civics

4.4 vocab: amendments addressing political changes

Abstinence: restraining oneself from participating in something, such as drinking alcohol. Anti-Saloon League: the leading organization lobbying for prohibition in the U.S. in the early 20th century. Constitutionality: a law's status in meeting the requirements of the Constitution, as determined by a court. Deadlock: a situation, often involving opposing parties, in which no progress can be made. Direct election: an election in which citizens vote directly instead of having representatives who vote for them. Eighteenth Amendment: established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the U.S. by declaring illegal the production, transport, and sale of alcohol. Electoral College: a body of people representing the states of the U.S. who formally cast votes for the election of the president and vice president. Graduated income tax: a tax that rises in steps, with those having the highest income paying the highest percentage of tax. Income tax: the tax levied by a government directly on income, especially an annual tax on personal income. Organized crime: groups with some type of a formal structure whose main goal is to make money through illegal activities. Prescription: a written message from a doctor that officially allows a patient to purchase and use a medicine. Prohibition: the prevention by the law of the manufacture and sale of alcohol in the US between 1920 and 1933. Sixteenth Amendment: permitted the government to establish a federal income tax. Temperance: abstinence from or moderation in drinking alcoholic beverages. Twelfth Amendment: changed the process by which a President and a Vice-President are elected by the Electoral College. Twenty-Fifth Amendment: established rules of succession for the presidency and vice presidency in the event of death, resignation, or incapacity. Twenty-First Amendment: repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, which had mandated nationwide Prohibition on alcohol. Twenty-Second Amendment: limited presidential terms to two for any one person, or to one elected term if the person has completed more than two years of another president's term. Twenty-Third Amendment: allowed District of Columbia residents to vote in presidential elections. Volstead Act: enacted to carry out the intent of the Eighteenth Amendment, which established prohibition in the United States. Women's Christian Temperance Union: an organization founded in the late 19th century in the United States that encouraged total abstinence from alcohol.

5.4 vocab: American foreign policy

Accountability: the fact or condition of being accountable; responsibility. Anti-statist ideology: opposition to state intervention into personal, social, and economic affairs. Balance of power: within a nation, the way a government is organized to provide a balance between the federal government and states or provinces; in an international sense, the behavior of a nation or group of nations protecting against another nation or group of nations. CIA: a federal agency that engages in research, espionage, and deployment of technology for intelligence purposes. Diplomacy: influencing the decisions and behavior of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence. Dynamic: characterized by constant change, activity, or progress. Engagement: a policy of interacting with foreign nations, especially to prevent conflict. Espionage: the practice of spying or of using spies, typically by governments to obtain political and military information. Foreign affairs: the policy of a government in dealing with other countries or with activities overseas. Global affairs: interactions and conflicts between nations around the world. Hard power: the use of military power to achieve political goals. Hegemony: leadership or dominance, especially by one country over another. Ideology: a system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. Internationalism: a policy of cooperation among nations, especially in politics and economics. Isolationism: a policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries. Lend-Lease Program: a program in the Second World War under which the United States supplied Allied nations with food, oil, and war supplies between 1941 and 1945. National security: the idea governments should protect the state and citizens against threats. NSA: an intelligence organization of the United States government responsible for global monitoring, collection, and processing of information and data. Soft power: economic power and political influence, including diplomacy. Sole organ doctrine: the idea that Presidents and their advisers are the only people who should be engaging in diplomacy with other nations. State Department: the federal executive department responsible for the international relations of the United States. Terrorism: the use of violence or the threat of violence, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political goals. Totalitarianism: a repressive, unfree society, usually ruled by a dictator. Threat assessment: a process used to evaluate the risk posed by a person, group, or country. Trade: the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. Unilateralism: the policy or practice of conducting foreign affairs with minimal consultation or cooperation with other nations, including a nation's allies. War: a state of armed conflict between different nations, or different groups within a nation or state. Warfare state: the idea that the United States has evolved into a nation either fighting wars or preparing to fight wars.

8.2 vocab

Activism: the act of using energetic campaigning to bring about political or social change. Alienation: the feeling that you have no connection with the people around you. American Indian Movement (AIM): a Native American advocacy group founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: the first major civil rights law addressing needs of people with disabilities, prohibiting discrimination in employment, public services, public accommodations, and telecommunications. Black Lives Matter: an international activist movement that campaigns against violence toward black people. Civic action: individual and group activity intended to identify and address issues of public concern. Civil disobedience: the refusal to obey certain laws or to pay taxes and fines, as a peaceful form of political protest. Disability: a physical or mental condition limiting a person's movements, senses, or activities. Discrimination: the unjust or unfair treatment of different categories of people, especially on the basis of race, age, abilities, or sex. Life cycle: a progression through a series of different stages of development. Nonviolent resistance: the practice of achieving change through protests, civil disobedience, boycotts, or political noncooperation without using violence. Occupy Movement: a social movement that protests against social and economic inequality around the world. Protest movement: a social movement using organized public actions to draw attention to problems not being addressed in a political system. Public accommodations: facilities and telecommunications that can be used by the general public. Racism: prejudice, discrimination, or hostility directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior. Satyagraha: translating roughly as "truth force," a form of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas Gandhi in India. Self-determination: a policy that allows the tribes in the United States to have self-governance and decision-making on issues that affect their own people. Segregation: the enforced separation of different racial groups in a country, community, or establishment. Social movement: organized groups of people that carry out, resist, or undo social change. United Farm Workers (UFW): a labor union founded in 1962 by Cesar Chavez, a migrant farm worker.

8.1 vocab:

Advocacy group: another term for an interest group. Amicus curiae brief: Latin term meaning "friend of the court"; name for a legal brief filed with a court by someone who is not a party to the case. Chief of staff: the highest ranking employee of the White House and a close adviser of the President. Conservatism: in present-day American politics, an ideology that favors tradition (in the sense of religious, cultural, or nationally-defined beliefs) and is critical of proposals for radical social change. Some distinction can be made between fiscal conservatives (who favor reduced taxes and government spending) and social conservatives (who focus on religious and cultural values). Determinant: a factor that decisively affects the outcome of something. "Get out the vote": efforts focused on increasing voter turnout in elections. Grassroots: people at a local or lowest level rather than at the center or upper levels of a political movement. Interest group: an organized group trying to influence the government to adopt certain policies or laws; other terms include advocacy group, pressure group, lobby group, or special interests. Labor union: an organized association of workers formed to protect and further their rights and interests. Liberalism: in present-day American politics, an ideology that favors a greater role for the government in the economy and more active policies for social change. Libertarianism: in present-day American politics, an ideology that favors only minimal state intervention in the lives of citizens and in the economy. Litigation: the process of taking legal action. Lobby: seek to influence a politician or public official on an issue. Lobbyist: a person who seeks to influence a politician or public official on an issue. Political orientation: the way a person defines his or her political ideology and affiliation. Public interest: related to the well-being of the general public. Public policy: actions by a government that affect the lives of citizens. Think tank: a group of experts providing advice and ideas on specific political or economic problems. Trade association: an organization funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry to further their interests.

1.2 vocab: understanding citizenship

Alien: a foreigner, especially one who is not a naturalized citizen of the country where they are living. Birthright citizenship: a legal right to citizenship for all children born in a country's territory, regardless of the status of a child's parents. Citizen: a native or naturalized member of a state or nation who owes allegiance to its government and is entitled to its protection. Citizenship: the status of being a citizen. Civic disposition: the traits of private and public character that are important to the preservation of a country. Civic engagement: individual and collective behavior designed to identify and address issues of public concern. Civic responsibility: the actions of good citizens and their duties to the country and their fellow citizens. Civil rights: the rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality. Due process: fair treatment through the regular judicial system. Eminent domain: the right of a government to take private property for public use, with payment of compensation. Loyalty: a sense of duty and attachment to one's country. Naturalization: the process of admitting a foreigner to the citizenship of a country. Patriotism: love, support, and defense of one's country. Personal responsibility: taking care of oneself and one's family. Selective Service: the system used in the United States to register young people into a possible draft for the armed services. Stateless: a condition of not being a citizen of a country. Treason: the crime of betraying one's country, especially by such actions as attempting to kill the ruler or overthrow the government. Voting: the formal act of expressing opinion or choice (as by ballot in an election).

