Chemistry (Comprehensive)
Formula for degree of unsaturation?
(2C + 2 + N - H - X)/2
What is the equation to find percent yield?
(laboratory yield/theoretical yield) * 100 = percent yield
alkene
(organics) double-bonded compound
oct-
(organics) eight carbons
pent-
(organics) five carbons
but-
(organics) four carbons
non-
(organics) nine carbons
meth-
(organics) one carbon
hept-
(organics) seven carbons
alkane
(organics) single-bonded compound
hex-
(organics) six carbons
dec-
(organics) ten carbons
prop-
(organics) three carbons
alkyne
(organics) triple-bonded compound
eth-
(organics) two carbons
What is the equation to find percent error?
(|lab value-accepted value|/accepted value) * 100 = percent error
Difference with straight chain isomer and a branched isomer melting point?
*Sticky sausage, not sticky balls* Branched isomer has lower melting point. Straight chain isomer has higher melting point.
when will a redox reaction be spontaneous (in terms of E and delta G)
+ E and - delta G
oxidation number of hydrogen
+1
oxidation number of oxygen
-2
ionic
... compounds are most conductive
What is the value of 'R' in the ideal gas law when using atm?
0.0821
When a species is reduced it? (3 options)
1. Gaining electrons 2. Losing oxygen 3. Gaining hydrogen
When a species is oxidised it? (3 options)
1. Losing electrons 2. Gaining oxygen 3. Losing hydrogen
methods to lower or counteract the effects of acid rain
1. lower the amounts of NOx and SOx formed 2. switch to alternative methods of energy 3. liming of lakes (adding calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide neutralizes the acidity)
experiments to distinguish between a strong and weak acid and base
1. pH measurement (pH of a strong acid will be lower than a weak acid and the pH of a strong base will be higher than a weak base) 2. conductivity measurement (strong acids and bases in solution will give much higher readings on a conductivity meter because they contain more ions in solution) 3. concentration measurement (because the concentration of hydrogen ions is much greater in a strong acid, the rate of reaction is greater than that of weak acids with the same concentration)
what is the difference in electronegativity values needed to form an ionic bond
1.8
second
1/[A] vs. time is a ...-order reaction
trigonal pyramidal bond angle
107 (due to strength of the lone pair of electrons)
tetrahedral bond angle
109.5
bond angle of a bent molecule
117 degrees
trigonal planar bond angle
120
What is the full electron configuration of Sulfur (S)?
1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁴
electrophilic addition
2 mcs join together to form one; occur in mcs containing a C to C double bond steps: formation of the carbocation; attack from Cl- to form poduct
trigonal bipyramidal bond angles
90, 120, 180
Concentration formula?
= #moles/liters (dm³)
A basic oxide is one that....
A basic oxide is one that will react with an acid to form a salt
Define chemical formula and give an example.
A chemical formula is the representation of chemical substances using their chemical symbols and appropriate subscripts for the number of atoms. A simple formula is CA(NO3)2. This formula indicates a compound with one calcium atom, two nitrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms.
What is a voltaic cell?
A device that allows the transfer of electrons between the reactants of an oxidation-reduction reaction without contact between the reactants.
What is a solution?
A homogeneous mixture made up of two or more substances that do not chemically combine; instead, the substances mix uniformly in the solution.
Define a hydrate and give and example.
A hydrate is a substance that contains a fixed number of water molecules. The water molecules are written separately from the formula itself and connected to it with a dot in the center of the line between the chemical formula and the water molecules. For example, cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate is CoCl2*6H2O.
frequency (pre-exponential) factor, A
A is indicative of the collisions and probability that collisions have proper orientation
What is electron affinity?
A measure of the energy change present when gaseous atoms take electrons into their valence shells, creating negatively-charged ions.
What is effective nuclear charge?
A measure of the nuclear charge experienced by an atom, meaning as the effective nuclear charge increases for electrons they will be pulled closer to the nucleus.
Define metal.
A metal is a substance with characteristic properties of high electrical conductivity, malleability, and a metallic-silver or yellow luster. A metal can also be described as the nucleus and core electrons in a "sea of valence electrons."
Define metalloid.
A metalloid is an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals. They are useful as semiconductors. Examples are silicon and germanium, which are used for transistors and integrated circuits.
What is an oxidation number?
A number that represents the ionic charge of an ion.
What is an elementary step?
A process in a chemical reaction that only involves a single step.
Define proton.
A proton is one of the three particles that make up the atom along with an electron and a neutron. The proton has a positive charge, equal in magnitude (but with the opposite sign) to the charge of the electron. The number of protons is equal to the atomic number of an element. Protons, along with neutrons, are located in the nucleus and make up the bulk of an atom's mass.
What is an oxidation reduction reaction?
A reaction that occurs with the transfer of electrons from one species to another.
What is an electrode?
A sample of metal that is connected to another by an external circuit.
Describe the three states of matter.
A solid retains both volume and shape and molecules are relatively rigid in a crystal lattice. A liquid retains volume but not shape, molecules move freely in close contact, and strong attractive forces are present. A gas assumes the volume and shape of a container, molecules are almost totally independent of each other, there is little in the way of attractive forces, and it is highly compressable.
third
AP doesn't deal with ...-order reaction, don't pick it!
T-shape
AX3E2
see-saw
AX4E
square planar
AX4E2
trigonal bipyramidal
AX5
square pyramidal
AX5E
octahedral
AX6
What is a reactive metal?
Above copper in activity series.
Acid + Ammonia=
Acid + Ammonia= Salt
Acid + Carbonates (soluble or insoluble) =
Acid + Carbonate = Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Acid + Hydrocarbonates=
Acid + Hydrocarbonate= Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Acid + Hydroxide =
Acid + Hydroxide = Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Oxide=
Acid + Metal Oxide= Salt + Water
Acid + Reactive Metal=
Acid + Reactive Metal= Salt + Hydrogen gas
What colour is phenolphthalein the indicator in acid solution and basic/alkaline solution?
Acidic: Colourless Alkaline: Pink
What colour is litmus the indicator in acid solution and basic/alkaline solution?
Acidic: Red Alkaline: Blue
What colour is methyl orange the indicator in acid solution and basic/alkaline solution?
Acidic: Red Alkaline: Yellow
Alcohols need - - - - - - to be oxidized :
Acidifed potassium dichromate
Ac
Actinium
Test for halide ions with silver nitrate solution... What colour do precipitate of silver halides make?
AgCl white AgBr cream AgI yellow
List the insoluble halide compounds.
AgX, Hg₂X, PbX₂
Primary alcohol oxidized to...
Aldehyde---> carboxylic acid
Alkali metals react with water to form...
Alkali Metal + H₂O → Alkali solution of metal hydroxide + H₂ gas
Define alkali metals.
Alkali metals are the elements in the first group (column) of the periodic table (1A or 1.). All: have ns1 electrons as valence electrons, are extremely reactive elements, have low ionization energies, have low electronegativities, are metals that form 1+ ions.
Define alkaline earth metals.
Alkaline earth metals are the elements in the second group (column) of the periodic table. All: have ns2 electrons for valence electrons, are very reactive elements, are very reactive elements, are metals that form 2+ ions.
Al
Aluminum
Aluminium
Al³⁺
Am
Americium
What is an amorphous substance?
Amorphous means without structure. Amorphous substances have no long-range crystal structure. Glass is an example of an amorphous substance.
Aluminium is the line dividing the metals and nonmetals in period 3, it forms a _______ oxide.
Amphoteric.
Define electron, neutron, and proton.
An electron occupies space outside the nucleus. (Mass = 0, charge = 1-, symbol is e-). A neutron is an uncharged particle in the nucleus. (Symbol is 1n, mass = 1). A proton is a positively charged particle in the nucleus. (Symbol is 1p, mass = 1, charge = 1+) (Number of protons defines the identity of an atom.)
What concept includes allotropes?
An element exhibits allotropy when it can exist as two or more distinct chemical structures. For example: the three allotropes of carbon-graphite, diamond, and C60 (buckminsterfullerene). Not all elements have allotropes.
Define ion.
An ion is an element that has lost or gained one or more electrons. A cation has lost one or more electrons. An anion has gained one or more electrons. A polyatomic ion is a group of elements bound together covalently that also carries a charge.
