Child Development
According to Piaget, how do children construct their knowledge of the world?
According to Piaget, children take what they know and try to apply it to new concepts such as a child seeing an elephant for the first time. Piaget believes that children are active in their constructing of their own knowledge of the world.
How does culture influence theories of child development?
All cultures have their own theories about how children develop. To understand what is most adaptive within a particular context and environment, we must always keep in mind the realities of children's lives in different settings.
Why does ecological theory play an important role in shaping social policy?
All levels of society affect human development.
IN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY, THE DIMENSION OF TIME, INCLUDING ONE'S AGE AND THE TIME IN HISTORY IN WHICH ONE LIVES.
CHRONOSYSTEM
How are classical and operant conditioning similar and how are they different?
Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, whereas operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior with a consequence. In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Classical conditioning is concerned with the before response, while operant is concerned with the after.
What is the basic learning principle of social cognitive theory?
Cognition plays a role in determining motivation to perform a behavior.
CHANGES IN THE WAY CHILDREN THINK, UNDERSTAND, AND REASON AS THEY GROW OLDER.
Cognitive Development
What are the contexts for child development?
Context is a broad term that includes all the settings in which development occurs.These contexts include family, schools, communities, and cultures.
How does culture affect childrearing?
Culture affects one's beliefs, values, traditions, language, customs, etc. If one culture believes that strictness is a sign of love and another believes that strictness means that a parent doesn't like a child, this can have an impact on the child. Cultural values are translated directly into parenting techniques.
How do children's life experiences affect the development of their brain?
Depending on life experiences, the development of connections between nerve cells, the coating of the nervous system, and the neurochemesitry of the brain are all shaped by what a person does. Environmental factors also show a change in genes.
How do a culture's values shape the conceptualization of the stages children go through?
Depending on whether the individual or the community is more important, stages can vary.
How does dynamic assessment of children's abilities differ from traditional types of assessment?
Dynamic assessment is different from direct assessment in that unlike direct assessment where you test the child on what he or she knows or can do at one particular time, the instructor asks a question to assess the child's understanding of a concept. The child may need help occasionally in trying to get the right answer, even going as far as to give the answer with an explanation.
How is human development similar to a jazz improvisation?
Dynamic systems theory is defined as all different aspects of development interacting and affecting each other over time in unique ways for each individual. This is similar to a jazz improvisation because each instrument comes together to influence and develop a specific sound within the music.
THE PRINCIPLE BY WHICH DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS MAY RESULT IN THE SAME OUTCOME.
Equifinality
What are some reasons for studying child development?
Experiences in childhood shape who we are as adults and this can be important in learning about child development. Those who are parents may want to be better parents and professionals who work with children and those who develop policies specifically for adolescents and their families may benefit from getting to know child development to better form these policies. Learning about child development can be used to improve the lives of children and adolescents.
True or false: A good deal of parent adolescent conflict is normal in families with adolescents.
False
True or false: A good theory would be universal, applying to all children in all situations.
False
True or false: Adults who were abused as children are likely to become abusive parents themselves.
False
True or false: Children who are gifted or talented often pay a price for their giftedness because they are likely to be socially or emotionally maladjusted.
False
True or false: Darwin's concept of the survival of the fittest means that the strongest animal is most likely to survive
False
True or false: Each human being has hundreds of thousands of genes that make him or her a unique individual.
False
True or false: Freud's theory is based on outdated ideas so it is not relevant to the field of child development today.
False
True or false: Humans use only 10% of their brain.
False
True or false: Infants must have skin to skin contact with their mother within the first few hours after birth for bonding, or love, to develop
False
True or false: Research has shown that exposing a fetus to extra stimulation (for example: playing music near the woman's stomach) can stimulate advanced cognitive development.
False
True or false: The best way to establish and maintain a behavior is to reward people every time they exhibit the behavior that you are interested in.
False
True or false: The best way to stop an undesirable behavior in a child is to punish a child for doing it.
False
True or false: The best way to study children is through carefully controlled experiments in a laboratory setting.
False
True or false: The bulk of your personality is fixed and established by the time you enter adolescence
False
What is the primary context for most children's development?
Family is the primary context for development for most children.
How do the stages in the theories of Freud and Erikson differ?
Freud believed in psychosexual theories whereas Erikson believed in psychosocial theories. Freud believed that growth and development stopped once out of adolescence whereas Erikson believed that you continue to grow and develop throughout your life.
How does culture play a role in the theories of child development?
If we assume all societies must conform to Western values, we forget that different ideas and behaviors may be more adaptive for children growing up in different contexts and environments. To understand the diversity of development, we need to take into account the indigenous theories of child development that guide the way children are raised in a variety of cultures.
HOw do the processes of animal imprinting and human attachment differ?