1.3 vocab: becoming a citizen

Alien: a foreigner, especially one who is not a naturalized citizen of the country where they are living. Birthright citizenship: a legal right to citizenship for all children born in a country's territory, regardless of the status of a child's parents. Citizen: a native or naturalized member of a state or nation who owes allegiance to its government and is entitled to its protection. Citizenship: the status of being a citizen. Civil rights: the rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality. Emigration: the act of leaving one's resident country with the intent to settle elsewhere. Expatriation: the process of abandoning one's native land or of being exiled.​ Exile: the state of being barred from one's native country, typically for political or punishment reasons. Immigration: the action of coming to live permanently in a foreign country. Jurisdiction: the extent or range of judicial, law enforcement, or other governmental authority. Loyalty: a sense of duty and attachment to one's country. Naturalization: the process of admitting a foreigner to the citizenship of a country. Patriotism: love, support, and defense of one's country. Stateless: a condition of not being a citizen of a country. Treason: the crime of betraying one's country, especially by such actions as attempting to kill the ruler or overthrow the government. U.S. national: people born in the United States, or in American Samoa or Swains Island, the outlying possessions of the United States. All U.S. citizens are U.S. nationals, but all U.S. nationals are not U.S. citizens. Voluntary renunciation: when a U.S. citizen voluntarily decides to give up American citizenship.

6.1 vocab

Alignment: in politics, when the same social groups vote for the same party for long periods of time. Anarchy: a state of lawlessness and chaos. Aristocracy: a privileged, often hereditary ruling class with great power over the government. Broad construction: also known as loose construction; idea that interpretation of the Constitution can use knowledge from outside the Constitution's text, such as history, scientific findings, and changing values. Coalition: an alliance for combined action, such as an alliance of political parties. Faction: a small, organized, group within a larger one, especially used to describe opposing groups in politics. Federalist Party: a political party in early American history that promoted a strong central government. French Revolution: an uprising in France against the monarchy from 1789 to 1799; the revolution resulted in the creation of a republic in France. Internal improvements: public works such as roads, turnpikes, canals, and harbors. Neutrality: a condition of not supporting or helping either side in a particular conflict. Opposition: an organized group opposed to a group, party, or the government. Partisan: related to party politics. Pen name: a fake name (pseudonym) used by authors who might not want their identity known. Political identity: how groups of voters identify with particular political parties. Republican Party: also known as the Democratic-Republican Party, an American political party of the early 19th century favoring a strict interpretation of the Constitution and emphasizing states' rights. Social stability: a condition where society is stable and people work together without conflict. Strict construction: the idea that the Constitution should be interpreted based on an exact reading of the text and only the text. Whiskey Rebellion: a revolt in western Pennsylvania in 1794 against a federal tax on whiskey that was crushed by the federal government. Yeoman farmers: self-sufficient and independent farmers who cultivate their own land.

4.2 vocab: the process of amending the U.S. constitution

Amendment: a change or addition to a legal or statutory document. Archivist of the United States: the main official managing the operation of the National Archives and Records Administration. Article V: the section of the Constitution that provides methods for amending the document. Bill of Rights: the first ten amendments to the US Constitution. Certification: the process of verifying that an amendment has been properly ratified. Concurrent resolution: a resolution adopted by both houses of Congress. Electorate: all the people in a country or area who are entitled to vote in an election. Federal Register: a publication of the federal government that lists proposed and final administrative regulations of federal agencies. Framers: any of the delegates who participated in the creation of the U.S. Constitution. Joint resolution: a legislative measure requiring approval by both the Senate and the House. Legislative boundaries: the limits of the area represented by a member of the House of Representatives. Madison amendment: another name for the 27th Amendment, which limits the ability to change the salary of members of Congress until after an election of members of the House of Representatives. Quorum: the minimum number of members of a group that must be present at a meeting to make the proceedings of that meeting valid. Ratification: the official method of confirming a proposed amendment to the Constitution. Ratifying convention: one of the two methods established by Article V of the United States Constitution for ratifying proposed constitutional amendments. Registered letter: a mail service allowing the sender proof of mailing and receipt of the letter or package. Resolution: a written motion adopted by Congress. United States Statutes at Large: the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by Congress.

3.2 vocab

Anarchy: a state of disorder due to absence or ineffectiveness of government. Articles of Confederation: the first constitutional government of the United States. Confederation Congress: the legislative body authorized under the Articles of Confederation that operated the central government from 1781 to 1789. Continental Army: the Revolutionary War Army of the United States authorized by the Continental Congress in 1775 and led by George Washington. Coup d'état: a sudden attempt by a small group of people to take over a government, usually through the use or threat of violence. Daniel Shays: leader of a popular revolt by poor farmers in Massachusetts 1786-87. Foreclosure: the process of taking possession of a property due to the borrower's failure to keep up loan payments. Land Ordinance of 1785: law passed by Congress allowing for sales of land in the Northwest Territory; the law also created standards for land sale that became precedents. Mutiny: an open rebellion against authorities, especially by soldiers or sailors against officers. Nationalist: a person who promotes strong political independence for a country. Newburgh Conspiracy: a plan by Continental Army officers to challenge the authority of the Confederation Congress. Northwest Ordinance of 1787: law designed to regulate settlement of the Northwest Territory, which eventually was divided into several states of the American Midwest. Requisition: an official order demanding the use of property or materials. Shays Rebellion: an uprising of impoverished farmers led by a former militia officer, Daniel Shays, which broke out in western Massachusetts in 1786.

3.1 vocab

Anarchy: a state of lawlessness or political disorder due to the absence of governmental authority Articles of Confederation: the first constitution of the United States. Bicameralism: a legislature in which the legislators are divided into two separate houses. Consent of the governed: the idea that the authority of a government should depend on the consent of the people as expressed by votes in elections. Common law: the part of English law derived from custom and judicial precedent rather than statutes. Conservative: holding to traditional attitudes and values and being cautious toward change. Decentralization: moving political power away from a central government and toward local or regional governments. Democrat: an advocate or supporter of democracy. Democratization: the process of making a political system more democratic. Elitist: a person who believes that a system or society should be ruled or dominated by elites. Freedom of conscience: the right to follow one's own beliefs in matters of religion and morality. Gendered: biased toward one sex. Nationalism: the strong belief that the interests of a particular nation-state are of high importance. Natural rights: rights that are not dependent on laws, customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or government, and which are universal and inalienable Property qualifications: a qualification for elected office or for t\the right to vote, based on the ownership of property. Referendum: a general vote by the electorate on a single political question referred to them for a direct decision. Republicanism: an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic (rather than as a monarchy or dictatorship) under which citizens retain sovereignty. Second Continental Congress: the government of the United States from 1775 to 1781. Separation of church and state: doctrine arguing citizens have the freedom to practice any religion, and also that the government cannot officially recognize or favor any religion. Sovereignty: the authority of a state to govern itself or another state. Specie: money in the form of coins rather than paper notes, especially gold and silver coins. Statute law: written law established by legislatures or other representative bodies. Statute of Religious Freedom: a statement about both freedom of conscience and the principle of separation of church and state. Taxpayer suffrage: the idea that only taxpayers should be allowed to vote; this is typically interpreted in terms of property taxes. Virginia Declaration of Rights: a document drafted in 1776 proclaiming the rights of citizens, including the right to reform or abolish a government.

3.3 vocab: the constitutional convention

Annapolis Convention of 1786: a meeting of 12 delegates from five states to discuss recommending changes to the Articles of Confederation to better regulate interstate trade and commerce. Checks and balances: principle of government under which separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other branches and must share power. Connecticut Compromise: agreement that large and small states reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have. Constitutional Convention of 1787: the gathering that drafted the Constitution of the United States. Enumerated powers: a list in the Constitution of the powers of Congress. Full faith and credit clause: part of the Constitution that makes sure that the various states recognize legislative acts, public records, and judicial decisions of the other states. House of Representatives: the lower House of the U.S. Congress. Inalienable rights: rights that cannot b e taken away or given away. Necessary and proper clause: a part of the Constitution that allows Congress to make laws that allow it to carry out its powers. New Jersey Plan: a plan, unsuccessfully proposed at the Constitutional Convention, calling for a single legislative house with equal representation for each state. Proportional representation: an electoral system in which seats in a legislature are awarded to each party on the basis of its share of the popular vote. Senate: the upper house of the U.S. Congress. Supremacy Article: part of the Constitution declaring federal laws to have authority over state laws in the event there is conflict between laws established by two governing bodies. Three-Fifths Compromise: outlined the process for states to count slaves as part of the population in order to determine representation and taxation for the federal government. Virginia Plan: a plan, unsuccessfully proposed at the Constitutional Convention, calling for a legislature of two houses with proportional representation in each house and executive and judicial branches to be chosen by the legislature.

