20 ft in length
what percentage of cells that go into the thymus come out
2 %
The pulmonary valve sends blood to
3 semilunar valves
the aortic valve sends blood to the
3 semilunar valves
How long does the gastric phase last
3-4 hours then goes to intestinal phase
how many chamber/ valves does the heart have
4
How long do erythrocytes last before they wear out?
4 months
what is the average white blood cell count
4,500-10,000/ mm3
what is the average capacity of a stomach
4l
how many classes of antibodies are there and what are their names
5 -IgG - IgE -IgD -IgM -IgA
there are about ___ different types of bacteria in your mouth
700
what are the 4 blood types
A, B, AB, O
what blood type is the universal recipient
AB
what regulates the cardiac cycle and how does it regulate it?
ANS - sympathetic vs parasympathetic
what controls the internal anal sphincter
ANS, smooth muscle, involuntary
what is the submucosa made of
CT: blood vessels here
what do steroid hormones alter?
DNA transcription and rate of protein synthesis: activates genes and protein products affect metabolism
what lasts much longer than neurotransmitters
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
what stimulates RBC
Erythropoietin
what antibodies are the first ones released after encounter
IgM's
what do interferons stimulate
NK and macrophages
what blood type is the universal donor
O
what type of structure does hemoglobin have
Quaternary
what is an erythrocyte
RBC cell
An RH+ person has
Rh factor aka antigens
the thymus has lobules where
T lymphocytes mature ( are NOT made here)
what are your lingual tonsils
WBC covered with mucous membrane
During a fever the body mobilizes defense meaning
WBC more vigorous
where are interferons released from
WBC or infected cells
what shape do erythrocytes have?
a biconcave shape
what is coagulation
a complex chain reaction with many clotting factors
what is the structure of a steroid hormone
a lipid with a complex carbon-ring
what can cause blood flow to decrease in the heart
a thrombus/ embolism
How long do thrombocytes live
about 10 days
How much glucose does a person need a day
about 150g/ day of glucose
what is the average red blood cell count
about 5 million/ mm^3
How long is the food tube
about 8m or 24 feet in length
what does the large intestine do
absorbs water, electrolytes, and even some vitamin
what creates, stores, and releases digestive enzymes
accessory organs
where do the pancreatic juices come from
acini cells
where is adrenal androgen secreted from
adrenal cortex
where is cortisol secreted from
adrenal cortex
what is norepinephrine the same as
adrenaline
what is serosa in the thoracic cavity called
adventitia
when does natural active immunity develop
after primary immune response Ex: I got chicken pox at 5 but never again
what hormone can you not survive long with
aldosterone
what is another word for the G.I tract
alimentary canal
what type of secretions do acini cells produce
alkaline (basic)
amine hormones are derived from
amino acids
what does the second messenger do
amplifies response, starts chain reactions
what do serous cells produce
amylase
what is another name starch
amylose
what is an arrhythmia
an abnormal pattern in the heart
what is metabolism
anabolism and catabolism
what is the sex hormone in males
androgens
where is thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted
anterior lobe of pituitary gland
where is follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted
anterior pituitary gland
what do B cells produce
antibodies
what do b cells produce to attack pathogens
antibodies
what do plasma cells make
antibodies
What antigen does Rh blood group have
antigen D
what is an antigen ( in terms of lymphatic system
any substance that induces immune response
ECG's can detect what
arrhythmias: abnormal patterns
what can dilate and constrict
arteries
A vaccination is an example of what
artificial active immunity
what are the four parts of the colon
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
where is bile released
at hepatopancreatic sphincter
what is systole
atria contracting
what do macrophages do regarding the foreign antigen
attach to foreign antigen by a self protein produced by MHC
where is the parietal pericardium
attached to diaphragm, sternum, etc
what do IgA's do
attack externally (in tears, saliva, semen, along respiratory and digestive tract)
what is chemotaxis
attracted to specific chemical
How do B cells activate
b cells activate after interacting with activated ( helper) T cells ( physical and chemical stimulation)
what happens to B cells after division
become memory B cells , larger, and plasma cells
when do specific defenses (immunity) happen?