Imprinting is adaptive because the mother provides her offspring with food and protection from predators. If a newborn animal did not do this, the animal most likely would not survive to the next generation. Humans do not imprint but rather attach after a period of time.
THE CULTURAL VALUE THAT EMPHASIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL WITH EMPHASIS ON INDEPENDENCE AND RELIANCE ON ONE'S OWN ABILITIES
Individualism
What does it mean to be a critical thinker?
It means to be open to new ideas and suggestions, however before jumping on the bandwagon, make sure there is sufficient and good evidence to support the new information.
Who needs to have a good understanding of child development and why?
Many are interested due to the topic being fascinating and important. Others may want information that will help them in their role as a parent. Learning this may help professionals who will one day work with children and can help shape policies for children and adolescents.
What is the relationship between theory and truth?
Most theories can never be proven beyond a shadow of a doubt but the scientific process does allow us to gather evidence that supports or opposes the truth of these ideas
THE PRINCIPLE BY WHICH THE SAME PATHWAYS MAY LEAD TO DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES.
Multifinality
THE INFLUENCE OF GENETIC INHERITANCE ON DEVELOPMENT
Nature
Why is the relationship between nature and nurture relevant to the study of child development?
Nature is defined as our genetic inheritance, whereas nurture is defined as the influence of the environment. We get our behaviors through a mix of both nature and nurture, therefore, it is no longer nature versus nurture but rather nature through nurture.
What are neuropsychology and behavioral genetics?
Neuropsychology is the study of the brain and behavior. Behavioral genetics is the study of genes and behavior. Both the brain and genes are influenced and shaped by an individual's experiences.
How has new technology changed research in the fields of neuropsychology and behavioral genetics?
New technologies have researchers being able to see structure and functioning of our brains as they never have before, and whole genome sequencing can be used to identify specific genes. This allows us to see things that connect the brain and specific genes with different aspects of children's development.
THE PROCESS BY WHICH PEOPLE EXPRESS THEIR GENETIC TENDENCIES BY FINDING ENVIRONMENTS THAT MATCH AND ENHANCE THOSE TENDENCES.
Niche-picking
How does peer review assure readers that scientific information is valid and reliable?
Peer review is defined as a process by which professional peers critique research and make suggestions for improvement prior to its publication or dissemination. An article submitted for publication is reviewed by professional knowledgeable about the topic of the research and will then tell journal editors whether they think the article should be published and often make suggestions on how to improve it.
What is perceptual bias?
Perceptual bias is defined as the tendency to see and understand something in the way you expected it to be.
What are the differences between physical, cognitive, and social emotional development?
Physical development - includes the biological changes that occur in the body, including changes in size and strength, as well as the integration of sensory and motor activities. Neurological or brain development is also included here. Cognitive development - includes changes in the way we think, understand, and reason about the world. This includes the accumulation of knowledge as well as the way we use that information in problem solving and decision making. Social-emotional development - includes all of the ways we learn to connect to other individuals and interact effectively with them, understanding emotions and the emotions of others, and express and regulate our emotions.
What are the hypotheses and modern applications of the major child development theories?
Psychoanalytic theories. In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, sexual drive shifts from one area of the body to another as the child develops, forming the basis for five psychosexual stages. Erik Erikson believed the social world and the development of identity were driving forces for developmeht through eight psychosocial stages. Freud's theory has application in understanding and treating mental and emotional disorders. Erikson's theory has helped us understand the influence of social experiences on development. Behaviorism. The theory of behaviorism states that the environment determines development. In classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus. After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response. In operant conditioning something that follows a behavior affects the likelihood of that behavior happening again. Reinforcement increases the behavior, while punishment and extinction decrease it. Classical conditioning has been used in the treatment of phobias. Operant conditioning has been used for classroom management and in applied behavior analysis. Social cognitive theory. Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of imitation as a learning process. It has been applied in the study of self efficacy. Theories of cognitive development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development states that we are always trying to organize our understanding of the world by fitting new information into our current understanding, or accommodating new information by changing our concepts to fit that information. The idea that children actively construct their understanding of the world has significantly influenced the fild of education. Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and believed adults or more skilled peers build children's knowledge through interaction. His theory has been applied through the use of dynamic assessment and collaborative learning in educational settings. Two models of the theory of information processing are the stores model that likens the mind to a computer and portrays mental processing as a linear progression of steps, and the connectionist or neural network model that describes mental processing as a network of concept nodes that are interconnected by links similar to the connections between neurons in the brain. These models have helped us understand cognitive processes and are helping us learn about the structure and function of the brain. Evolutionary theories. Ethology is the study of animal and human behavior in relationship to their adaptation to the natural environment. Sociobiology examines the role that genes play in influencing human social behavior that evolved to promote adaptation to the environment. Evolutionary theories help us understand how our behaviors help us to adapt to our environment. Ecological theory. Bronfenbrenner proposed that individuals grow and develop within a nested set of influences that he divided into five systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. His theory has been applied in research that considers multi levels of influence on behavior and development, and in developing effective social policy. Dynamic systems theory. Dynamic systems theory examines the way all aspects of development - biological, cognitive, and social-emotional - influence one another. It has found application in interventions for motor development problems.