7.1 vocab

Annexation: the act of incorporating new territory into the domain of a city, country, or state. At-large: a public official who serves an entire governmental unit rather than subdivisions of the unit. Autonomy: freedom from external control or influence. Charter township: a township that has been granted a charter allowing it certain rights and responsibilities of home rule that are between those rights of a city and those of a village. City commission government: a form of government blends legislative and executive branch functions in the same body, typically comprising five to seven elected commission members. City council: an elected body that performs legislative functions in a local government. City manager: an appointed official, often professionally trained, who directs the administration of a city. Clerk: a local government official who performs duties such as maintaining public records, organizing vital statistics, and issuing licenses and permits. Council-manager government: a system of local government that combines the elected officials in the form of a council with the \managerial experience of an appointed government manager. County: a political and administrative division of a state that provides certain government services. County-township system: the subdivision of counties into townships. Emergency manager: an official appointed by the governor to take control of a local government under a financial emergency. Ex officio: Latin for "from the office"; a member of a body (such as a commission) who is part of it by virtue of holding another office. General law township: the majority of townships in Michigan, offering the most basic of services, and generally following the boundary lines of survey townships. General law village: the original village structure in Michigan; these villages share services with the townships in which they are located, and typically have a mayor-council structure. Home rule: a concept in which greater local control of government is established. Home rule village: a village with greater local control and less sharing of services with the township in which it is located. Mayor: highest-ranking official in a municipal government; often a mayor is directly elected by citizens, though in some cases mayors are appointed by an elected body such as a city council. Mayor-council government: a form of local government in which an elected mayor controls executive functions and an elected council controls legislative functions. Mill: the unit of millage used in property tax computations; 1 mill is equivalent to 1/1000th of a dollar, so a 5-mill tax would represent five dollars in tax per $1,000 in property value. A $100,000 home, then, would pay $500 in property tax per year with a 5-mill tax. Millage rate: the amount per $1,000 that is used to calculate taxes on property. Municipal corporation: a city or village that has governmental powers as a result of incorporating with the state. Revenue sharing: tax revenues from items such as sales tax that a state government shares with local government. Special district: government districts created when the need exists to serve several units of government (such as a regional airport or park system). Statutory unit: a government body created as a result of state legislation. Strong mayor: a form of local government in which the mayor has greater executive powers at the local level, much like a governor or a president. Township: a division of a county with some government powers. Treasurer: a government official with responsibilities in managing revenue and expenses of the government unit. Trustee: a person, usually part of a group of persons, appointed to administer the affairs of a government unit. Village: a government unit similar to a city, except that it is not completely autonomous of the township in which it is located, reducing its home rule powers.

3.4 vocab: ratifying the u.s. constitution

Antifederalist Papers: works written by Americans opposed to the Constitution of 1787. Anti-Federalists: people who opposed the ratification of the Constitution in 1789. Checks and balances: a principle of government under which separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other branches and must share power. Extralegal: occurring beyond the authority of the law, or not regulated by the law. Federalist Papers: a collection of articles and essays written to promote the ratification of the Constitution of 1787. Faction: a smaller group of persons who oppose the actions or policies of a larger group. Federalists: people who supported the ratification of the Constitution in 1789. Impeachment: a formal accusation of wrongdoing against a public official. Nationalist: a person who promotes strong political independence for a country. Necessary and proper clause: a part of the Constitution that allows Congress to make laws that allow it to carry out its powers. Ratification: an official way to approve something, usually by vote. Reserved powers: powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States. Supremacy Article: part of the Constitution declaring federal laws to have authority over state laws in the event there is a conflict between laws established by two governing bodies. Veto: the power of a president to reject legislation proposed by Congress by refusing to sign it into law.

7.4 vocab:

Appellate: a type of court concerned with applications for judicial decisions to be reversed. Attorney General: the principal legal officer who represents the state in legal proceedings and gives legal advice to the government. Corrections: a state department whose responsibilities include imprisonment, parole and probation. Direct primary: an election in which voters choose candidates to run on a party's ticket in a general election for public office. Governor: the elected executive head of a state. Graduated income tax: an income tax that rises in steps, with those having the highest income paying the highest percentage of tax. Initiative: a process that enables citizens to bypass the state legislature by placing proposed laws and constitutional amendments on the ballot. Medicaid: the largest source of funding for medical and health-related services for people with low income in the United States. Nonpartisan: free from political party affiliation or influence. Parole: permission given to a prisoner to leave prison before the end of a sentence, usually as a reward for behaving well. Per capita: another way to say "per person." Probation: a period of time in which a person who has committed a crime is allowed to stay out of prison if that person behaves well and does not commit other crimes. Recall: a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before the official's term has ended. Recession: a period of general economic decline and is typically accompanied by a drop in the stock market, an increase in unemployment, and a decline in the housing market. Referendum: a general vote by the electorate on a single political question that has been referred to them for a direct decision. Secretary of State: third-ranking official in Michigan state government who is responsible for elections, vehicle registration, and the licensing of automobile drivers. State Administrative Board: a board that has general supervisory control over the administrative activities of all state departments and agencies in Michigan. Use tax: tax on purchases made outside one's state of residence on taxable items that will be used, stored or consumed in one's state of residence and on which no tax was collected in the state of purchase. Worker compensation: a form of insurance providing wage replacement and medical benefits to employees injured in the course of employment.

2.3 vocab: Becoming American: The Colonies Rebel against Great Britain

Articles of Confederation: the original constitution of the US, ratified in 1781, which was replaced by the US Constitution in 1789. American Revolution: a revolution between 1765 and 1783 where colonists in the 13 American colonies overthrew the authority of Great Britain and founded the United States of America. Boston Tea Party: a 1773 incident in which some American colonists raided three ships in Boston Harbor, destroying their cargo of tea to protest a British East India Company monopoly on tea. British East India Company: a private company granted a trade monopoly in the East Indies by the British government. Coercive Acts: a series of British measures passed in 1774 and intended to punish the Massachusetts colonists for the Boston Tea Party. Declaration of Independence: the formal statement written by Thomas Jefferson declaring the freedom of the thirteen American colonies from Great Britain. First Continental Congress: a meeting of delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies that met on in 1774 in Philadelphia. Intolerable Acts: a name American colonists gave to the Coercive Acts. Loyalist: a colonist of the American revolutionary period who supported the British cause. Parliament: the legislative political body of Great Britain. Patriot: a colonist of the American revolutionary period who supported the American rebel cause. Preamble: a preliminary or introductory statement. Propaganda: information, often biased or misleading, used to promote a particular political cause or point of view. Revolutionary War: the war between Great Britain and its American colonies, lasting from 1775 to 1783. Second Continental Congress: a convention of delegates from the 13 colonies that began meeting in May, 1775 in Philadelphia. Seven Years' War: a war fought in the middle of the 18th century between Prussia (supported by Britain) and an alliance that included Austria, France, and Russia. Social contract: an implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits. Supply lines: the roads, railways, and rivers in the rear of an army by which it is supplied.

2.4 vocab: independence and its challenges

Articles of Confederation: the original constitution of the US, ratified in 1781, which was replaced by the US Constitution in 1789. American Revolution: a revolution between 1765 and 1783 where colonists in the 13 American colonies overthrew the authority of Great Britain and founded the United States of America. Confederation Congress: the governing body of the United States of America that existed from March 1, 1781, to March 4, 1789. Continental currency: the paper money issued by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution. Counterfeit: made in exact imitation of something valuable with the intention to deceive or defraud. Declaration of Independence: the formal statement written by Thomas Jefferson declaring the freedom of the thirteen American colonies from Great Britain. Disarmament: the reduction or withdrawal of military forces and weapons. Depreciation: a decrease in the value of a currency as compared with other currencies. Federalism: a system of government in which power is divided between a central government and various regional governments. Inflation: a general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money. Loan certificates: debt certificates issued by the original thirteen states during and after the Revolutionary War; these circulated like paper money. Militia: a military force raised from the civil population to supplement a regular army in an emergency. Pacifist: a person who believes war and violence are immoral and/or unjustifiable. Pension: money paid under certain conditions to a person following retirement or to surviving dependents. Republicanism: a political belief in a state as a republic (rather than as a monarchy or dictatorship) under which the people hold popular sovereignty; republicanists tend to favor local or state control over a powerful central government. Revolutionary War: the war between Great Britain and its American colonies, lasting from 1775 to 1783. Sectionalism: loyalty to the interests of one's own region or section of the country, rather than to the country as a whole. Wage and price controls: economic policy measure in which the government places an upper limit on wages and prices to try to lower the inflation rate.