Define isotope.
An isotope is an atom with a specific number of neutrons in addition to the protons and electrons defined by the atomic number. A given element may have several isotopes, each of which has a different number neutrons while having the same number of electrons and protons. For example: C-12, C-13, and C-14. Each has 6 electrons and 6 protons; however, they have 6,7, and 8 neutrons, respectively.
An acidic oxide is one that....
An oxidic oxide is one that will react with an alkali/base to form a salt.
Oxidation always take place in ______
Anode
Sb
Antimony
Ar
Argon
What theories or concepts are used to describe a base?
Arrhenius Theory: any compound which increases the hydroxide concentration of a solution. Bronsted Theory: a substance that is a proton acceptor. Lewis Theory: a base is an electron pair donor.
k=Ae^(-Ea/RT)
Arrhenius equation
As
Arsenic
At
Astatine
Ba
Barium
In general, period 3 metallic oxides are ______ and non-metallic oxides are ______.
Basic Acidic
Barium
Ba²⁺
3 electron domains and 1 is a lone pair, shape and angle?
Bent, 104.5°
4 electron domains, 2 lone pairs, shape and angle?
Bent, 104.5°
Bk
Berkelium
Be
Beryllium
Beryllium
Be²⁺
Bi
Bismuth
B
Boron
Br
Bromine
Bromide
Br⁻
acetate
C2H3O2(-)
Oxalate
C2O4(-2)
ethanoate
CH3COO-
Homologous series: *Alkenes* name functional group and structure.
CH=CH alkenyl
Homologous series: *Alkanes* name functional group and structure.
CH₂-CH₂
What is a methyl side group's formula?
CH₃
What is a ethyl side group's formula?
CH₃CH₂
What is a propyl side group's formula?
CH₃CH₂CH₂
What is a butyl side group's formula?
CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂
cyanide
CN(-)
What is the formula for carbon dioxide? Write the chemical equation when it is dissolved in water. Is carbon dioxide a polar or nonpolar molecule?
CO2 (g) CO2(g) + H2O <-----> H2CO3 (aq) O----C-----O the molecule is linear and nonpolar.
carbonate
CO3 2-
carbonate
CO3(2-)
Cd
Cadmium
Ca
Calcium
Cf
Californium
Tertiary alcohol....
Cannot he oxidized.
C
Carbon
Reduction always take place in ______
Cathode
Calcium
Ca²⁺
Ce
Cerium
Cs
Ceslum
Rate of reaction?
Change in concentration of products or reactants per unit time.
What is the concept behind a chemical compound?
Chemists envision a chemical compound as a substance that has a fixed ratio (by either mass or atoms) of two or more different atoms. Chemical compounds have definite physical properties that can be used to identify the compound. Chemical compounds also have characteristic chemical properties that indicate what reactions they participate in and what reactions they do not.
Cl
Chlorine
Cr
Chromium
hypochlorite
ClO(-)
chlorite
ClO2(-)
chlorate
ClO3(-)
perchlorate
ClO4(-)
Chloride
Cl⁻
Co
Cobalt
Three factors of the collision theory
Collide, geometric orientation, sufficient energy
Cu
Copper
dichromate
Cr2O7(2-)
chromate
CrO4(2-)
Cesium
Cs⁺
Cm
Curium
carbohydrates
Cx(H2O)y are sugars (eg. glucose, fructose, starch, cellulose), containing carbonyl (-C=O) and hydroxyl (-OH) groups
Homologous series: *Alkynes* name functional group and structure.
C≡C alkenyl
Arrhenius equation
Describes the relationship between the rate constant and the absolute temperature
Halide ions that are more reactive can...
Displace their less reactive halide ions from solution, oxidises them, reducing themselves.
Rain is naturally acidic because....
Dissolved carbon dioxide: H₂O(aq) + CO₂ (g) → ← H₂CO₃ (aq) H2CO3 is carbonic acid, a weak acid, and it dissociates into: H₂CO₃ (aq) → ← H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ This makes the pH of rainwater around 5.6. If the pH dips below 5.6, it becomes acid rain.
Dy
Dysprosium
Es
Einsteinium
Define electron configuration.
Electron configuration is a listing of the electrons within an atom based upon the sublevels that are filled and the relative energies of these sublevel. The electron configuration for silicon is 1s22s22p63s23p2. It is also the sequence in which the sublevel fills can be read, row by row, from the periodic table.
Define element.
Element is the term given to any one of the 118 distinct particles of known atoms. Each has distinct chemical and physical properties. Elements are organized on the basis of atomic numbers in the periodic table.
Ionisation Energy
Energy required to remove outermost electron from gaseous atom
Electron Affinity
Enthalpy change when one electron added to each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms under standard conditions. First electron affinity is exothermic as its a favourable process to add an electron to an outer shell, so it can feel the positive nucleus force.
Er
Erbium
Eu
Europium
How can you determine reaction orders?
Experimentation
formal charge calculation
FC = V - N -1/2B
What is the compound name for iron (III) hydride?
FeH₃
Fm
Fermium
How do you find the empirical formula of a compound?
First, determine mol by dividing the percent comp or mass of elements by their molar mass, then divide the mol values by the smallest mol value.
How do you find the molecular formula of a compound?
First, determine the mass of the empirical formula, then divide the mass of the molecular formula by the mass of the empirical and finally multiply the empirical formula by the ratio obtained between the masses.
F
Florine
Fr
Francium
The frequency of a photon is __________________ to its wavelength. a. directly proportional b. inversely proportional c. not related If a or b is chosen, write the appropriate equation.
Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, as shown in the equation: wavelength x frequency
Strong acids....
Fully dissociate in aqueous solution. They are better at conducting, have lower pH's and react more vigorously.
Fluoride
F⁻
Gd
Gadolinium
Reduction is....
Gain of electrons, loss of oxygen, gain of hydrogen or decrease in oxidation state.
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
Au
Gold
acidic amino acid
H2NCHRCOO-
dihydrogen phosphate
H2PO4(-)
What is the formula for hydrosulfuric acid? Write the reaction when the gas form, hydrogen sulfide, is dissolved in water.
H2S(aq) H2S(aq) + H2O <----> H3O +(aq) + HS - (aq)
What is the formula for sulfurous acid? What are the two Ka expressions?
H2SO3 Ka1 [H+][HSO3 -]/[H2SO3] or [H3O+][HSO3 -]/[H2SO3] Ka2 [H+]pSO3 2-]/[HSO3-] or [H3O+][SO3 2-]/[HSO3 -]
What is the formula for sulfuric acid? Is it a weak or strong acid? What is the ionization reaction?
H2SO4 The first proton is a strong acid. H2SO4(aq) ----> H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
alkaline amino acid
H3N+CHRCOOH
What is the formula fro phosphoric acid? What are the three ionization reactions?
H3PO4 H3PO4 <-----> H2 PO4 - + H + H2PO4 - <-----> HPO4 2- + H + HPO4 2- <-----> PO4 3- + H +
What is the formula for hydrobromic acid? Is it a weak or strong acid? What is the ionization reaction?
HBr(aq) Strong acid HBr ----> H+(aq) + Br-(aq)
What is the formula for hydrogen bromide? What is the ionization reaction?
HBr(g) HBr(g) ----> H+(aq) + Br-(aq)
hydrogen carbonate
HCO3(-)
hydrogencarbonate
HCO3-
What is the formula for hydrochloric acid? Is it strong or weak and where is it found? What is the ionization reaction?
HCl(aq) Strong acid Also, stomach acid and used for cleaning cement HCl(aq) ----> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
What is the formula for chloric acid? What is the Ka expression?
HClO3 Ka = [H+][ClO3 -]/[HClO3] or [H3O+][ClO3 -]/[HClO3]
What is the formula for perchloric acid? Is this a weak or strong acid? Write the reaction when dissolved in water.
HClO4 strong acid HClO4 ----> H + + ClO4 - or HClO4 + H2O <----> H3O + + ClO4 -
What is the formula for nitrous acid? What is the Ka equation?
HNO2 Ka= [H+][NO2 -]/[HNO2] or [H3O+][NO2-]/[HNO2]
What is the formula for nitric acid? Is it a weak or strong acid? Write the equation when nitric acid is dissolved in water.