before you were born
what do antigen- presenting cells do
begin the immune response
gastric lipase
begins butterfat digestion in gastric glands
pepsin
begins protein digestion in gastric glands
What cells do type 1 diabetes attack
beta cells: reduces insulin
what type of of buffer does saliva have
bicarbonate buffer
what type of nucleus do eosinphils have
bilobed nucleus
the spleen is filled with
blood
what carries nutrients to the liver from the small intestine villi
blood
what does hemostasis mean
blood stop
what is endocardium continuous with
blood vessels
what are mesenteries a route for
blood vessels, lymph vessels , and nerves
what is an essential nutrient
body can't make it, can't be synthesized must get these from your diet
acromegaly
bones thickened
what does gastric lipase do
break down fats (in milk and butter)
what does pancreatic lipase do
break down lipids( spilts glycerol and fatty acids into something smaller)
intestinal lipase
break downs fats into fatty acids and glycerol in intestine
what does chymotrypsin do
break proteins into peptides (smaller proteins)
what is catabolism
breaking down larger things
sucrase, maltase, lactase
breaks down disaccharides into monosacchardes in intestine
pancreatic lipase
breaks down fat into fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides
what does glucagon do
breaks down glycogen in the lier
nucleases
breaks down nucleic acid into nucleotides in pancreas
peptidase
breaks down peptides into amino acids in intestine
carboxypeptidase
breaks down peptides into amino acids in pancreas
trypisin, chymotrypsin
breaks down proteins or partially digested proteins into peptides in pancreas
lingual ipase
breaks down triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids
what color is oxyhemoglobin
bright red -affects RBC - Hb O2
what are on the outside of the small intestines villi
brush border: has enzymes and absorption
what are the 3 stages of deglutition
buccal, pharyngeal, esophageal
what do osteoblast do
build up done take it out of the blood and build more
what is atherosclerosis
build up of lipids : can cause blockage in heart
what are papillae
bumps for friction, for moving food around
how do epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate
by attaching to the cell membrane and getting G activate second messenger (cyclic amp)
what does pepsinogen do
by itself nothing but with help from HCL breaks down to pepsin- breaks down proteins into smaller proteins (peptides)
what can be the 2nd messenger in other cells
ca2+
what do clear cells release
calcintonin
what will calcitonin do regarding osteoclasts and osteoblast
calcitonin will inhibit osteoclasts and stimulate osteoblasts
what does the parathyroid assist with
calcium and potassium regulation (increasing)
What happens to the cells that don't come out of the thymus
can become B cells or NK cells
where does exchange occur
capillary beds
what varies with metabolic needs
capillary density
what's the first thing your body wants to use
carbohydrates
what are macronutrients
carbs, lipids, proteins
what is myocardium
cardiac muscle tissue
what are the chambers separated by? (syncytium)
cardiac skeleton
what does the submucosa do
carries away nutrients
what are the follicles in the thyroid gland
cavities lined with cuboidal cells
what are memory T cells produced from
cell division
What activates T cells
cell to cell contact
what do cells do before you're born
cells inventory before birth
what are intrinsic factors
chemical comes in contact with a foreign cell
what are extrinsic factors
chemical from tissue that was damaged
what is nutrient
chemical supplied from the environment required for survival
what do steriod hormones derive from
cholesterol
what lipid is found in yolk, dairy, and meats
cholesterol
where do steroids come from
cholesterol
Liver can convert to
cholesterol, triglyceride, phospholipids, lipoproteins
what cells are found in the adrenal medulla
chromaffin cells: modified ganglionic nerve fibers
what does melatonin regulate
circadian rhythm: light+ dark cycle
Are lymph capillaries closed or open ended
closed ended
what is an embolus
clot that broke free, can travel
what stimulated leukocytes
colony stimulating factor (CSF)
what does leptin do
comes from adipocyte/ suppresses appetite
what type of carbohydrate is a polysaccharide
complex carbohydrate
bile in the gallbladder is
concentrated
what does the nervous system require
continuous supple of sugars
lipids are stored in adipocytes or
converted to glucose ( glucongeogenesis)
enterokinase/ enteropeptidase
converts trypsinogen to trypsin in duedenum
what type of steroids does the adrenal cortex secrete
corticosteroids
what happens if you don't have enough B12 and folic acid
could mean can't produce protein
1st messenger give rise to
cyclic: amp (second messenger)
where does the hepatopancreatic sphincter back up to
cystic duct: if it's there for along time just becomes concentrated
what do WBC release
cytokines (Cell signal)
what do T cells secrete?