Declaration of Independence

As tensions between Britain and the American colonies increased, a series of meetings were called, including that of the Second Continental Congress (1775-76.) On July 4, 1776, the delegates approved the Declaration of Independence, the event that marks the birth of the United States. The Declaration of Independence states the reasons the British colonies of North America sought independence in July of 1776. The document beings with a preamble that discusses the necessity of independence, explaining why the colonies decided to overthrow their ruler and take their place as a new (and separate) nation. Thomas Jefferson, a delegate from Virginia, drafted the document primarily as a list of grievances against the king. His most important words, however, clearly shaped the philosophical basis of the new government. The famous introduction clearly reflected John Locke's social contract theory: "...to secure these rights [Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of happiness], Governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed." Jefferson further reasoned that since the British government had abused these rights, the colonists had the right "to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government." This is in keeping with the idea of the social contract: since King George failed to keep his end of the "contract," then the colonists were not obligated to continue the relationship. The Declaration of Independence reflected many of the ideals that the signers believed in. Ideas such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness were concepts very much derived from Enlightenment thinkers. The Declaration is still a vitally important document because it declares that the American people believe in equal rights for all people. These days most Americans accept that the words "all men are created equal" includes everyone: women, men, children, and every race, group, and ability. Americans like to pride themselves on a legacy of equality and justice. However, in 1776 there were different ideas on what "equal" meant. Only adult white males who owned property were considered full citizens who had the right to vote. Laws and court decisions that guaranteed equal rights for all citizens would not begin to emerge until the 19th century, and even today there are still court cases where specific groups seek equal treatment under the law. The phrase "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness" has also been restricted in many ways over the years. For example, if all people are guaranteed "life," why is capital punishment still permitted in many states? If people have liberty and are free to do whatever they see fit, why were interracial marriages illegal in some states until the 1960s? The answer to these questions, of course, is that ideas about individual liberty were quite different in 1776 compared to the present day.

5.1 vocab: the three branches of the federal government

Attorney General: the head of the US Department of Justice. Bicameralism: Congress is a bicameral or two-house body. Bicameralism is part of the system of checks and balances and part of the functional differences in legislative governance. Bill: proposed legislation under consideration by a legislature. Cabinet: an informal name for the heads of the fifteen executives department, such as the Secretaries of State, Defense, and Treasury. Certiorari: an order by which a higher court reviews a decision of a lower court. Commander-in-Chief: the role of the President as the highest-ranking officer in the armed forces. Congress: one of the three equal branches of government. Congress is the legislative branch that makes laws and composes of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Constitution: a governing document that sets forth a country's basic rules of government and politics. Elector: a member of the Electoral College. Executive Branch: headed by the president, who carries out federal laws and recommends new ones, directs national defense and foreign policy, and performs ceremonial duties. Founding Fathers: a term used to describe male American leaders during the Revolutionary era, especially signers of the Declaration of Independence and drafters of the Constitution. Gridlock: in politics, a situation when there is difficulty passing laws to satisfy the needs of citizens. House of Representatives: the lower house of Congress. Judicial Branch: headed by the Supreme Court. Its powers include interpreting the Constitution, reviewing laws, and deciding cases involving states' rights. Judiciary: a system of courts of law; the term can also refer to the judges of these courts. Justice: title held by members of the U.S. Supreme Court. Legislative Branch: headed by Congress, which includes the House of Representatives and the Senate; the main task of these two bodies is to make the laws. President: the head of the executive branch and head of state for the country. Secretary: title held by members of the President's Cabinet. Senate: the upper house of Congress. Speaker of the House: presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives and third in line to the presidency after the Vice President. Supreme Court: the judicial branch of the United States government and the only court established by the Constitution.

7.3 vocab:

Autonomy: freedom from external control or influence. Charter (Home Rule) county: the form of county government in Michigan with the most autonomy; only Wayne County has this designation. City-county consolidation: a city and county that have merged to combine services and reduce costs; Indianapolis is an example of this. Commission-type county: most common form of county government in Michigan and the form with the least autonomy. County administrator: a professional manager appointed by a county commission to perform executive duties for the county. County clerk: an official (often elected) who performs duties related to vital statistics, elections, commission recordkeeping, and county court system recordkeeping. County commission: a group of elected officials responsible for administering county government. County executive: an elected official in charge of a charter county government; currently Wayne County is the only Michigan county with an elected executive. Dillon's Rule: the legal concept that the primary county role is to be an arm of state government, with only those powers granted by state constitutions and laws. Expenditure: an amount of money that a government spends. Health department: a county agency responsible for matters related to public health. Independent city: a city that has greater autonomy and is not part of a county government structure; almost all of these are in Virginia, while Baltimore, MD is the largest independent city. Justice of the peace: a local official of the judicial branch with the power to try minor cases, recommend cases for trial, and perform civil ceremonies (such as marriages and oath taking). Legacy costs: expenses an organization must pay due to past investments in labor and capital; governments pay legacy costs in the form of pensions and other benefits to retired employees. Property tax: a tax on property that the owner is required to pay. Prosecuting attorney: also known simply as a prosecutor; the public officer in a county responsible for carrying on the prosecution in criminal proceedings. Revenue: the amount of money that a government actually receives during a specific period. Road commission: a group of official responsible for construction, maintenance, and repair of roads and bridges in a county. Sheriff: a county official who is typically the top police officer of a county. Treasurer: a county official in charge of the receipt, care, and disbursement of money. Unfunded mandate: a law or regulation requiring a government to perform certain actions with no money provided for fulfilling the requirements. Unified county: a form of county government in Michigan with greater autonomy than the commission form but somewhat less power than the charter form. Introduction»

Aristole

a Greek philosopher and scientist; he was also a student of the philosopher Plato.

State of Nature

a concept used in political philosophy to describe the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might have been like before societies came into existence.

order

a condition in which freedom from disorder or disruption is maintained through respect for established authority.

Zero-sum relationship

a mathematical representation of a situation in which each participant's gain (or loss) is exactly balanced by the losses (or gains) of the utility of the other participants.

Divine Right of Kings

a political and religious doctrine arguing that a monarch is subject to no human authority, and the right to rule comes directly from God.

public safety

a responsibility of government with the goal of protecting the public and keeping them safe from threats.

failed state

a state whose political or economic system is so weak the government is no longer in control.

prosperity

a successful or thriving condition, especially in financial terms.

2.1 vocab: the influence of english culture on american political tradit

Bail: property or money given as a guarantee that a person released from custody will return to court. Cruel and unusual punishments: punishment prohibited by the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and also the English Bill of Rights; this calls for fair treatment of prisoners. Due process: fair treatment through the normal judicial system. English Bill of Rights: an English constitutional law declaring the rights and liberties of citizens and recognizing the joint rule of William III and Mary II. Extradition: the action of turning over a person accused or convicted of a crime. Equality before the law: the principle under which all people are subject to the same laws of justice. Glorious Revolution: the 1689 overthrow of James II of England, being replaced by his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III. House of Commons: the lower house of the British Parliament, consisting of elected representatives. House of Lords: upper house of the British Parliament, consisting of members of the nobility and high-ranking clergy. Hundred Years' War: a lengthy war between France and England lasting from the middle of the 14th century to the middle of the 15th century. Inalienable rights: rights that cannot be given away or taken away. Jurisdiction: the power of a legal or political agency to exercise authority over people or territory. Magna Carta: Latin for "the Great Charter," a 1215 agreement limiting the power of English monarchs. Majority rule: idea that a majority (fifty percent plus one person of an organized group) has the power to make decisions binding upon the whole group. Mayflower Compact: a 1620 agreement reached by the Pilgrims on the ship Mayflower, binding them to live in a civil society according to their own laws. Pilgrims: a group of English Puritans who moved to America, first arriving on the Mayflower in 1620. Puritans: English Protestants of the late 16th and 17th centuries who regarded the Reformation of the Church of England as incomplete, seeking to simplify and regulate forms of worship. Social contract: the idea that there is an understood agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits. Standing army: a permanent army composed of full-time soldiers that is not disbanded during times of peace. War of the Roses: a series of wars in the 15th century for control of the throne of England. Writ of habeas corpus: Latin for "produce the body," a court order demanding that an imprisoned individual be brought to court; this prevents unlawful detention without a trial.