HNO3 Strong acid HNO3 --> H+ +NO3 - or HNO3 + H2O --> H3O+ + NO3 -
hydrogen phosphate
HPO4(2-)
hydrogen sulfate
HSO4(-)
hydrogensulfate
HSO4-
Hf
Hafnium
Define halogen.
Halogens are the elements in the next to last group of the periodic table (Group VIIA or 17). They are reactive elements with an ns2, np5, valence electron structure. Halogens commonly form salts (halide is another name for salt) with metals. Halogens generally have high electronegativities. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity in the periodic table. In simple compounds, halogens tend to form only one bond. However, halogens form multiple bonds with oxygen and other halogens.
He
Helium
A oxidising agent...
Helps oxidise another species, but it itself is reduced.
A reducing agent...
Helps reduce another species, but it itself is oxidised.
Mercury
Hg(2)(+2)
Ho
Holmium
Define Hund's Rule
Hund's Rule states that all orbitals in a sublevel must fill with one electron before a second electron of opposite spin can be added to any orbital in that sublevel.
List the seven strong acids.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Hydrobromic acid (HBr), Hydroiodic acid (HI), Nitric acid (HNO₃), perchloric acid (HClO₄), chloric acid (HClO₃), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
H
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
H⁺
Hydride
H⁻
index of hydrogen deficiency
IDH = 0.5 x (2n + 2 - H - N)
Dipole-dipole forces
IMF that exists in polar molecules
Hydrogen bonding
IMF that occurs with FON
not spontaneous
If K<1, then Gº>0 and reaction will be...at chemical equilibrium
spontaneous
If K>1, then Gº<0 and reaction will be...at chemical equilibrium
Explain Le Châtelier's Principle.
If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature, pressure or reactant or concentrations, then the system will respond by shifting its equilibrium position to counteract the effect of the disturbance.
When will a reaction be Spontaneous
If it causes a system to move from a less stable to a more stable state; dependent on enthalpy and entropy changes; exothermic and increase in entropy
Addition of -CH₂- group to a organic molecule, effect on boiling point and volatility?
Increases boiling point as stronger london forces, meaning less volatile molecule.
In
Indium
3 stages free-radical subsitution?
Initiation: Energize the diatomic halogen with UV light Propagation: Have the radical halogen displace a hydrogen (H-X) Then have a radical organic molecule displace a diatomic halogen. (organicX) Termination: Have a radical halogen bond with the oxidised (loss H) organic.
I
Iodine
Alkali metals react with chlorine, bromine and iodine to form...
Ionic salts.
How is ionization energy related to atomic radius?
Ionization energy increase as atomic radius decreases and decreases as atomic radius increases.
Ir
Iridium
Fe
Iron
Iodide
I⁻
Write an equilibrium expression.
Kc = ([C][D]/[A][B])
Second day alcohol oxidized to
Ketone
Kr
Krypton
Potassium
K⁺
La
Lanthanum
Lr
Lawrencium
Pb
Lead
The halogens get ______ reactive down the group....
Less reactive, as more levels means less attraction between added electron and nucleus.
2 electron domains, none lone pairs, shape and angle?
Linear, 180°
Li
Lithium
Lithium
Li⁺
Oxidation is....
Loss of electrons, gain of oxygen, loss of hydrogen or increase in oxidation state.
Lu
Lutetium
What is the molarity equation?
M = mol/Liters
Mg
Magnesium
Define malleable.
Malleable is a property of metals. Malleable means that the substance can be hammered into new shapes.
Mn
Manganese
Electronegativity
Measure of attraction of an atom in a molecule for the electron pair of the covalent bond its part of
Md
Mendelevium
Hg
Mercury
Define metallic crystal.
Metalli0c crystals form from the metals in the periodic table. These crystals are malleable, ductile, and conduct electricity. Chemists view metallic crystals as a lattice of nuclei and core electrons in a "sea" of mobile valence electrons.
Describe where on the periodic table metals, nonmetals, and metalloids are found. Describe their properties.
Metals are found on the lower left of the periodic table, nonmetals on the upper right of the table, and metalloids are on either side of a staircase line that starts between boron and aluminum, aluminum to silicon, and then to the bottom of the table. Metals typically have a silvery luster (except gold and copper), conduct electricity easily, and are malleable and ductile. Nonmetals have none of the properties that metals have. Metalloids have properties in between metals and nonmetals. They are semiconductors of electricity.
List the insoluble fluoride compounds.
MgF₂, CaF₂, SrF₂, BaF₂, PbF₂
Magnesium
Mg²⁺
permanganate
MnO4(-)
Mo
Molybdenum
The alkali metals get ______ reactive down the group..... because....
More reactive, as more energy levels so less nucleus influence.
Order in most reactive to least reactive, and lowest to highest boiling point: halogenoalkane, carboxylic acid, alcohol, alkane, ketone, amine, aldehyde.
Most reactive/lowest boiling point: *Alkane Halogenoalkane Aldehyde Ketone Amide Alcohol Carboxylic acid* Least reactive/highest boiling point:
What is the dilution equation?
M₁V₁ = M₂V₂
What is the formula for dinitrogen pentoxide? Write the equation when it is dissolved in water What is the oxidation number of nitrogen in this compound?
N2O5 N2O5 + H2O ---> 2HNO3 (5 oxygen)(-2) + (2 nitrogen) (x) = 0 x = +5 is the oxidation number of each nitrogen.
Thiocyanate
NCS (-1)
ammonium
NH4(+)
What does NH₄OH dissociate into?
NH₄⁺ and OH⁻
nitrite
NO2(-)
nitrate
NO3(-)
nitrate
NO3-
Sodium
Na⁺
What are anions?
Negatively charged ions.
Nd
Neodymium
Ne
Neon
Np
Neptunium
Acids undergo ________ reactions with bases:
Neutralisation reactions with bases.
Ni
Nickel
Nb
Niobium
N
Nitrogen
No
Nobelium
Define noble gas.
Noble gases are in the last group of the periodic table (Group VIIIA or 18). They are unusually unreactive with an octet of valence electrons ns2np6. Helium was first found in the sun's spectrum. Xenon was the first noble gas that was made into a compound.
Define noble gases.
Noble gases are the elements in the last group in periodic table (Group VIIIA or 18). They are unusually stable elements and all, except He, have ns2, np6 valence electrons. The noble gases include: helium He, neon Ne, argon Ar, krypton Kr, xenon Xe, radon Rn.
Describe nuclear charge and the concept of effective nuclear charge.
Nuclear charge is the number of positive charges in the nucleus. This is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus (Z) and is also the atomic number. The concept of effective nuclear charge is that inner (core) electrons shield outer electrons from the nuclear charge. The outer electrons are attracted by a nuclear charge that is approximately equal to the number of valence electrons. The atomic radius decreases from left to right across the periodic table because the effective nuclear charge increases as the number of valence electrons increases. The increase in effective nuclear charge increases the attractive force on the valence electrons, resulting in a smaller atom.
Nitride
N³⁻
peroxide
O2(2-)
What is the oxidation values of: O, H, group 1 metals, group 2 metals, fluorine and chlorine?
O: -2 H: +1 G1:+2 G2:+2 F: -1 C: -1
Homologous series: *Alcohols* name functional group and structure.
OH hydroxyl
hydroxide
OH(-)
hydroxide
OH-
Os
Osmium
The halogens are all good....
Oxidising agents as they gain one more electron to form halide ions (reduced themselves)
O
Oxygen
Oxide
O²⁻
phosphate
PO4 3-
phosphate
PO4(3-)
What is the ideal gas law equation?
PV = nRT
Pd
Palladium
P
Phosphorus
Pt
Platinum
Pu
Plutonium
Po
Polonium
What are cations?
Positively charged ions.
K
Potassium
Distinguish between secondary and tertiary Alcohols
Potassium dichromate from yellow to green
Pr
Praseodymium
Pre and Post methods of removing sulfur emissions?
Pre combustion desulfurization: Hydrodesulfurization can be used, involves heating oils in presence of hydrogen and a catalyst. Converts sulfur to hydrogen sulfide, H2S, and this can be removed by bubbling it through an alkaline solution. The H2S is sold to other companies to many sulfuric acid. Post combustion desulphurisation: Involve passes the exhaust gases through a vessel where the sulfur dioxide will react with alkalis/bases. Examples are calcium oxide, calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide. CaCO3 + SO2 → CaSO3 + CO2
PV=nRT
Pressure X Volume=number moles X Rconstant XTemperatureinK
Pm
Promethium
Pa
Protactinium
A base is a....