cytokines (because they're WBC)
what color is the spleen
dark red, hard to see
what color is deoxyhemoglobin
darker red - affects - Hb
what is the parietal pericardium made of
dense connective tissue and epithelial lining
what is it called when ventricles relax and pressure drops
diastolic pressure
what do osteoclast do
digest and break up bone and release it into the blood so you can have more
What does the small intestine do?
digest, absorb, transport: anything not digested is transported on
what are chief cells
digestive enzymes
what is the role of the digestive system in the body
digestive system provides the nutrients the cells need
what does the pituitary gland do
does a lot with your metabolism
why do erythrocytes have their specific shape
due to lack of organelles
what are the three parts of small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
what do monocytes do
eats bacteria and debris
what cytokine is released when you have a fever
endogenous pyrogen
what is endocardium made of
endothelium
what does -ase mean
enzyme
what is chemical digestion
enzymes break down from big sugar to small sugar
what is secreted from the adrenal medulla
epinephrine and norepinephrine
what hormone is released when your blood pressure is low
erythropoietin
what is it called if a fatty acid cannot be converted by the liver
essential fatty acids
what can adrenal androgen convert to
estrogen
what is artificial passive immunity
ex: snakebite by poisonous snake: take antivenoum: this antibody ex: erythroblastosis fetalis
what do you want the kidneys to do to lower calcium levels
excrete the calcium
what are some factors affecting red blood cell count
exercise, altitude
what type of nucleus do lymphocytes have
extremely large, little cytoplasm to see
what is the atrial syncytium generally separated from the ventricular syncytium by
fibrous rings
What do IgGs do?
fight against viruses bacteria, toxins
what is stimulated by epinephrine and norepinephrine
fight or flights response
what does the lymph node do
filters lymph
what is colloid
fluid in middle of follicle
the small intestine has many
folds and vili
what is a bolus
food mush in mouth
what is the purpose of lipids
for structure, transport, steroids
where is prolactin secreted
from anterior lobe of pituitary gland
what is the laryngopharynx
from epiglottis cricoid
where is the temporary storage for bile
gallbladder
where do stomach secretions come from
gastric pits and glands
what do oblique muscles do
give strength to your stomach, help with churning
what do alpha cells produce
glucagon
what is lipogenesis
glucose being converted to fat
what is a source of short term energy storage
glycogen
If there are carbohydrates attached to our protein it is now a
glycoprotein
what type of cells secrete from the small intestine
goblet (mucous) cells
what is the inter ventricular space
groove that separates the left and right ventriceles
what is the artioventricular sulcus
grove between the atrium and ventricle
what hormone does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secrete
growth hormone
what is special about myocardium
has it's own blood supply and nerve fibers
what is calor and what is it caused by
head, infection site is warmer
what does the cardiovascular system consist of?
heart, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins (then starts back over)
what do pancreatic islets do
help regulate sugar
what does pancreatic amylase do
helps breakdown starch and glycogen into smaller sugars
what does your parathyroid do
helps with metabolism and calcium
what does the pineal gland do
helps with sleep cycle
what does each chain include
heme - holds fe+ - Fe2+ loosely binds to O2
what do basophils release
histamine and heparin
what is function of cortisol
holds you over between meals
what do endocrine glands secrete
hormones to the blood
what is glycogenesis
how we make glycogen
what is another word for antibodies
immunoglobulins (Igs)
Where are the clear cells found?
in between areas of the follicle
where are lacteals found
in small intestine
where is norepinephrine made
in the adrenal gland (medulla)
where is epinephrine and norepinephrine stored and produced
in the chromaffin cells
where is the thymus found
in the mediastinum- on top of heart
where are tightly packed chief cells found?