6.4 vocab:

Base: a group of voters who almost always support a party's candidates for elected office. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA): 2002 law that regulates the finance granted for political campaigns, especially so-called "soft money." Also known as the McCain-Feingold Law. Challenger: a candidate running against an incumbent in an election. Consultant: in politics, professional advisers who assist with strategic planning, coordinating responsibilities of staff members, and arranging events to publicize the candidate or party. Election fraud: illegal interference with the process of an election. Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974: established limits on the amount of money that can be given to candidates for federal office by individuals, PACs, and political parties. Hard money: regulated contributions to specific political candidates. Incumbent: the current holder of a political office running for re-election. Independent voter: a voter who does not identify with a particular political party. In-kind contribution: contributions of goods or services to a campaign, other than cash grants. Interest group: association of individuals or organizations that attempts to influence public policy in its favor. Media coverage: getting television, radio, newspaper, and other media to devote time to a candidate. Millionaire's amendment: part of the McCain-Feingold Law increasing contribution limits for candidates who face opponents putting large sums of personal funds into their own campaigns. Off-year election: an election that does not occur in a presidential election year. Open seat race: an election in which no incumbent is running. Opportunity group: voters who are uncommitted to another candidate or who could be persuaded to vote for a candidate. Party identification: the political party with which an individual identifies. Political action committee: an organization that raises money privately to influence elections or legislation, especially at the federal level. Recession: a period of temporary economic decline during which trade and industrial activity are reduced. Shadow contribution: when a person gives money to another person for that second person to contribute to a campaign; this is typically done to get around campaign finance laws. Soft money: money that can only be used for "party-building activities" such as advocating the passage of a law and voter registration, and not for advocating a candidate in an election. Split-ticket voting: a vote for candidates of different political parties on the same ballot, instead of for candidates of only one party. Voter registration: the requirement for citizens to check in with some government office specifically for the purpose of being allowed to vote in elections. Introduction»

6.3 vocab:

Bias: giving greater weight to one particular view or group. Electoral College: a group of electors chosen by the voters in each state to elect the president and vice president of the U.S. Electoral vote: a vote cast by a member of the Electoral College; in total, there are 538 electoral votes for which presidential candidates compete. Electors: representatives in the Electoral College who cast the formal votes for president and vice president. Faithless elector: a member of the Electoral College who does not vote for the presidential or vice presidential candidate for whom they had pledged to vote. Federal Reserve Board: the governing body of the Federal Reserve System; its seven members are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Majority: a number that is greater than half of a total. Party loyalist: a person who remains loyal to a political party, and typically a person who is very involved in political campaigns for a party. Platform: a set of goals that are supported by a political party or individual candidates in order to appeal to voters. Runner-up: a competitor taking second place in a contest. Sectionalism: loyalty to the interests of one's own region or section of the country as opposed to the good of the country as a whole. Slate: a group of candidates that run in elections on a common platform. State delegation: a group of people in a state who are chosen to vote in the Electoral College. Ticket: a single election choice that fills more than one political office or seat, such as the candidates for President and Vice President, who are from the same party and run together. Winner-takes-all: in politics, the candidate who wins the most votes wins all the delegates at stake.

7.2 vocab:

Board of education: a body of elected officials who oversee a school system. Charter school: a publicly funded school governed by a group or organization under a contract (or charter) with the state. Curriculum: the methods and materials with which students will interact to achieve educational outcomes; the term can refer to a specific range of classes students take, or the term can be used to described the content and activities in a single class. Elementary and Secondary Education Act: a major national education law that dramatically increased federal funding for public schools. English proficiency: a person's ability to read, write, and understand the English language. Enrollment: the number of students registered in and attending a school. Foundation allowance: the per-student funding provided to school districts by the state of Michigan. Intermediate school district: regional service agencies in Michigan that offer support services to the school districts, including services like special education, vocational education, and professional development. Principal: the person in charge of a school. Public school: an educational facility supported by tax dollars that all children who live within the boundaries of a school district may attend. Public school academy: official name in the state of Michigan for charter schools. Pupil: another term for a student. School board: a group of people who are in charge of local schools. School district: a geographical area, with specific limits, whose schools are administered by a local board of education. Superintendent: an administrator in charge of a school district.

Politics

activities associated with the governance of a country, especially the debate among individuals or parties over power.

Social Contract

an implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits; for example, by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection.

Power

the capacity or ability to direct or influence the behavior of people or events.

national security

the defense and foreign relations of a country, as well as the protection of the interests of a country.

freedom

the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without interference or restraint.

Rule of Law

the principle that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to the law.

equality

the state of being equal, particularly in status, rights, and opportunities.

5.2 vocab: powers of the branches of government

Cabinet: informal name for the heads of the fifteen executive departments. Case law: the law as established by the outcome of former court cases. Congress: name of the legislative branch that makes laws; consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Enumerated powers: those powers that are specifically mentioned in the Constitution. Executive Branch: headed by the president; powers include directing government, commanding the Armed Forces, dealing with international powers, acting as chief law enforcement officer, and vetoing laws. Executive order: a legally binding order given by the President to federal administrative agencies. Executive privilege: the privilege, claimed by the president for the executive branch, of withholding information in the public interest. House of Representatives: lower house of the legislative branch. Implied powers: powers not been explicitly granted by the Constitution but that are implied by the necessary and proper clause for the purpose of carrying out the enumerated powers. Inherent powers: powers over and beyond those explicitly spelled out in the Constitution or which can reasonably be implied from the Constitution. Judicial activism: the view that the Supreme Court and other judges can creatively interpret the Constitution and laws regarding the needs of contemporary society. Judicial branch: headed by the Supreme Court, its powers include interpreting the Constitution, reviewing laws, and deciding cases involving states' rights. Judicial restraint: the view that judges should limit the exercise of their own power and strictly interpret the Constitution. Judicial review: implied power to review the acts of other government officials to determine whether they are constitutional has greatly expanded the power of courts. Legislative branch: the main task is to make the laws; its powers include passing laws, originating spending bills (House), impeaching officials (Senate), and approving treaties (Senate). President: the nation's chief executive and head of the executive branch. Senate: upper house of the legislative branch. Stare decisis: Latin for "let the decision stand," and it refers to a policy of following rules or principles laid down in previous judicial decisions unless they go against the ordinary principles of justice. Statutory powers: governmental powers made legal by legislation, not directly by the Constitution. Subpoena: a written order that commands someone to appear in court to give evidence. Supreme Court: the top court in the judicial branch of the United States. Unconstitutional: not in accordance with the Constitution. Veto: action a President may take to overturn legislation that Congress has passed; a presidential veto may be overturned by a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress.

6.2 vocab

Candidate-centered politics: a political environment where candidates hold more of the power and influence through their ability to project their personalities into politics. Caucus: a meeting of party leaders and party members to select candidates and elect convention delegates. Cold War: a state of political hostility existing between Soviet-led countries and US-led Western powers from 1945 to 1990. Corruption: dishonest or illegal behavior by those in power, typically involving bribery. Democratic Party: one of the two major American political parties with origins in the Democratic-Republican party of the early 19th century. Free Soil Party: a former political party that opposed the extension of slavery in territories not yet admitted to statehood; the Free Soil Party was active from 1846 to 1854. Graft: an informal term for political corruption. Grassroots organization: a political group that uses the efforts of people from the local level to bring about change at the local, regional, national, or international level. Ideology: a system of ideas and ideals, especially those that lead to economic or political policy. Mugwump: a person who remains independent from party politics; specifically this refers to Republican political activists who left the Republican Party in the election of 1884 because they rejected the financial corruption associated with Republican candidates. New Deal: a group of government programs and policies established under President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression to deal with poverty and unemployment. Party boss: a politician who controls votes in a party organization, often exchanging jobs for loyalty and votes. Party-centered politics: a political environment where parties hold most of the power and influence. Platform: a formal set of goals that are supported by a political party or individual candidates in order to appeal to voters. Political machine: political organization where a boss or small group holds the loyalty of supporters and businesses, who receive then rewards for their efforts to generate votes. Progressive Movement: a movement for reform occurring between 1900 and 1920, focused especially on eliminating government corruption and reducing the power of major corporations. Republican Party: one of the two major American political parties with origins in the Whig Party and the Free Soil Party of the mid-19th century. Slate: a group of candidates that run in elections on a common platform. Subordinate: a person or group in a lower social class or lower in a political hierarchy. Tammany Hall: a 19th century Democratic political machine based in New York City associated with corruption and abuse of power. Whig Party: an American political party formed in the 1830s to oppose President Andrew Jackson and the Democrats.

2.2 vocab: 2.2 The Enlightenment and American Political Philosophies

Checks and balances: a system in which the different parts of a government have powers that affect and control the other parts so that no part can become too powerful. Common Sense: an influential American political pamphlet published by Tom Paine in 1776. Consent of the governed: the idea that the authority of a government should depend on the consent of the people as expressed by votes in elections. Democracy: a system of government by the whole population or all the eligible citizens of a state, usually through elected representatives. Enlightenment: a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than religion and tradition. Great Awakening: a religious revitalization movement that swept parts of Europe and British America, especially the American colonies, in the 1730s and 1740s. Hereditary monarchy: a type of government where a monarch (usually a king or queen) becomes the monarch because he or she is related to the last monarch. Monarchy: a form of government with a monarch as the head of state. Natural rights: the political theory holding that an individual enters into society with certain basic rights and that no government can deny these rights. New Lights: supporters of the Great Awakening revival in New England Old Lights: opponents of the Great Awakening revival in New England. Republic: a state in which political power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch. Separation of church and state: a political philosophy limiting the power of government with regard to religion while simultaneously limiting the role of religion in government. Rule of law: a principle that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and enforced. Separation of powers: the distribution of political authority within a government to prevent one part of the government from becoming too powerful. Social contract: a political philosophy that there is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits. Tabula rasa: Latin for "blank slate," this is the idea that humans are not born with any innate (inborn) knowledge.