Proton acceptor.
An acid is a...
Proton donor.
Phosphide
P³⁻
Ra
Radium
Rn
Radon
The group 1 alkali metals are all good....
Reducing agents (they themselves lose an electron)
Lattice enthalpy
Relates either the endothermic process of turning a crystalline solid into its gaseous ions or exothermic process of turning gaseous ions into a crystalline solid (the smaller the ion, the greater the charge)
Re
Rhenium
Rh
Rhodium
Rb
Rubidium
Ru
Ruthenium
why is sulfer able to expand its ocetet
S has readily available 3d orbitals that can be utilized
Thiosulfate
S2O3(-2)
nucleophilic substitution
SN1: methyl cmpds and primary haloalkames; rate depends on nucleophile and substrate SN2: tirtiary and secondary haloalkanes
What is the formula for sulfur trioxide? Write the equation when it is dissolved in water. What compound is formed? Is the acid weak or strong.
SO3 SO3(aq) + H2O ---> H2SO4(aq) Sulfuric acid Strong acid
sulfite
SO3(2-)
sulfate
SO4 2-
sulfate
SO4(2-)
Sm
Samarium
Sc
Scandium
Se
Selenium
Si
Silicon
Ag
Silver
Atomic Radius
Size of an atom
Ionic Radius
Size of an ion
Na
Sodium
List the six strong bases.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Lithium hydroxide (LiOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), Strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH)₂), Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)₂)
Are common acetates soluble or insoluble?
Soluble
Are common ammonium ions soluble or insoluble?
Soluble
Are common chlorates soluble or insoluble?
Soluble
Are common nitrates soluble or insoluble?
Soluble
Are common perchlorates soluble or insoluble?
Soluble
Are compounds of Group 1 metals soluble or insoluble?
Soluble
Enthalpy of automization
Standard enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed from the element in its standard state under standard conditions
Sr
Strontium
Amphoteric and amphiprotic substances have the same underlying concept. Explain.
Substance that can both donate and accept protons are amphiprotic. Example: H2PO4-. Substances that can react as both an acid and a base are amphoteric. Example: Al2O3.
Briefly explain the collision theory.
Suggests that chemical reaction occur when molecules or atoms collide with sufficient kinetic energy-the activation energy-and the collision occurs in a favorable orientation.
Write the name for the formula: SO3 2- Write the formula for the name: carbon dioxide.
Sulfite ion CO2
S
Sulfur
Who was the first to suggest the collision theory?
Svante Arrhenius in 1888.
Sulfide
S²⁻
Ta
Tantalum
Tc
Technetium
Te
Tellurium
What changes the rate constant?
Temperature
Factors that affect the rate of a reaction
Temperature, surface area, concentration, catalyst
Tb
Terbium
4 electron domains, none lone pairs, shape and angle?
Tetrahedral, 109.5°
Tl
Thallium
Define Bohr atom.
The Bohr atom is the model of the atom developed by Niels Bohr. This model viewed electrons circling the nucleus like a miniature solar system. Each orbit had a definite energy and electrons moving from one orbit to another and either absorbed or emitted the energy difference between the orbits. This theory replicated the Rydberg Constant to less that +/-0.5%.
What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
The Pauli Exclusion Principle requires that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms. This also means that no two electrons with the same wave equations can coexist. Another interpretation is that now two electrons can occupy exactly the same space at the same time.
What is ionization energy?
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion, forming a positive-charged ion.
What changes are seen in a maxwell Boltzmann distribution graph when you increase the tempuratire
The area under the curve will not change; curve will broaden due to an increase in the average kinetic energy
Define periodic table, period, and group.
The arrangement of the elements in an orderly fashion that shows the relationships of their electronic, chemical, and physical characteristics is the modern periodic table. Each row in the table is called a period. Each column in the table is called a group (and sometimes family).
What is an atom?
The atom was named for the smallest indivisible particle in nature; however, discoveries in physics in the late 1800s showed this was not true. The atom is the fundamental particle defining one of the 118 elements.
What is the concept behind the atomic number?
The atomic number is the number that specifies the position of an element in the periodic table. It is also a number representing the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number defines the identity of an element. The basic idea is that each element must fall in some sort of order. Medeleev originally based the order on atomic masses. It was later found that the order should be based on the number of protons in the nucleus of an element.
What is an atomic orbital?
The atomic orbital is the region in space, outside the nucleus, that has a high probability or containing an electron. Atomic orbitals have specific shapes and sizes as defined by quantum numbers.
Define reaction rate.
The change in amount of substance as it disappears or the other appears (measured in mol) divided by the elapsed time.
Average bond enthalpy?
The energy required to break a bond between atoms, taken over similar compounds, in their gaseous state.
Define precipitation.
The formation of an insoluble compound in an aqueous solution.
What is the formula for aluminum fluoride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for aluminum fluoride is AlF3. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and F-.
What is the formula for aluminum nitrate nonahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for aluminum nitrate nonahydrate is Al(NO3)3 * 9H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and NO3 -.
What is the formula for aluminum sulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for aluminum sulfate is Al2(SO4)3. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and SO4 2-.
What is the formula for ammonium nitrate (fertilizer)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for ammonium nitrate is NH4NO3. The ions that make up this compound are NH4 + and NO3 -.
What is the formula for ammonium sulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nitrogen in the ammonium ion?
The formula for ammonium sulfate is (NH4)2SO4. The ions that make up this compound are NH4 + and SO4 2-. The oxidation number of N is -3.
What is the formula for ammonium sulfite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for ammonium sulfite is (NH4)2SO3. The ions that make up this compound are NH4+ and SO3 2-. The oxidation number of S is +4.
What is the formula for barium hydroxide octahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for barium hydroxide octahydrate is Ba(OH)2 * 8H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Ba 2+ and OH-.
What is the formula for calcium bromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for calcium bromate is Ca(BrO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and BrO3-. The oxidation number of Br is +5.
What is the formula for calcium carbonate (limestone)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO3. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and CO3 2-.
What is the formula for calcium chlorate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for calcium chlorate is Ca(ClO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and ClO3-. The oxidation number of Cl is +5.
What is the formula for calcium chloride dehydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for calcium chloride dehydrate is CaCl2 * 2H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Ca+ and Cl-.
What is the formula for calcium hydrogen sulfite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for calcium hydrogen sulfite is Ca(HSO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and HSO3-. The oxidation number of S is +4.
What is the formula for calcium nitride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for calcium nitride is Ca3N2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and N3-.
What is the formula for calcium oxide (lime)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for calcium oxide is CaO. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and O2-.
What is the formula for calcium sulfate (plaster of Paris)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for calcium sulfate is CaSO4. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and SO4 2-.
What is the formula for chromium(III) phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for chromium(III) phosphate is CrPO4. The ions that make up this compound are Cr3+ and PO4 3-. The oxidation number of P is +5.
What is the formula for chromium(III) sulfite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for chromium(III) sulfite is Cr2(SO3)3. The ions that make up this compound are Cr3+ and SO3 2-.
What is the formula for cobalt(III) chloride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for cobalt(III) chloride is CoCl3. The ions that make up this compound are Co3+ and Cl-.
What is the formula for copper sulfate pentahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for copper sulfate pentahydrate is CuSO4 * 5H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Cu 2+ and SO4 2-.
What is the formula for gold(III) phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for gold(III) phosphate is AuPO4. The ions that make up this compound are Au 3+ and PO4 3-.
What is the formula for iron(III) nitrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for iron(III) nitrate is Fe(NO3)3. The ions that make up this compound are Fe3+ and NO3-. The oxidation number of N is +5.
What is the formula for lead(II) acetate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for lead(II) acetate is Pb(C2H3O2)2. The ions that make up this compound are Pb2+ and C2H3O2 -.
What is the formula for lead(IV) phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for lead(IV) phosphate is Pb3(PO4)4. The ions that make up this compound are Pb4+ and PO4 3-.
What is the formula for lithium bromide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for lithium bromide is LiBr. The ions that make up this compound are Li+ and Br-.