in the parathyroid
30% of lymphocytes are found where
in your blood
where is your lower esophageal sphincter
in your stomach
Increase in blood volume means
increase in blood pressure
increase in friction ( clot, atheroschlerosis) means
increase in blood pressure
increase in heart rate means
increase in blood pressure
increase in viscosity means
increase in blood pressure
vasoconstriction means
increase in blood pressure
what happens when masticating
increase in food surface area
increase in temperature means
increase in heart rate
what does somatostatin do
inhibits alpha and beta cells
where is visceral located
inner pericardium
where is endocardium
inside the heart
what do beta cells release
insulin
what is quaternary structure
interacts with other peptiedes
what 2 sphincter muscles does the anus have
internal and external sphincters
what do parietal cells do
intrinsic factors which helps body absorb vitamin B which you need to make blood cells
what does the thyroid gland uptake
iodine
How does nonspecific immunity work
it attacks anything
how does specific immunity work
it specifically attacks; looking for specific pathogen
what happens to excess glucose
it's polymerized in liver/ muscles or adipocytes
what are lacteals
just capillaries in digestive system
what is the tongue
just muscle covered in mucous membrane
what shape is a lymph node
kidney-bean shape, all over body
describe large intestine
large in diameter, muscular tube
blood goes from the pulmonary trunk to
left or right pulmonary artery
what can less than 4,500 leukocytes result in
leukemia
What attaches the tongue to the bottom floor of the mouth
lingual frenulum
what transports micelles
lipoproteins
what time of blood pressure do veins have
low blood pressure
what is the pylores
lower tube leading to small intestine
what does too much K+ do
lowers heart rate
what does the parasympathetic part of ANS do regarding the cardiaccycle
lowers heart rate, relaxes
Veins have wide
lumens
describe order of lymph
lymph capillary --> lymph vessel --> lymph node --> lymphatic vessel --> lymphatic trunk --> collecting duct (2 L,R) --> subclavian vein
lymphatic vessels send to ___ where it acts as a filtration unit
lymph node
what system is the appendix a part of
lymphatic system, doesn't really help with digestion
lymph capillaries send to
lymphatic vessels
what is a lymph node? (Classification)
lymphoid organ
what are the two categories of nutrients
macronutrients and micronutrients
what are monocytes
macrophage: big eater
what do electrolytes do?
maintains osmotic pressure and pH (Buffer)
what does perforin do
make pores, makes these pores in abnormal unwanted cells, cause the cell burst
How does the liver aid with lipid metabolism
makes lipoproteins (a.k.a: globulins) helps transport fats
what do endocrine glands do to low blood pressure
makes you thirsty
what is hemopoiesis?
making formed elements
what is gluconeogenesis
making new sugars
what is lymphopoiesis
making of lymphocytes
what is anemia
means not enough iron in your diet
what does diapedesis mean
means they can migrate out the blood stream
what is digestion
mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
what is the 1st line of defense in nonspecific immunity
mechanical barriers
what is an example of a good antioxidant
melantonin
what doe the pineal cells in the pineal gland secrete
melatonin
what is the greater omentum
membrane, greater curve, fatty pad helps protect
what is the lesser omentum
membrane, on lesser curve
what are the electrolytes released by?
metabolism (recycled)
triiodothyronine is ____ than thyroxine
more potent does all the same stuff
the digestive tract is from
mouth to anus
what does MALT stand for
mucosa associated lymphoid tissue
what are the four layers of the digestive system
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
what does the large intestine excrete
mucous
saliva is composed of
mucous cells and serous cells
what is the mucosa layer made of
mucous epithelium
what is the small intestine villi made of
mucous membrane and lamina propria (CT)
Describe the nucleus of a neutrophil
multi-lobed
what hormone is released if your blood pressure is too high
natriuretic
secretions are controlled
neurally and hormonally
what granular leukocyte is in highest abundance
neutrophil
what granular leukocyte is 1st at the infection site
neutrophils
An Rh- person has no Rh factor..
no antibodies but they can form
Do adipocytes hold glucose
no, they only hold fat
Is cholesterol necessary in your diet
no, we make it
the phospholipid bilayer is
non polar aka cell membrane
are lipids polar or non polar?