5.3 vocab checks and balances on branches of government

Checks and balances: a system that allows each branch of a government to counter acts of another branch to prevent any one branch from having too much power. Consolidate: to strengthen or improve one's control over a situation. Convene: to assemble for a formal meeting. Enemy combatants: captured fighters in a war who are not entitled to prisoner of war status because they do not meet the definition of a lawful combatant. Enumerated powers: those powers that are specifically mentioned in the Constitution. Establishment clause: the clause in the First Amendment of the Constitution that prohibits the establishment of religion by Congress. Free exercise clause: the clause in the First Amendment of the Constitution that recognizes the rights of individuals to freely participate in the religion of their choice. Impeachment: a formal accusation of wrongdoing against a federal official; the House of Representatives can vote to impeach, but the Senate actually tries the case. Implied powers: powers not been explicitly granted by the Constitution but that are implied by the necessary and proper clause for the purpose of carrying out the enumerated powers. Inherent powers: powers over and beyond those explicitly spelled out in the Constitution or which can reasonably be implied from the Constitution. Isolationism: the belief that a country should not be involved in the affairs of other countries. Judicial review: implied power to review the acts of other government officials to determine whether they are constitutional has greatly expanded the power of courts. Judiciary: a system of courts of law; the term can also refer to the judges of these courts. Pocket veto: an indirect veto of a legislative bill by the president by retaining the bill unsigned until it is too late for it to be considered during the legislative session. Presidential pardon: action by the President that lessens the sentence or sets aside the punishment for a crime. Prisoner of war: a member of the military who has been caught by enemy forces during a war. Separation of church and state: the concept that government must maintain a position of neutrality toward religion. Separation of powers: a division of powers and responsibilities between the various branches of government to prevent one branch from gaining too much power. Veto: action a President may take to overturn legislation that Congress has passed; a presidential veto may be overturned by a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress.

4.3 vocab: amendments related to civil rights

Civil disobedience: the refusal to comply with certain laws as a peaceful form of political protest. Civil liberties: rights protected against government actions. Civil rights: how civil liberties are guaranteed by the government through laws, court decisions, and actions of government agencies. Civil rights movement: a movement to secure for African Americans equal access to the basic privileges and rights of U.S. citizenship that peaked in the 1950s and 1960s. Disenfranchisement: denial of the right to vote to a person or group of people. Equal protection clause: part of the 14th amendment that prohibits states from denying any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Fifteenth Amendment: prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Fourteenth Amendment: defines national citizenship and forbids the states from restricting the basic rights of citizens or other persons. Gender norms: what a society considers male and female behavior. Involuntary servitude: being forced through coercion or violence to work for another. Legal equality: also known as equality under the law, the principle under which all people are subject to the same laws and possess the same basic rights. Literacy test: an examination to determine whether a person meets the literacy requirements for voting, typically used to prevent African Americans and the poor from voting. Nineteenth Amendment: prohibits any American citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. Poll tax: a tax required as a qualification for voting, typically used to prevent African Americans and the poor from voting. Reconstruction: the period (1865-77) after the Civil War in which the states formerly part of the Confederacy were brought back into the United States. Segregation: the enforced separation of different racial groups in a country, community, or establishment. Self-determination: the process by which a country determines its own statehood. Suffrage: the right to vote in political elections. Thirteenth Amendment: abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. Twenty-Fourth Amendment: prohibits both Congress and the states from making the right to vote in federal elections conditional on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax. Twenty-Sixth Amendment: prohibits the states and the federal government from using age as a reason for denying the right to vote to citizens who are at least eighteen years old.

Montesquieu

French political philosopher who advocated the separation of executive and legislative and judicial powers.

8.3 vocab:

Direct democracy: a form of government in which laws are created by citizen voting rather than by elected representatives. Direct initiative: an initiative measure that is placed directly on the ballot for voters to reject or pass; this type of initiative does not have to first be approved by a legislature. Gubernatorial: something related to a state governor or the office of state governor, such as a gubernatorial election or a gubernatorial mansion. Indirect democracy: when citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf; another term for representative democracy. Indirect initiative: initiative where a proposed measure is first considered by the legislature and goes to the voters by referendum if the legislature rejects it. Initiative: a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote on an issue; in Michigan, the initiative is used to propose laws or amendments to the state constitution. Multiple-choice referendum: a type of referendum where voters are asked a series of questions, or in which there are multiple possible answers to a single question. Petition: a written document signed by a large number of people demanding action from a government; petitions are typically the first stage in initiatives and referendums. Plebiscite: a direct vote by eligible voters to decide an important public question, such as a change to the constitution. Popular sovereignty: the idea that the authority of a state and its government is created and sustained by the consent of its citizens. Recall: a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before the official's term has ended. Referendum: a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to vote on a particular proposal; in Michigan, the referendum is use to ask voters if they want a law overturned. Representative democracy: when citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf; another term for indirect democracy. Statute: another term for a law. Veto referendum: a type of referendum where citizens are asked if they want a law repealed.

Manga Carta

During the reign of Henry II of England (r. 1154-1189) and Philip II of France (r. 1180-1223), the history of England and France became closely linked. The two countries fought for control over Normandy, a region in northern France directly across the channel from England. Henry's son, John, lost control of the province in 1204. For the rest of his reign, John tried to regain the lost territory. His actions upset the English nobility, who objected to sneaky means to finance the war, which included raising court fees and inheritance taxes beyond what most people could pay, as well as selling government appointments. Several northern nobles led a rebellion against the king that quickly spread to the rest of the country. In 1215, after several months of negotiations, John agreed to address the nobility's demands. The resulting Magna Carta (Latin for "the Great Charter") addressed specific grievances and suggested that all English citizens, including the king, lived under the rule of law. The Magna Carta protected the rights of individuals against the arbitrary judgments of a powerful monarch. It started the process of limiting the powers of English monarchs. The Magna Carta also established the concept of due process under the law. Among the rights protected under the Magna Carta was the right of the church to be free from government interference, the rights of citizens to own and inherit property, and the right to be protected from excessive taxes. The Magna Carta also established the principle of equality before the law or the idea that all citizens are subject to the same laws of justice. In addition, the Magna Carta provided the basis for the idea of a "higher law," or law of the land that could not be changed by executive decree or by legislative actions. This concept, critical to the leaders of the American Revolution, is embedded in the U.S. Constitution and is protected by decisions of the Supreme Court. Future generations of Englishmen based their concept of justice and liberty on the principles of the Magna Carta. Political differences between England and France continued through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries at a time when Europe also faced famine and disease. While the Black Death (the plague) ravaged Europe in the fourteenth century, England and France descended into the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) which was fought over who would succeed the childless Charles IV of France after he died in 1328. The lengthy war had significant political effects for both sides. In England, it strengthened Parliament's role. Edward III (r. 1312-1377) and his successors had to call Parliament into session more frequently to raise funds to fight the French. As these meetings occurred, the House of Lords and the House of Commons began to take shape. These are the two houses of the British Parliament. After the war, the English began to see a representative government as the ideal form of government in the world. A similar national assembly did not appear in France because Philip VI (r. 1328-1350) and his successors found it unacceptable. While the French people began to form a common identity because of the war, the nation's regional assemblies did not want to give up their power. Therefore, the French built their national government on a strong monarchy. The Hundred Years' War also brought strife in England as the Duke of York and the Duke of Lancaster fought to control the young Henry VI who came to the throne in 1422. The War of the Roses finally ended when Henry Tudor defeated his rival in 1485. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. Henry VII (r. 1485-1508) preferred to rely on a royal council composed mostly of men from the middle class instead of on Parliament. He used diplomacy, not war, to smooth over problems with other nations. Therefore, he did not have to call Parliament into session to secure funds for his ventures. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. During Henry VII's reign, England made its first moves into overseas exploration. In May 1497, the king allowed John Cabot, a Venetian mariner living in London, to sail under the English flag in an attempt to find a northern route to Asia. Cabot reached land, what he called Newfoundland, and claimed it on behalf of Henry VII. He made a second voyage in 1498, funded in part by the king because he expected to reap the financial rewards of the journey. However, after Cabot's death, his crew, led by his son Sebastian, failed to find any precious metals, so Henry VII lost interest in overseas exploration. Though Spain and Portugal were the first to begin the process of colonization, England found itself in the middle of a political and a religious crisis for much of the sixteenth century. Events at home took precedence over any further state-sponsored oceanic voyages. However, Cabot's voyages gave England a claim to the North American mainland when the English began to think about colonization in the New World.