What is the formula for lithium bromite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for lithium bromite is LiBrO2. The ions that make up this compound are Li+ and BrO2-. The oxidation number of Br is +3.
What is the formula for lithium carbonate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for lithium carbonate is Li2CO3. The ions that make up this compound are Li+ and CO3 2-. The oxidation number of C is +4.
What is the formula for magnesium chloride hexahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for magnesium chloride hexahydrate is MgCl2 * 6H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Mg2+ and Cl-.
What is the formula for magnesium hydroxide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for magnesium hydroxide is Mg(OH)2. The ions that make up this compound are Mg2+ and OH-.
What is the formula for magnesium phosphide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for magnesium phosphide is Mg3P2. The ions that make up this compound are Mg2+ and P3-.
What is the formula for mercury(I) iodide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for mercury(I) iodide is Hg2I2. The ions that make up this compound are Hg2 2+ and I-.
What is the formula for nickel(II) hydrogen carbonate or nickel(II) bicarbonate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for nickel(II) hydrogen carbonate is Ni(HCO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ni2+ and HCO3-. The HCO3- ion is also called bicarbonate.
What is the formula for potassium dichromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for potassium dichromate is K2Cr2O7. The ions that make up this compound are K+ and Cr2O7 2-. The oxidation number of Cr is +6.
What is the formula for potassium dihydrogen phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for potassium dihydrogen phosphate is KH2PO4. The ions that make up this compound are K+ and H2PO4-.
What is the formula for potassium permanganate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for potassium permanganate is KMnO4. The ions that make up this compound are K+ and MnO4-. The oxidation number of Mn is +7.
What is the formula for rubidium perbromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for rubidium perbromate is RbBrO4. The ions that make up this compound are Rb+ and BrO4-. The oxidation number of Br is +7.
What is the formula for silver chloride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for silver chloride is AgCl. The ions that make up this compound are Ag+ and Cl-.
What is the formula for silver chromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for silver chromate is Ag2CrO4. The ions that make up this compound are Ag+ and CrO4 2-.
What is the formula for sodium chloride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and Cl-.
What is the formula for sodium chromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for sodium chromate is Na2CrO4. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and CrO4 2-. The oxidation number of Cr is +6.
What is the formula for sodium hydrogen phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for sodium hydrogen phosphate is Na2HPO4. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and HPO4 2-. At times, the HPO4 2- ion is called monohydrogen phosphate. The oxidation number of P is +5.
What is the formula for sodium hypobromite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for sodium hypobromite is NaBrO. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and BrO-. The oxidation number of Br is +1.
What is the formula fro sodium hypochlorite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for sodium hypochlorite is NaClO. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and ClO-. The oxidation number of Cl is +1.
What is the formula for sodium nitrite (food preservative)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for sodium nitrite is NaNO2. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and NO2-.
What is the formula for sodium nitrite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for sodium nitrite is NaNO2. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and NO2-. The oxidation number of N is +3.
What is the formula for sodium oxalate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for sodium oxalate is Na2C2O4. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and C2O4 2-.
What is the formula for sodium oxide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for sodium oxide is Na2O. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and O2-.
What is the formula for strontium iodide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for strontium iodide is SrI2. The ions that make up this compound are Sr2+ and I-.
What is the formula for tin(II) carbonate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for tin(II) carbonate is SnCO3. The ions that make up this compound are Sn2+ and CO3 2-.
What is the formula for titanium(II) chlorite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for titanium(II) chlorite is Ti(ClO2)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ti2+ and ClO2-. The oxidation number of Cl is +3.
What is the formula for tungsten(VI) oxide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?
The formula for tungsten(VI) oxide is WO3. The ions that make up this compound are W 6+ and O 2-.
What is the formula for zinc sulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula for zinc sulfate is ZnSO4. The ions that make up this compound are Zn2+ and SO4 2-. The oxidation number of S is +6.
What is the formula for aluminum hydrogen sulfate or aluminum bisulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?
The formula fro aluminum hydrogen sulfate is Al(HSO4)3. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and HSO4-. The oxidation number of S is +6. The HSO4- ion is often called the bisulfate ion.
Define precipitate.
The insoluble compound formed out of precipitation.
Activation evergy
The min amount of energy required for a reaction to occur
Define nucleus.
The nucleus is the center of the atom that contains the protons and neutrons. It comprises an extremely small fraction of the atom's volume. The nucleus is extremely dense while the rest of the atom is primarily empty space.
Molecularity
The number of species taking part in any one specified step in a reaction
Define and describe the four quantum numbers.
The principle quantum number, n, indicates the shell (or principal energy level) of the atom in which an electron resides and is rough measure of the distance from the nucleus. n can have any value from 1 to infinity. The azimuthal quantum number, l, specifies the sublevel (or orbital) that an electron is located in. This number may be any number from zero up to n-1. This number specifies the shape of an atomic orbital. The magnetic quantum number, m1, indicates the orientation of a sublevel in space. The value of the m1 quantum number can be any number from -l to zero to +l. The spin quantum number, m3, indicates the spin of the electron. An electron is not actually spinning but it is a useful way of visualizing this property. Acceptable values for spin are +1/2 and -1/2. Each electron possesses four quantum numbers. Each electron in an atom must have a set of four quantum numbers different from all other electrons in that atom.
What is a reduction in an oxidation-reduction reaction?
The result of gaining electrons, causing a reduction in oxidation number.
What is an oxidation in an oxidation-reduction reaction?
The result of losing electrons, causing an increase in oxidation number.
What concept states that only a few three-dimensional basic structures exist for chemical molecules?
The shapes of chemical molecules may be linear, triangular planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral. Additional shapes are derived from these basic structures. The basic shape may be deduced from the Lewis structure.
Trend in lattice enthalpy
The smaller the ion and the greater the charge, the higher the lattice enthalpy
What is a reducing agent (reductant)?
The species in a oxidation-reduction reaction that loses electrons, gaining a positive charge, to reduce the other species.
What is an oxidizing agent (oxidant)?
The species in an oxidation-reduction reaction that gains electrons from the reductant, giving it a negative charge.
Conjugate base is....
The species remaining after the acid has lost a proton.
What are reaction mechanisms?
The steps that occur during a chemical reaction as the reactants change into products.
Chemical kinetics
The study of the factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction
What are the subatomic constituents of the atom?
The subatomic constituents of the atom are protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons around the nucleus. The atomic number Z = # of protons. The mass number A = # protons +# of neutrons.
What is a solvent?
The substance present in the largest quantity by volume, usually water.
What is a solute?
The substance that is dissolved in the solvent.
Th
Thorium
Tm
Thulium
Sn
Tin
Ti
Titanium
Define transition elements and inner transition elements.
Transition elements are sometimes called d-block elements because the last electrons added to form the element are electrons occupying d orbitals. They occupy the 10 groups in the center of the periodic table. They often form colored ionic compounds. They often have multiple possible oxidation states. They often form polyatomic anions. Inner transition elements have electrons occupying f orbitals as the last electrons added to their electron configuration. They occupy the 14 groups that are often placed outside the periodic table. They contain many of the radioactive and manmade elements.
3 electron domains, none lone pairs, shape and angle?
Trigonal planar, 120°
4 electron domains, 1 lone pairs, shape and angle?
Trigonal pyramidal, 107°
W
Tungsten
U
Uranium
V
Vanadium
Define weight and mass.
Weight is the force developed due to the gravitational attraction of two masses toward each other. The weight of an object changes as the gravitational acceleration changes. Mass is the amount of material in a sample. Mass does not change with the acceleration of gravity. weight = force = mass x acceleration of gravity.
Homogeneous reactions
When all of the products and reactants are in the same phase
In terms of delta G, when will a reaction be spontaneous
When delta G is negative
Write the names for these elements: Sb W
Write the symbols for these elements: antimony tungsten
Write the names for these elements: Au Ag Cu
Write the symbols for these elements: gold silver copper
Write the names for these elements: Pb Hg Sn
Write the symbols for these elements: lead mercury tin
Write the names for these elements: Na K Fe
Write the symbols for these elements: sodium potassium iron
Homologous series: *Halogenoalkanes* name functional group and structure.