non polar allows for diffusion
are steroid hormones polar or non polar
non polar :hydrophobic
Describe diffusion in capillary beds
non-polar gases: CO2/ O2: can diffuse across the membrane without going through slits
what need to be learned in T and B cells ( specific defense)
non-self antigens
what nucleus type do basophils have
obscured nucleus
what is lymph edema
obstruction to lymphatic system
what is an example of an essential fatty acid
omega-6/ omega-3 fatty acids
where are enzymes found
on microvilli
where is parietal located
on the outside
what's the difference between salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase
one is secreted in mouth and other is secreted in pancreas but they both break down starch and glycogen (Carbs) into disacchardies
what does the hepatopancreatic sphincter open up
only at meal time
when does the esophageal sphincter open
open when food goes down, prevents regurgitation
what does dolor mean
pain
what is elephantitis
parasitic infection resulting in extreme fluid build up
what controls the salivary glands
parasympathetic division of ANS
what two things do chief cells produce
pepsinogen and gastric lipase
what are short chains of amino acids ( less than 50)
peptide hormones
what do T cells produce
perforine
what is the type of membrane around stomach and intestine
peritoneal membrane
what do neutrophils do
phagocytize foreign material
what types of lipids are found in food
phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides
what is mechanical digestion
physically chewing and moving up
what is oxytocin associated with
pituitary
what gland is considered the master gland
pituitary gland
what are thrombocytes
platelets
what happens in the platelet phase
platelets attach to sticky area
Salivary glands are activated when
pleasant food
What is the oropharynx?
posterior to mouth
what is jaundice
premature liver, yellow skin
what is a vaccine
preparation of an antigen
what are the two types of immune response
primary and secondary
what do parietal cells in the stomach do
produce HCL
what do mucous cells in the stomach do
produce mucous to protect from acidic environment
Response to steroid's is
proportionate ( to how much you have) ex: a little testosterone a little muscle mass
what does the mucosa layer do
protect, secretes, and absorbs
what hormones are folded to specific shapes for specific receptors later on?
protein
more than 50 amino acids long describes a
protein hormone
what attaches to a receptor cell activating G protein
protein hormone
blood flows from the left atrium by
pulmonary veins
what do WBC have that help them with specific defense immunity
receptors to distinguish self from non self
what do macrophages do in specific immunity
recognize and alert lymphocytes to invader
what do lymphocytes do in immune response
recognize and bind to the invader activating T cells and chain reaction of events
Iron is ___ but some may be lost
recycled
what does rubor mean and what is it caused by
red, from blood vessels dilating
what does the digestive tract do
release hormone to help appetite
what does the heart and gonads do
release hormones
Interferons increase
resistance in uninfected cells
what are the four things that are associated with inflammation
rubor, tumor, calor, dolor
what is a solvent that dissolves food for taste and cleans mouth and teeth
saliva
what does the serosa layer do
secretes serous fluid
the thyroid gland has many
secretory parts
what type of secretion is autocrin
self secretion
the 3 types of lymphocytes are all __
sensitive to antigens
what do platelets secrete for muscle spasm
serotonin
how do thrombocytes release
serotonin: contraction of vessels
What does the submandibular gland secrete?
serous and mucous cells ( a little thicker)
what does the parotid gland secrete
serous cells (watery saliva)
describe the duodenum
shortest one, fixed to wall
antibodies agglutinate with what
similar antigens (bad)
what are mechanical barriers found
skin and mucous lining, prevents entrance
there are about 7,000 microbes in the
small and large intestine
there are 4 layers found in
small intestine, large intestine , etc
what causes mixing
smooth muscle contracting in rhythm
describe the thymus
soft, bilobed
what hormone is associated with delta cells
somatostatin
what does the sympathetic part of the ANS do regarding reg of cardiac cycle
speeds up due to stress
what is the largest lymphoid organ
spleen
what do mesenteries do
stabilize organs little flap
Salivary glands allow for a little chemical digestion of
starch and glycogen (both complex carbs)
what are three types of polysaccharides
starch, glycogen, cellulose
what are hemocytoblasts
stem cell, can become some type of formed element
what are the two types of hormones
steroid and non-steroid (protein)
what do histamines do
stimulate inflammation
what stimulates thrombocytes
stimulated by thrombopoietin
what is prolactin
stimulates milk production in females
where is lutenizing hormone secreted and what does it do
stimulates secretion of sex hormone
How does the liver aid in carbohydrate metabolism
stores glycogen
what cells are found in the esophagus
stratified squamous cells
what does the sympathetic nervous system deal with
stress
What is a function of cholesterol
structural material, makes steroids
what are carbohydrates
sugars and starches
how blood flow
super/inferior vena cava -->coronary sinus --> r. atrium --->tricuspid valve-->, r.ventricle--->, pulmonary valve --> lungs ---> L. atrium --> bicuspid valve --> L. ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta
What is an antigen
surface proteins, needed for recognition
what is edema
swell from fluids
what does tumor mean and what it is caused by
swelling, blood capillaries opening up
what division of the ANS sends the signal to the adrenal medulla
sympathetic division
what is max pressure at
systolic pressure: ventricles art contracting
what does trypsin do?