John Locke

English philosopher who attacked the doctrine of the divine right of kings, arguing that governments must have the consent of the governed.

Thomas Hobbes

English political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings.

Puritans, Pilgrims, and Their Influences on American Traditions

Like some other parts of Europe in the 16th century, England was changed by the Protestant Reformation. Under English king Henry VII, England broke away from the Catholic Church. The result was the formation of the Church of England (also known as the Anglican Church). However, to some English citizens, the Church of England did not go far enough to reform itself. Collectively these people were known as the Puritans because they wanted to "purify" the Church of England from what they saw as the continuing influence of the Roman Catholic Church. In a way, the Puritans represented a threat to the monarchy in England: they claimed to represent the "true" church, and they were asserting the right to defy the King of England on religious matters. A group of Puritans known as the Pilgrims left England and moved to Holland to escape persecution. The Pilgrims held religious beliefs similar to the Puritans but, unlike many Puritans, they believed their congregations needed to be separated from the English state church. They were also concerned that they might lose their English cultural identity if they continued to live in Holland, so they arranged with English investors to establish a new colony in North America. One of the earliest steps toward democratic traditions in America occurred in 1620 on the ship known as the Mayflower by the Pilgrims. Just before they arrived, the colonists agreed on a set of laws that would govern their colony in present-day Massachusetts. These laws, known as the Mayflower Compact, held that the government would make "just and equal laws" with the consent of the colonists. The Mayflower Compact was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was written by the colonists themselves, and it was the first written framework of government established in what is now the United States. The compact was designed to prevent disagreements between the Pilgrims and others in the area whose religious views differed somewhat from the Pilgrims. The Mayflower Compact was based upon a majority-rule model (though women and children could not vote) and also on the settlers' allegiance to the king. It was a form of a social contract in which the settlers agreed to follow the compact's rules for the purpose of order and survival in a hostile environment in the New World. The Compact also represented the idea that ordinary people could make laws, an idea that is very democratic in nature. This idea took root in Plymouth Colony, and it proved to be a significant influence on the later development of the U.S. Constitution.

Revolution of the Bill of Rights 1688-89

Many English citizens had become angry by abuses of power by English king James II during his reign from 1685 to 1689. The king suspended acts of Parliament, collected unauthorized taxes, interfered with elections, and interfered with the independence of the judiciary. In addition, he attempted to promote Catholicism in a heavily Protestant nation by persecuting some Protestants and replacing Anglican officials who refused to comply with his illegal actions. In November of 1688, William of Orange (a Dutch royal) and his wife Mary (who was the daughter of James II) invaded England with the popular support of many English people and much of the English nobility. He brought with him a large army, but James then fled to France, so there was little bloodshed. This became known as the Glorious Revolution. In January 1689, a convention assembled in London to determine who would next hold the English crown. The Convention was composed of former members of Parliament and functioned like a parliament, but since Parliament had been legally disbanded, their acts did not formally carry the force of law. After much debate, the Convention drafted a Declaration of Rights and offered the throne of England jointly to William and Mary. After the crowning of William and Mary and the creation of a legal Parliament, this Declaration was modified to create a Bill of Rights, forever changing the balance of power between the sovereign and his subjects. The English Bill of Rights was signed into law by King William III. It is one of the principal documents of English law, and it is an important point in the evolution of English society from a nation of subjects under the authority of a powerful monarch to a nation of free citizens with inalienable rights (rights that cannot be taken away). Unlike the American Constitution, which sets forth the rights of citizens the structure of government in a single document, English constitutional law consists of a number of different documents. Many of the rights of Englishmen are enshrined in the Magna Carta rather than the English Bill of Rights, most notably the right to due process and the writ of habeas corpus. Habeus corpus is a Latin phrase meaning "produce the body." Courts use the writ of habeas corpus to determine if the jailing of a prisoner is lawful. A writ of habeas corpus is used to bring a prisoner or other detainee (like a psychiatric patient committed to a facility) before a court to determine if the person's imprisonment or detention is lawful. It can also be used to examine issues like extradition, amount of bail, and the jurisdiction of the court. The first section of the English Bill of Rights sets out a list of grievances against James II, similar to the list of grievances in the later American Declaration of Independence against George III. The second section of the English Bill of Rights lists ancient rights that the document is intended to protect. The remainder of the English Bill of Rights established the sovereignty of William and Mary and provides for their succession. In exchange for Parliament's recognition of the dual reign, William and Mary agreed to a number of limits on royal power. Parliament was to be called every three years whether or not called by a monarch, and Parliamentary laws - once passed - could not be suspended by a monarch. Government revenue via taxes could not be created by royal decree, and a standing army in peacetime must be approved by Parliament. The Bill of Rights banned cruel and unusual punishment and also prohibited excessive fines or bail. In other words, the source of law was to be in the hands of Parliament. Both the U.S. Constitution and the English Bill of Rights requiring leaders to faithfully execute the laws. Both documents spell out specific rights of citizens, limitations on the power of government, and the relationship between branches of government. It is not surprising that there are many similarities between the two documents: the leaders of the newly-formed United States were quite aware of the history of English constitutional law.

Articles of Confederation

The British did not recognize the validity of the Declaration of Independence. They continued to send troops to North America to suppress the rebellion. The arrival of new British troops, of course, led to greater resentment among American colonists, even colonists who might not otherwise support a rebellion. Britain had many advantages in the war, including a large, well-trained army and navy and many loyalists who supported the British Empire. But many white colonists were alienated by the British promise of freedom to American slaves who joined the royal army. In addition, propaganda such as Thomas Paine's Common Sense contributed to anti-British sentiments. The Americans had few advantages in the war. The Americans did possess the advantage of fighting for their homeland, which gives extra incentive to soldiers in a war. The emergence of excellent leaders like George Washington proved to be invaluable. The Americans also benefited from the financial and military aid from some European nations, especially France. Tactical errors by British commanders contributed to the American victory. British strategy initially focused on crushing the rebellion in the North and gaining a quick victory. In the early years of the war, the British nearly defeated the Continental Army. Washington managed to avoid defeat, in some cases by very narrow margins. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton, New Jersey, in late 1776 and early 1777 restored patriot hopes. A victory at Saratoga, New York, which halted a British advance from Canada, led France to intervene on behalf of the American rebels. In 1778, fighting shifted to the South. Britain succeeded in capturing parts of Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina, and they defeated an American army at Camden, South Carolina. However, bands of American patriots harassed loyalists and disrupted supply lines, and Britain failed to achieve control over the southern countryside before advancing northward to Yorktown, VA. In 1781, an American and French force defeated the British at Yorktown in the war's last major battle. The war continued until 1783, and the new American government was forced to create all of the structures of a national government in a wartime environment. The Articles of Confederation, an agreement among the thirteen original states, was written in 1776. However, it was not ratified by all of the states until 1781. The loosely-organized "league of friendship" that it created reflected the founders' reaction to the powerful authority of King George III: colonists feared creating another dominant government that would reduce their rights and liberties. The government gave most powers to the states. The central government consisted only of a legislature. Above all, the colonists wanted to preserve their liberties, but the lack of power in the central government proved to be problematic. It could not regulate trade or keep the states from circulating their own currency. No chief executive could make real decisions, and no national court could settle disputes among states. And perhaps most importantly, the states could not efficiently conduct a war nor pay the debts incurred once the war was over. In the next lesson, we will examine in greater detail the challenges the new nation faced.