X (where X is a halogen)
Xe
Xenon
Yb
Ytterbium
Y
Yttrium
Zn
Zinc
Zr
Zirconium
zero
[A] vs. time is a ...-order reaction
bomb calorimeter
a calorimeter used to measure heat of combustion of a particular reaction
hormone
a chemical messenger secreted by endocrine system that travels through blood until reaching target cell
coordinate covalent bond
a covalent bond when both of the electrons are provided by one species
sickle cell anaemia
a hereditary genetic mutation in which a mutated form of haemoglobin distorts the red blood cells into a crescent shape at low oxygen levels (GAG-->GTG, glutamic acid --> valine)
concentrated (acids and bases)
a high number of moles of solute per liter of solution
disproportionation
a process in which a substance acts as both an oxidizing and reducing agent
obesity
a result of a lipid rich diet
pH < 7
acid
immunoprotein
act as antibodies which help destroy pathogens in blood
two different definitions of oxidation
addition of oxygen; loss of electrons
Homologous series: *Aldehydes* name functional group and structure.
aldehyde (carbonyl)
-anal
aldehyde suffix
products of the oxidation of a primary alcohol
aldehydes or carboxylic acids
Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+
all cations are soluble with bromide, chloride and iodide EXCEPT
Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Ba2+
all cations are soluble with sulfate EXCEPT
maltose
alpha-glucose and alpha-glucose, product of starch digestion
sucrose
alpha-glucose and beta-fructose, cane sugar
starch
alpha-glucose polymer, main storage of carbohydrates in plants
glycogen
alpha-glucose polymer, storage of carbohydrates in liver and muscles
Amino-
amine prefix
Homologous series: *Amines* name functional group and structure.
amino
buffering
amino acid's ability to have relatively constant pH despite addition of small amounts of acid or alkali
heat capacity
amount of heat needed to change a system by 1˚C
electrophoresis
analysis and separation of a mixture based on the movement of charged particles in an electric field
Write the name for the formula: AsF3 Write the formula for the name: phosphorous pentafluoride
arsenic trifluoride PF5
pH > 7
base
Write the name for the formula: BeCl2 Write the formula for the name: arsenic trioxide
beryllium dichloride AsO3
lactose
beta-glucose and beta-galactose, found in milk
cellulose
beta-glucose polymer, linear with beta-glycosidic links, the 'upside down' orientation allows hydroxyl groups to form hydrogen bonds
hydrophobic interactions
between non-polar side chains
hydrogen bonding
between polar side chains
ionic bond
between side chains carrying a charge
disulphide bridges
between sulphur atoms in cysteine, covalent bonds, strongest
effects of IMF
boiling point, melting point, viscosity, vapor pressure, surface tension
endothermic
bonds in the reactants are stronger than the bonds in the products; heat is absorbed from the environment
C + 273
calculation from K to C
hydrocarbons
carbon & hydrogen compounds
Write the name for the formula: CS2 Write the formula for the name: boron trifluoride
carbon disulfide BF3
carbohydrates
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen compounds
Homologous series: *Ketones* name functional group and structure.
carbonyl
Homologous series: *Amides* name functional group and structure.
carboxamide
Homologous series: *Carboxylic Acids* name functional group and structure.
carboxyl
-anoic acid
carboxylic acid ending
ionic radius of cations vs anions
cations are smaller than anions because the number of electron shells has decreased by one
isothermal
change that occurs at constant temperature
adiabatic
change without heat transfer between the system and its surroundings
what determines the strength of a metallic bond
charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion
solid CO2
chemical composition of dry ice
metabolism
chemical reactions that occur in living organisms
corrosive (acids and bases)
chemically reactive
recommended daily intake
classification of nutrients based on the amount someone needs per day
green/yellow
color of Ba (flame test)
red/orange
color of Ca (flame test)
blue
color of Cs (flame test)
purple
color of K (flame test)
red
color of Li (flame test)
yellow
color of Na (flame test)
red
color of Sr (flame test)
strong (acids and bases)
completely dissociated into ions
homologous series
compounds with the same general formula but differing lengths carbon chains
polysaccharide
condensation polymers of monosaccharides, insoluble in water, used for sugar storage, joined by glycosidic links
kwashiorkor
condition occurring when children have high starch and low protein diet
collagen
connective tissue in skin and tendons
essential fatty acids
considered beneficial in lowering levels of LDL cholesterol, obtained through plant and fish sources, synthesis of prostaglandins which lower blood pressure
nucleotides
consists of phosphate group, ribose sugar and nitrogenous base (eg. polymers include DNA and RNA)
2-amino acids
contain both amine functional group and a carboxylic acid functional group attached to carbon, solid at room temperature, high melting point, dipolar, amphoteric
myosin
contractile action in muscles to move
insulin
control and maintains blood glucose levels
entropy (S)
degree of disorder in a system
degree of unsaturation
degree of unsaturation can be determined by addition reaction with iodine (I2). equation shows one mole of iodine reacting with one mole of double carbon bonds in the lipid. the higher the number of double bonds, the larger the amount of iodine that can react
heat evolved
density x head capacity x change in temp
DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid)
determines genetic information by dictating to cells primary protein structures
+ ∆S
diatomic molecules forming mixed molecules, e.g. H2 + I2 -> 2HI, means...
constitutional isomers
different atom connectivities
allotrope
different form of same element
Write the name for the formula: N2O4 Write the formula for the name: Sulfur hexachloride
dinitrogen tetroxide SCl6
what are two suitable methods to distinguish between two isomers
dipole moments and x-ray crystallography
Rf value (retention factor)
distance moved by amino acid/distance moved by solvent
myelin sheath
electrical insulation to neurons and speeds up nervous transmission
diamagnetic
elements which have all electrons paired and relatively unaffected by magnetic fields
paramagnetic
elements which have unpaired electrons and highly affected by magnetic fields
configurational isomers
enanteomers and diastereomers; can only be inter converted by breaking bonds
-anol
ending for alcohols
positive delta H
endothermic
photosynthesis
endothermic reaction, process of converting carbon dioxide into biomass (6CO2+6H2O-->C6H12O6+602)
Delta H= q/n
energy change is Q divided by number of moles of substance heated.
electron affinity
energy change when an electron is added to an isolated atom in the gaseous state X(g) + e- --> X-(g)
electron affinity
energy involved in gaining an electron to become a negative ion
bond energy
energy needed to break a bond
∆Hvap
energy needed to vaporize a mole of a liquid
Hess's Law
enthalpy change for a reaction depends only on the difference bw the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the reactants
standard enthalpy change of formation
enthalpy change when one mole of the compd is formed from its elements in their standard states at 298 K and 100 kPa
increasing
entropy in the universe is always...
cellulase
enzyme that breaks down cellulose, found in gut bacteria
lipase
enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis reaction of fatty acids and glycerol for absorption
ln (k1/k2) = (Ea/R)(1/T2-1/T1)
equation to find Ea from reaction rate constants at two different temperatures
iron function
essential part of haemoglobin thus the deficiency leads to anaemia (symptoms: brittle nails, fatigue, lowered immunity, poor endurance)
-anoate
ester suffix
Homologous series: *Esters* name functional group and structure.
esters
triglycerides
esters formed by condensation reaction between glycerol and three fatty acids
Homologous series: *Ethers* name functional group and structure.
ether
methoxy-
ether prefix
negative delta H
exothermic
respiration
exothermic reaction, process of using oxygen for cell energy and convert into carbon dioxide and water (C6H12O6+602-->6CO2+6H2O)
vitamin D (calciferol)
fat soluble, forms dispersion forces with fats, does not contain enough hydroxyl groups to form hydrogen bonds with water, uptakes calcium and phosphate ions from food and is important in the formation of bone structure, deficiency leads to rickets in young children (bowed legs - bones do not harden and are malformed)
vitamin A (retinol)
fat soluble, oxidised to retinal which is used to convert light signals into electrical signals that travel along optic nerve, found in orange and yellow fruits, deficiency causes eye diseases and night blindness and xerophythalmia
adipose tissue
fat stores stored all around body serve as storage units of energy, swelling and shrinking as fat is deposited, insulates body
casein
food substance in milk
what makes metals good conductors
for conductivity to occur the substances must posses electrons that are free to move; metals contain delocalized electrons and are excellent conductors
protein analysis
forcing hydrolysis by using acid
sigma bond
formed when two atomic orbitals on different atoms overlap along a line drawn through the two nuclei (when two s orbitals overlap)
reduction
gain of electrons
deposition
gas --> solid
+ ∆S
gas > liquid > solid and (aq)>(s) cause...
phosphate, sulfide, carbonate, sulfate
generally insoluble anions (names)
+ ∆S
greater # of moles of gas formed and greater volume formed cause...