Contrast quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in development.
Quantitative changes are defined as changes in the amount or quantity of what you are measuring. Some examples of quantitative changes are height, learning more new words, acquiring more factual knowledge. Incremental theories describe quantitative changes. Qualitative changes are defined as changes in the overall nature of what you are examining. Walking versus crawling, abstract concepts vs concrete concepts. Stage theories describe qualitative changes in development.
What drive does Freud say is most important for human development?
Sex drive is the most basic human drive
What is the relationship between social policy and research on child development?
Social policy is the ideas and programs designed to accomplish promoting the well being of all our citizens. Research on child development can guide and inform the people who make these policies. Looking at experts in the field of child development can be helpful in deciding whether a program is worth the expenditure, such as WIC.
How does socioeconomic status affect a child's development?
Socioeconomic status is a combined measure of a family's income and parental education and occupation. The more SES generally means the more resources available to support healthy child development. Those who have lower SES also have a lower academic achievement rate. This means that SES is directly related to a child's development.
What are two ways in which theories of development differ from each other?
Some theories develop as a series of quantitative changes that happen little by little, smoothly over time. Others answer qualitative changes that occur at different ages and also the nature of the child in significant ways. One way they differ from each other is in how they measure change. Another way in which theories of development differ from each other is in why change happens. The question is asked whether development is a product of biological processes, environmental influences, or a combination of both.
What are the domains of child development and some recurring themes and issues in the field?
The different domains of child development are physical, cognitive, and social-emotional. Some recurring themes and issues in the field of child development are nature vs nurture, continuous versus stagelike development, stability versus change, individual differences, the role of the child in development, positive psychology, integrating themes and issues.
According to behaviorism, what is the most important influence on human behavior?
The environment is the most important influence on human behavior.
What are the five systems that make up Bronfenbrenner's ecological system?
The five systems that make up Bronfenbrenner's ecological system are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
What are the three parts of the personality according to Freud?
The id, the ego, and the superego
How do the stores model and the connectionist model of information processing differ?
The stores model is through a series of linear steps: first we pay attention to something, then we process, or think about it, then we store it in memory where we can later retrieve and use it. The stores model is based on a view of the mind as similar to a computer. The connectionist model, or neural network model uses this way of thinking that reflects the way that nerve cells in the rain operate through multiple simultaneous connections with other neurons throughout the brain. Information is processed through concept nodes that are interconnected by links.
What do child development theories tell us?
Theories of development give us a model that allows us to predict how children will behave. Some theories propose that development occurs in stages, while others see development as a continuous process. Theories also differ in their emphasis on biological, environmental, and personal mechanisms that bring about growth and development.
What two functions do theories serve in science?
They help us organize the knowledge that we already have and they help us make predictions that we then can investigate and test.
How does dynamic systems theory show that motor activity influences the activity of the brain?
This theory shows how biological maturation operates in interaction with environmental influences.
What role does adaptation play in the theory of evolution?
Those that can adapt to their environment, are the ones that survive.
Who is likely to benefit from being knowledgeable about child development?
Those who are parents and family members, professionals who work with children and families, and people who create and carry out social policies and programs that affect children and their families.
True or false: Adolescents today are much less likely to be victims of violence while in school than they were 20 years ago.
True
True or false: Children can learn basic math concepts better through games of pick up sticks and group based arithmetic games than paper and pencil lessons.
True
True or false: It is perfectly fine to use baby talk with infants.
True
True or false: Research cannot tell us whether a theory is true or false.
True
True or false: The incidence of stepfamilies in the US has not changed much from 1900 to today.
True
True or false: There is not a very strong relationship between your moral values and beliefs and what you will actually do when making a decision about how you should behave.
True
According to sociobiology, why are you more likely to help a family member than a stranger?
You are more likely to help a family member because you share some of their genes with biological family members, and therefore you have a stake in making sure family members survive to pass on the genes you share.
How can you be a smart consumer of information about development?
You can read books, magazines, and television programs at home and online.
Why is it important to understand children within the context of the world around them?
You cannot understand the life course of an individual without understanding how that person interacts with all different facets of his environment. All aspects of the environment affect the individual, and the individual affects all aspects of his environment.