Enlightenment

The ideas of the Scientific Revolution inspired people in many fields besides science. With Newton demonstrating rational explanations for the functions of the universe, philosophers were inspired to rethink humanity and its place in the universe. The Scientific Revolution, then, was at the root of the Enlightenment. With the Enlightenment came a new spirit of thought and intellectual investigation. Old ideas and theories could be questioned and new ones proposed on virtually any subject. Acceptance of what had always been was no longer sufficient support for belief; instead, understanding with reasoned explanations and arguments were needed. Of the many great thinkers of the Enlightenment, including Rousseau, Voltaire, and Hume, the one whose works on politics and philosophy had the greatest direct impact on the revolutionary spirit in the Colonies was an Englishman, John Locke. This philosopher and physician is widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. In 1690, two of Locke's greatest works were published. In the first, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke explained that humans learn only from experience. We experience things through sensation, without senses giving us information, and through reflection, with our pondering what we have learned through sensation. Experience then leads to simple ideas which lead to complex ones. Locke discounted the commonly-held idea that humans are born with knowledge already in their minds. His revolutionary view was that we are born instead, knowing nothing at all. For Locke, humans possessed no innate concepts, ideas, or morals. At birth, our minds are complete blanks, a tabula rasa (Latin for "blank slate") which - by being completely empty - can be filled with what we know to be true through experience. His other great work of that year was Two Treatises of Government. Locke rejected the theory of the divine right of kings; in the second, he explained his beliefs concerning government, democracy, and the rights of men. Locke believed that government should be for the benefit of the people, and if the government or the leader of the government failed in their duty to the people, then the people had the right to remove or overthrow that government. Locke believed that to safeguard against corruption and failure to serve the people, a government should have multiple branches with each serving to check the others. His ideas would continue to have influence long after his death in 1704. Locke's work would profoundly influence our Founding Fathers. American political leaders used Locke's ideas to frame their reasons for the American Revolution and thereby justify their cause. Locke's ideas later formed some of the basis of the U. S. Constitution. From Locke came the concept that all people have the right to life, liberty, and estate (or property). The Enlightenment, with its ideas and ideals of human rights and the relationship between citizens and governments as expressed by such writers as Locke, formed the basis of thought of the American Revolution. Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers were influenced by the Enlightenment. These early American revolutionaries embraced those ideals, and they argued that a government has a duty to the people. These American leaders used that as a lens through which to view the relationship between the American colonies and the British government of King George III. With the concept of a duty to the people firmly in mind, the failings of the British government to respond to the needs of the colony became more than mere points of contention and instead became causes for revolution. Thomas Paine, in his critical work Common Sense , made the case in clear language that spoke to the average colonist that equality was a natural condition for humans and having a king was not. Paine put forth the idea that while a king could be useful, there was no justification for a hereditary monarchy and ultimately, if the king did not see to the interest of his subjects, the subjects had no reason to have a king. The British government, according to Paine, had put its own interests ahead of the interests of the colonies, thereby failing in its duty to the colonists. In addition, whereas the colonies in their infancy had needed the guidance and protection of the British, now they were able to stand on their own. Paine argued that the British government had evolved from promoting the growth of the colonies to prohibiting that growth and becoming an obstacle to their economic development by inhibiting trade between the colonies and other nations around the globe. By covering the economic realities as well as the higher principles of natural rights, Paine's pamphlet appealed to both the practical-minded merchant and the principled philosopher. His writing was a hit and helped the colonists restless under British rule to understand exactly why continuing as colonies was not the solution to the situation. The Enlightenment provided a moral justification for revolution and the end of British rule in the colonies—at least in the view of the revolutionary thinkers such as Franklin and Jefferson. Humanity's natural rights could not be denied to any well-reasoned mind. The colonists had the right to determine for themselves where their loyalties lay and what form their government would take. They had the right to be heard, to have their concerns addressed in a way not possible for the British over the seas. Yet the break was not easy. Many in the colonies, even if they felt their rights had been violated, remained loyal to England and hoped for a reconciliation. The relationship was often described in terms of a parent and child. To the leaders of the revolution, the child (America) had grown up and was ready to have its independence, with a new government, one not seen before that would be guided by the principles of the Enlightenment. Not all American ministers were swept up by the Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason). In the 1730s, a religious revival swept through the British American colonies. Jonathan Edwards, a Yale minister who refused to convert to the Church of England, became concerned that New Englanders were becoming far too concerned with worldly matters. It seemed to Edwards that people found the pursuit of wealth to be more important than religious principles. Some were even beginning to suggest that the Puritan belief of predestination was wrong and that good works might save a soul. Predestination is the belief that all events have been willed by God, and that God already knows who will be saved and who will not be saved. Edwards attacked these ideas from the church pulpits. "God was an angry judge, and humans were sinners!" he declared. He spoke with such fury and conviction that people flocked to listen to Edwards speak. This sparked what became known as the Great Awakening in the American colonies. George Whitefield was a minister from Britain who toured the American colonies. An actor by training, he would shout the word of God, weep with sorrow, and tremble with passion as he delivered his sermons. Colonists flocked by the thousands to hear him speak. He converted slaves and even a few Native Americans. Even religious skeptic Benjamin Franklin emptied his coin purse after hearing him speak in Philadelphia. Soon much of America became divided. Awakening, or New Light, preachers set up their own schools and churches throughout the colonies. Princeton University was one such school. The Old Light ministers refused to accept this new style of worship. Despite the conflict, one surprising result was greater religious toleration. With so many new denominations, it was clear that no one religion would dominate any region. Although the Great Awakening was a reaction against the Enlightenment, it was also a long-term cause of the American Revolution. Before, ministers represented an upper class of sorts. Awakening ministers were not always ordained, breaking down respect for social elites. In addition, the new faiths that emerged were much more democratic in their approach. The overall message was one of greater equality in terms of religion. By extension, this democratic viewpoint began to spread to political spheres. The Great Awakening was also a somewhat national series of events. It was the first major event that all the colonies could share, helping to break down differences between the colonies. There was no such episode in England, further highlighting variances between Americans and their cousins across the sea. This religious upheaval had significant political consequences.

American Revolution

There have been countless books written on the causes of the American Revolutionary War. However, the main cause for the American Revolution was quite simple. Americans wanted full rights as British citizens. The British government refused to grant full rights to the Americans. The British did not consider people living in their colonies (whether in North America or in other parts of the world) to be citizens who should be represented in Parliament. The British government largely ignored the demands of the colonists to have these rights recognized. The British were focused, instead, on raising revenue. To the British, raising government revenue was a major concern. The French and Indian War, which had been part of larger Seven Years' War, had been costly for the British. In order to counter French actions in North America, the British had to send thousands of soldiers to North America. The British won the war but accumulated a great deal of debt. The British looked at the colonies as successful economic entities who could help pay for their own defense. The colonists would have been willing to pay some taxes for their own defense. However, they wanted a voice in making decisions on how much they would pay, as well as the ways in which they would be taxed. Had the British understood the colonists' needs and found a way to give the colonies representation in Parliament the Revolutionary War may never have occurred. Instead, however, the British largely ignored American demands. In some ways, the British considered American demands to be insulting, and the British believed that American colonists should be grateful for supplying the military forces that intervened in the war against France. In the 1760s, the British passed new laws that made colonists pay taxes on sugar, tea, and other items. The colonists complained, making speeches and writing protest letters to newspapers. At times, the British would pull back from their attempts at imposing taxes, and this further emboldened the American colonists. In an effort to help out the British East India Company, the British Parliament passed a series of laws in 1773 designed to give a tea monopoly to the company. Led by colonial merchants, American colonists protested this move. One group protested by throwing crates of British tea into Boston Harbor in an event known today as the Boston Tea Party. To give you an idea of the scale of this event, in today's dollars that represented over $1 million in destroyed tea. The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies that met on September 5 to October 26, 1774, in Philadelphia. It was called in response to the passage of the "Coercive Acts" (also known as Intolerable Acts by colonial Americans) by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had punished the colony of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of British trade. The Congress proclaimed American rights and grievances, and it petitioned King George III to address those grievances. The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress met in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies at the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. The delegates also urged each colony to set up and train its own militia. These actions made the British even more suspicious of American intentions. Often British actions were too little, too late. The British still could not agree to the main demand of the colonists for representation in Parliament. As a result, each confrontation with the British further developed the separate and unique American identity. Gradually an increasing number of colonists shifted from considering themselves British subjects to considering themselves Americans. Political writers like Thomas Paine advocated the independence of the American colonies from Britain. The propaganda of Paine, Samuel Adams, and others convinced many Americans to set up their own representative government. On the eve of the revolution, many American colonists were beginning to think that they could no longer remain British colonists.

4.1 vocab: creating a bill of rights

bill of Rights: the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Cruel and unusual punishments: includes such items as torture, deliberately degrading punishment, or punishment too severe for the crime committed. Due process: fair treatment through the normal judicial system. Enumerated: a list of items. Freedom of assembly: the right to hold public meetings and form associations without interference by the government. Freedom to petition: to make a complaint to, or seek the assistance of, one's government, without fear of punishment. Freedom of the press: the right to publish opinions without censorship by the government. Freedom of religion: the right to practice whatever religion one chooses. Freedom of speech: the right to express opinions without censorship or restraint. Lawsuit: a case that a court is asked to decide involving a dispute between people or groups. Militia: a group of people not part of the armed forces of a country but trained like soldiers. Quarter: to provide lodging and/or food to military troops. Search warrant: a legal document authorizing police or other officials to enter and search property. Virginia Declaration of Rights: a document drafted in 1776 to proclaim the natural rights of citizens, including the right to reform or abolish "inadequate" government.

Justice

the attainment of what is just, especially what is fair, moral, right, or in accordance with law.