N=N.(0.5)^time/time half-life
half-life equation
equilibrium
happens at lines in phase change charts
specific heat
heat needed to change 1 g of substance to 1˚C
LDL (low density lipoprotein)
high levels are associated with increased deposition of cholesterol in the arteries, saturated fats and transfats
HDL (high density lipoprotein)
high levels seem to protect heart against heart attack, carries cholesterol away from arteries, cisfats
anabolic steroids
hormones that promote tissue growth, particularly muscle, used by athletes to build body muscle and supposedly increase endurance, side effects include changes in hair distribution, fertility and sexual desire, toxic to liver, increased risk of liver cancer
Write the name for the formula: H2O2 Write the formula for the name: nitrogen monoxide
hydrogen peroxide NO
Write the name for the formula: H2S(g) Write the formula for the name: antimony trichloride
hydrogen sulfide SbCl3
lactase
hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose
lipids
hydrophobic and insoluble in water, composed of CHO (eg. fats, oils and steroids), stored energy which can be released when broken down, release more energy per unit mass as they can undergo more oxidation than carbohydrates, help absorb fat soluble vitamins (eg. A, D, E and K)
insoluble
hydroxides are soluble or insoluble?
-ic acid
if anion ends in -ate, acid name ends in...
hydro-ic acid
if anion ends in -ide, acid name ends in
-ous acid
if anion ends in -ite, acid name ends in...
what factor affects the color of transition metals
incomplete d level
electronegativity trend
increases right and up
trend in atomic radius
increases to the left and down
cholesterol
influences fluidity in cell membrane and hence permeability of membrane, steroid hormone, synthesises other steroids including sex hormones
london dispersion forces
instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces that exist bw any atoms or groups of atoms
isoelectric point
intermediate pH at which the amino acid is electrically neutral
why is it not a good idea to use hydrochloric acid with a chlorine solution
it will produce chlorine gas which is toxic
-anone
ketone suffix
what are the products of the oxidation of a secondary alcohol
ketones
s
l=0
p
l=1
d
l=2
f
l=3
malnutrition
lack of diverse nutrients needed in diet
protein
largely responsible for structure in the body, catalysts, carrier molecules, hormones (eg. hair, fingernails, tendons, muscles, enzymes, haemoglobin)
London dispersion forces
larger molecules which have higher mass and therefore electron density have stronger...
like
like dissolves...
structure of sp hybridization
linear; triple bond
first
ln[A] vs. time is a ...-order reaction
strength of intermolecular forces (weakest to strongest)
london dispersion forces, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding; also corresponds to melting and boiling points
fatty acid
long chain of carboxylic acids (R-COOH)
oxidation
loss of electrons; addition of oxygen to a substance
what makes alkanes unreactive
low bond polarity and strong covalent bonds
dilute (acids and bases)
low number of moles of solute per liter of solution
protein structure
made from linking amino acids by peptide bonds
sex hormones
made from lipids in the form of steroids (eg. testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone)
phospholipid
major component of cell membranes, selective transport of metabolites across cell boundaries
androgens
male steroid hromones
q=mC(deltaT)
mass of water: specific heat capacity of water change in temperature of water.
g solute/g solvent x 100
mass percent
tempurature
measure of the "hotness" of a substance; represents the average kinetic energy of the substance, but is independent of the mount of substance present
heat
measure of the total energy in a given amount of of substance and therefore depends on the amount of substance present
fusion
melting
co-enzymes
metabolic intermediates whose function is to carry chemical groups or energy between different reactions (eg. ATP)
base
metal oxide + H20 ->
alloys (metal solutions)
metals that are made up of more than one metal; will have a different radius and charge than the original metal
iodine function
micronutrient needed for synthesis of thyroxine (hormone) which regulates metabolic rate, lack of iodine causes swelling in thyroid gland (goitre), may lead to mental retardation
Diffusion
mixing of gases
moles solute/kg solvent
molality =
glycerol
molecule made of three carbon atoms, that all bear hydroxyl group
essential nutrients
molecules that are required in the diet for absorption and by use in the body
mucoproteins
mucous secretions to reduce friction (eg. knee joint)
ligand
neutral molecules or anions which contain a non-bonding pair of electrons; these electron pairs can form coordinate covalent bonds with the metal ion to form complex ions
Homologous series: *Nitriles* name functional group and structure.
nitrile
Write the name for the formula: NI3 Write the formula for the name: carbon monoxide
nitrogen triiodide CO
enanteomers
non-superimposable mirror images
acid
nonmetal oxide + H2O ->
why is there a difference in the enthalpy values in the data booklet and calculated from experiments
not all head produced is transferred to the water, water loses heat to the surroundings, incomplete combustion
diasteomers
not mirror images (multiple chiral carbons)
micronutrients
nutrients needed in extremely small amounts, less than 0.005% of body mass, enable body to produce enzymes, hormones and other essentials (eg. Fe, Zn, I, Mn)
macronutrients
nutrients needed in relatively high amounts, used to provide energy and build and maintain structure (eg. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, Na, K, Ca, Mg)
non-essential nutrients
nutrients that the body can synthesise and therefore not required in the diet
hydrogen bonding in secondary structures
occurs between -C=O group and -N-H group of different peptide bonds on chain, to allow for folding
esterification reaction
occurs between acid and each hydroxyl group in glycerol, eliminating water as each ester link forms
partially hydrogenated fats
oils which have been chemically modified by addition reactions using hydrogen to add across double bonds, thus decreasing degree of unsaturation, the heat and pressure cause the fats to become transfats
how many sigma and pi bonds in a double bond
one sigma and one pi bond
how many sigma and pi bonds in a triple bond
one sigma and two pi bonds
how many sigma and pi bonds in a single bond
one sigma bond
geometric isomers
one type of diasteomer; occur in organic molecules where rotation around a bond is restricted (double bond) asymmetrical non-cyclic hydrocarbons
weak (acids and bases)
only slightly dissociated into ions
vitamins
organic compounds needed in small amounts for normal growth and metabolism, not synthesised by body, must be in diet
condensation
organic reaction in which two functional groups come together, resulting in the release of water
hydrolysis
organic reaction in which water breaks apart a molecule (splitting into two hydroxides)
amine
organic w/ -NH2
ether
organic w/ -O-
alcohol
organic w/ -OH group
why can a molecule have multiple oxidation states
oxidation states are only used for electron bookeeping, so if there are two of the same molecules in a compound but they are bonded differently, they can have different oxidation states
oxide gas and water
oxoacid solution (such as HSO4-) forms...
haemoglobin
oxygen carrier in red blood cells
Write the name for the formula: O3 Write the formula for the name: nitrogen dioxide
ozone NO2
VSEPR theory
pairs of electron arrange themselves around the central atom so that they are as far apart from each other as possible
dietary fibre
pass straight through body but benefit the health of the large intestine, as it abrade the wall of the digestive tract and stimulate mucous secretion
Effusion
passage of gas through tiny orifice
activated complex (transition state)
peak of energy diagram
deposition
phase change from gas to solid
sublimation
phase change from solid to gas
Homologous series: *Arenes* name functional group and structure.
phenyl
boiling point
point at which vapor pressure=air pressure above
why are aprotic solvents more suitable for Sn2 rxns rather than Sn1
polar aprotic solvents decrease nucleophilic reactivity due to hydrogen bonding; protic solvents prefer Sn1 rxns since the carbocation is solvated by ion-dipole interactions by the polar solvent
Trans-fats
prevalent in processed foods, raises LDL cholesterol favouring heart disease
oral contraceptive pill
prevents ovulation releasing unfertilised ovum, contains oestrogen and progesterone to suppress FSH and LH secretion (which usually trigger ovulation)
keratin
protective covering (found in hair and fingernails)
marasmus
protein deficiency found mainly in infants when weaning (going off breast milk), causes failure to gain weight, weight loss and emaciation
base and hydrogen gas
pure metal or metal hydride + H20 ->
methods of increasing rate
raising heat, adding catalyst, heighten concentration, bigger surface area
What is the rate law equation?