FREUD'S SECOND STAGE DURING WHICH TODDLERS' SEXUAL ENERGY IS FOCUSED ON THE ANUS
anal stage
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIORISM TO CHANGE BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS WITH A RANGE OF DIFFICULTIES, INCLUDING AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
applied behavior analysis (ABA)
RESEARCH TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE OF GENETIC BASIS FOR A BEHAVIOR, A TRAIT, OR AN ABILITY
behavioral genetics
THE THEORY DEVELOPED BY JOHN B. WATSON THAT FOCUSES ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL OF OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR.
behaviorism
THE PROCESS BY WHICH A STIMULUS (THE UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS) THAT NATURALLY EVOKES A CERTAIN RESPONSE (THE UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE) IS PAIRED REPEATEDLY WITH A NEUTRAL STIMULUS. EVENTUALLY THE NEUTRAL STIMULUS BECOMES THE CONDITIONED STIMULUS AND EVOKES THE SAME RESPONSE, NOW CALLED THE CONDITIONED RESPONSE.
classical conditioning
AN EDUCATIONAL STRATEGY THAT ALLOWS GROUPS OF STUDENTS WHO ARE AT DIFFERENT ABILITY LEVELS TO WORK TOGETHER ON A COMMON GOAL
collaborative learning
THE CULTURAL VALUE THAT EMPHASIZES OBLIGATIONS TO OTHERS WITHIN YOUR GROUP.
collectivism
IN THIS MODEL OF MEMORY, THE PROCESS IS ENVISIONED AS A NEURAL NETWORK THAT CONSISTS OF CONCEPT NODES THAT ARE INTERCONNECTED BY LINKS.
connectionist or neural network model
THE IDEA THAT HUMANS ACTIVELY CONSTRUCT THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD, RATHER THAN PASSIVELY RECEIVING KNOWLEDGE
constructivism
THE SYSTEM OF BEHAVIORS, NORMS, BELIEFS, AND TRADITIONS THAT FORM TO PROMOTE THE SURVIVAL OF A GROUP THAT LIVES IN A PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENTAL NICHE.
culture
THE STUDY OF THE RELATION BETWEEN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
developmental cognitive neuroscience
AN APPROACH THAT SEES MENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS AS DISTORTIONS OF NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES RATHER THAN AN ILLNESS
developmental psychopathology
A MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT BASED ON OBSERVATIONS THAT ALLOWS US TO MAKE PREDICTIONS
developmental theory
A TESTING PROCEDURE THAT USES A TEST INTERVENE TEST PROCEDURE TO ASSESS THE EXAMINEE'S POTENTIAL TO CHANGE
dynamic assessment
THE THEORY THAT ALL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT INTERACT AND AFFECT EACH OTHER IN A DYNAMIC PROCESS OVER TIME
dynamic systems theory
THE PART OF THE PERSONALITY THAT CONTENDS WITH THE REALITY OF THE WORLD AND CONTROLS THE BASIC DRIVES
ego
THEORIES IN WHICH DEVELOPMENT IS A RESULT OF CONTINUOUS QUANTITATIVE CHANGES.
incremental theories
THE INFLUENCE OF LEARNING AND THE ENVIRONMENT ON CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT.
nurture
A PROCESS BY WHICH PROFESSIONAL PEERS CRITIQUE RESEARCH AND MAKE SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT PRIOR TO ITS PUBLICATION OR DISSEMINATION.
peer review
THE TENDENCY TO SEE AND UNDERSTAND SOMETHING IN THE WAY YOU EXPECT IT TO BE.
perceptual bias
BIOLOGICAL CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE BODY AND BRAIN, INCLUDING CHANGES IN SIZE AND STRENGTH, INTEGRATION OF SENSORY AND MOTOR ACTIVITIES, AND DEVELOPMENT OF FINE AND GROSS MOTOR SKILLS.
physical development
AN APPROACH TO FINDING WAYS TO HELP ALL YOUNG PEOPLE REACH THEIR FULL POTENTIAL.
positive youth development
CHANGES IN THE OVERALL NATURE OF WHAT YOU ARE EXAMINING
qualitative changes
CHANGES IN THE AMOUNT OR QUANTITY OF WHAT YOU ARE MEASURING.
quantitative changes
CHANGES IN THE WAYS WE CONNECT TO OTHER INDIVIDUALS, AND EXPRESS AND UNDERSTAND EMOTIONS.
social emotional development
POLICIES THAT TO ARE INTENDED TO PROMOTE THE WELFARE OF INDIVIDUALS IN A SOCIETY.
social policy
THE PROCESS OF INSTILLING THE NORMS, ATTITUDES, AND BELIEFS OF A CULTURE IN ITS CHILDREN.
socialization
A PERSON'S SOCIAL STANDING BASED ON A COMBINED MEASURE OF INCOME, EDUCATION, AND OCCUPATION.
socioeconomic status
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT IN WHICH EACH STAGE IN LIFE IS SEEN AS QUALITATIVELY DIFFERENT FROM THE ONES THAT COME BEFORE AND AFTER.
stage theories