takes proteins and breaks them down into peptides
what are some of the hardest substance in your body
teeth
what does insulin do
tells cells to take up extra sugar
what is mastication
the act of chewing, mostly mechanical
what is the largest artery
the aorta
what is the distribution of blood volume within the body
the blood reservoir
where do stomach secretions dominate
the body and fundus
what must you make sure of in transplants
the cells surfaces match (antigen)
what causes the "lubb-dupp" sound
the doors (valves) in your heart closing
what is appetite
the drive to seek food, controlled neurally and hormonally
If gallbladder contents precipitate what happens
the forming of gallstones
where does the pulmonary circuit go
the heart area around it
what is a releasing hormone
the hormone that goes from the hypothalamus to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
what is controlled by the hypothalamus
the hypophysis
what stimulates the anterior pituitary
the hypothalamus
what produces erythropoietin
the kidney
what is one of the only regenerating organs
the liver
what is the pericardium
the membrane layer around the heart
what is the mesocolon
the mesentery that attaches to the colon
what is the medulla directly stimulated from
the nervous systems
what increase calcium in the blood
the parathyroid
what happens to lymph movement if obstruction occurs
then tissue fluid with accumulate
what do NK cells do
there are looking for normal looking cells that are infected ( usually cancer cells
what happens to damaged red blood cells
they are phagocytized in the spleen and liver
since the protein hormones are polar this means
they cannot diffuse or get through the membrane
what do leukocytes do
they protect
what happens to sugars you intake
they will be converted to ribose, deoxyribose (RNA/DNA) and lactose
what happens to other monosaccharides
they're absorbed and converted to glucose
In gluconeogenesis what happens to proteins
they're broken down to amino acids and converted to glucose
the left ventricle is much
thicker than the right more myocardium due to pumping more long distances
lymphatic vessels are __ than veins and ___ than arteries
thinner than veins, thinner than arteries
Veins have ___ walls and are less __ than arteries
thinner walls, less elastic
what does heparin do
thins your blood to prevent clotting
what produces platelets
thrombopoietin (TPO)
what is another word for clot
thrombus
what does the thymus secrete for maturation
thymosin
what is the colloid in follicles called
thyroglobulin
what is a myocardial infarction (MI)
tissue is dying, Heart attack
what is endothelia
tissue of blood vessels
What is endothelium?
tissues of the blood vessels
what is the spleens purpose
to filter damaged red blood cells
where does the systemic circuit go
to the rest of your body systems
too little CA2+ do to heart rate
too much, too fast
what is our long term energy storage
triglycerides
what is the main lipid that we what
triglycerides
What can cause premature puberty
tumors on the pineal gland
Salivary glands are inhibited by
unpleasant food
what is the fundus
upper part of stomach "storage"
what does the liver convert nitrogen to
urea
what do IgE's do
used with basophils (release histamine and heparin) and mast cells
what is the QRS complex associated with
ventricles contracting
what is the T-wave associated with
ventricles contracting
what is diastole
ventricles relaxing
what type of nucleus does a monocyte have
very large
What is the serosa layer made of ?
visceral peritoneum
Whats helps you absorb more iron
vitamin C
What causes you to lose iron
vitamin T
what are micronutrients
vitamins and minerals
what controls the external anal sphincter
voluntary, skeletal muscle
what do endocrine glands do to high blood pressure
wants you to stop drinking
if the pathogen gets through all of these things then
we go to specific ( innate) immunity
what is atrial systole
when pressure increases
when do WBC work better
when the environment is warmer
what is cyanosis
when you don't have enough oxygen, lips, and fingers can turn blue
what does the uvula do
when you swallow this closes so no nasal entrance, part of soft palate
what is the mediastinum
where the heart is located
what are leukocytes
white blood cells (WBCs)
what zone of the adrenal cortex does cortisol come from
zona fasciculata
what zone of the adrenal cortex does adrenal androgen come from
zona reticularis
what zone of the adrenal cortex does aldosterone come from
zone glomerulosa