rate = k[A][B]
condensation reaction
reaction between two smaller molecules, which both most have reactive functional group, to form one larger molecule, releasing a small molecule (eg. water) to potentially form polymers
catabolism
reactions in which organic matter is broken down to produce energy
anabolism
reactions that use energy to synthesise larger molecules (eg. proteins, nucleic acids)
primary structure of amino acids
refers to the number and sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain
alpha helix
regular coiled configuration of polypeptide chain as a result of hydrogen bonds forming between two peptide bonds which are four amino acids apart, 3.6 amino acids per turn, flexible and elastic due to intra-chain hydrogen bond easily breakable and reforming
conformational isomers
related by rotation around a single bond
factors that affect polarity of a mc
relative electronegativities of the atoms in the mc and shape
products of a rxn between an acid and ammonia
salt
products of a reaction between an acid and a hydroxide
salt and water
products of a rxn between an acid and a metal oxide
salt and water
stereoisomers
same atom connectivity, different arrangement in space
fats
saturated fatty acid have 109.5 bond angles and allows molecule to packed closely, significant dispersion forces between atoms, solid (eg. lard and butter)
Write the name for the formula: SeCl4 Write the formula for the name: diphosphorous pentaoxide
selenium tetrachloride P2O5
chromatography
separates components of a mixture (likely coloured) to identify amino acids, spreading them out according to their individual solubilities
lewis structure
shows all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded molecule
Write the name for the formula: SiC Write the formula for the name: carbon tetrachloride
silicon carbide CCl4
Write the name for the formula: SiO2 Write the formula for the name: Sulfur dioxide
silicone dioxide SO2
monosaccharide
simple sugars, readily soluble in water, used for respiration
characteristics of graphene
single layer of graphite; hybridization of the carbon atoms is sp2
fat-soluble vitamins
slower absorption by body and excess amount stored in fat tissues until needed, non polar molecule
sublimation
solid --> gas
how to form an acid buffer
solution of a strong base mixed with a weak acid
conjugate base
species remaining after the acid has lost a proton
conjugate acid
species remaining after the base has accepted a proton
4.184
specific heat of water
Balmer Series
spectrum of light when an electron drops to energy level n=2
Boltzmann distribution
states molecules at a given temp. vary in kinetic energy along a bell-curve of molecular velocities
vapor pressure
stronger IMF= lower... weaker IMF= higher...
beta pleated sheet
structure of 'side-by-side- polypeptides which are in extended form, polypeptides arranged in pleated sheets cross linked by inter-chain hydrogen bonds, flexible but inelastic
Bronsted-Lowry base
substance than can accept a proton
Bronsted-Lowry acid
substance that can donate a proton
Lewis acid
substance which can accept a pair of electrons
Lewis base
substance which can donate a pair of electrons
ionic theory acid
substance which produces hydrogen ions in aqueous solution
amphiprotic
substances which can act both as an acid and a base (ex water)
trans
substituents on the opposite side of double bond
cis
substituents on the same side of double bond
triple point
temperature-pressure combination at which solid, liquid, and gas states appear
critical point
temperature-pressure point after which gas can no longer form liquid
structure of sp3 hybridization
tetrahedral; all single bonds
Write the name for the formula: P4O10 Write the formula for the name: dinitrogen pentoxide
tetraphosphorous decaoxide N2O5
catenate
the ability to form chains and rings
why do alloys tend to be less malleable than pure metals
the added metal disturbs the lattice so the layers are less able to slide over each other
metallic bond
the attraction that two neighboring positive ions have for the delocalized electrons bw them
artherosclerosis
the blocking of main blood vessels by lipids, as a result of their low solubility, associated with high blood pressure and can lead to heart disease
a Faraday, F is defined as
the charge, in coulombs, carried by one mole of electrons
what factors affect the amount of product formed during electrolysis
the current used, the duration of the electrolysis, and the charge of the ions
resonance structures
the delocalization of a double bond allows electrons to transfer between a single and double bond
cell potential
the difference in potential energy per unit charge between two electrodes
coordinate (dative) covalent bonds
the electrons in the shared pair may originate from the same atom; coordinate bond shows by an arrow
secondary structure of amino acids
the folding of polypeptide chain as a result of hydrogen bonding between peptide groups along its length
tertiary structure of amino acids
the further twisting, folding and coiling of polypeptide chain as a result of interactions between the R group, result of intramolecular forces
entahlpy
the internal energy stored in the reactants; only the difference between the enthalpies of products and reactants can be known
what causes the difference in energy of the d orbitals
the nature of the ligand
iodine number
the number of grams of iodine which reacts with 100g of lipid. excess iodine is calculated by titrating with Na2S2O3(aq)
what happens to the oxidation number when a substance is oxidized
the oxidation number will decrease; loss of electrons
how to determine the oxidation number in a compound
the oxidation state is equal to the charge carried by each ion in the compound; assume covalent are ionic; sum of all oxidation states is equal to zero or charge of the ion
acid deposition
the process by which acidic particles, gases and precipitation leave the atmosphere
periodicity
the repeating patern of physical and chemical properties shown by the different periods
mobile phase
the solvent during chromatography
phospholipid structure
the third hydroxyl position condensed into phosphate group, hydrophilic head (phosphate) and hydrophobic tails (hydrocarbon chains), forming phospholipid bilayer with hydrophobic interor
d orbitals
these orbitals are diagonal
p orbitals
these orbitals are perpendicular
s orbitals
these orbitals are spherical
viscosity
thickness
rate law
this MUST be determined experimentally
Arrhenius equation
to find activation energy use the...
complex ions
transition metals with ammonia, hydroxide, cyanide or thiocyanate form...
water-soluble vitamins
transported directly to blood and excess filtered out by kidneys and excreted, polar bonds
structure of sp2 hybridization
trigonal planar; double bond
bond length (shortest to longest)
triple, double, single
bond strength (strongest to weakest)
triple, double, single
geometric isomers
two molecules with identical connectivity but different geometries
disaccharide
two monosaccharides linked through condensation reaction forming glycosidic linkage, CxH2xOx-1
London dispersion forces
universal IMF for nonpolar molecules
oils
unsaturated fatty acid have kinks, due to unsaturation, that don't allow them to be packed closely together, weaker intermolecular forces and lower melting point, liquids (eg. corn oil and cod liver oil)
n (first quantum number)
variable for energy of e-, goes from 1,2,3 on up
m (third quantum number)
variable for orientation of orbital (-1 through +1)
s (fourth quantum number)
variable for spin of electron (+.5 or -.5)
l (second quantum number)
variable for type of orbital
what are the products of a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an acohol
water and an ester (OH from carboxylic acid and H from alcohol)
stationary phase
water in the paper during chromatography
vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
water soluble, heals wounds and helps prevent bacterial infection and is involved in biosynthesis of collagen, deficiency causes scurvy (swollen legs, gums, lesion)
acid/base indicator
weak acid (or base) in which the dissociated form is a different color to the undissociated form
hydrolysis reaction
when a water molecule reacts with a larger molecule to break a bond to form two smaller molecules
allotrope
when an element can exist in different crystalline forms (carbon)
red
when n=3 ->2, color=
blue-green
when n=4 ->2, color=
blue-violet
when n=5 ->2, color=
violet
when n=6 ->2, color=
bond polarity
when one atom has a higher electronegativity value than another in a covalent bond, it will have a stronger attraction to the electrons and be more negative
exothermic
when the bonds in the products are stronger than the bonds in the reactants; heat is given out to the environment
pi bond
when two p orbitals overlap "sideways on"
zwitterion
where hydrogen atom from carboxylic acid transfers a proton to the amine group to form carboxylate anion and a substituted ammonium cation, makes compound dipolar
variables of the graph of a first order reaction
x-axis: time y-axis: concentration
Write the name for the formula: XeF4 Write the formula for the name: sulfur trioxide
xenon tetrafluoride SO3
at high temperatures
∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... + | +
never
∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... + | -
always
∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... - | +
at low temperatures
∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... - | -
0
∆Hº of pure elements=
