Cognitive Psychology Exam 2 (Chapters 4, 5, & 6)
How long does unrehearsed material typically remain in the short-term store?
30 seconds
The capacity of our immediate, short-term store for a wide range of items appears to be ____, plus or minus two items.
7
____ refers to a concept that cannot be directly measured or observed but that may be used as a mental representation for understanding the workings of a psychological phenomenon.
A hypothetical construct
____ refers to the severe loss of explicit memory, usually affecting semantic memory more than procedural memory.
Amnesia
____ amnesia refers to an inability to recall events that occur after whatever trauma caused a memory loss.
Anterograde
____ refers to a degree of physiological excitation, responsivity, and readiness for action relative to a baseline.
Arousal
____ is the means by which we actively select and process a limited amount of information from all of the information captured by our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes.
Attention
____ refers to the process by which a person repeats a procedure so frequently that the procedure changes from being highly conscious and effortful to being relatively automatic and effortless.
Automatization
____ refers to the idea that particular information has been permanently stored in long-term memory and, hence, can be retrieved.
Availability
Which model of selective attention suggests that, while there are multiple channels for sensory input, only one channel is processed while the other channels of information are filtered out before sensory processing?
Broadbent's model
What was the research question for the Change Detection lab?
Can you spot what is changing?
____ includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness.
Consciousness
____ processing refers to cognitive processing that requires conscious control and effort that is performed one step at a time.
Controlled
_____ of a stimulus and before recall of the stimulus is an example of a task designed to prevent participants from rehearsing.
Counting backwards immediately after the last presentation
____ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which items are presented in pairs, and during recall, the participant is cued with one member of each pair and is asked to recall the mate of each cued item.
Cued
____ occurs when simply the passage of time results in our forgetting.
Decay
____ theory asserts that information is forgotten because of the gradual disappearance of the memory trace.
Decay
____ knowledge involves "knowing that" and taps factual information, such as the terms in a psychology textbook.
Declarative
Which statement is most closely associated with levels of processing theory?
Deep processing results in better memory than shallow processing.
Which model of selective attention suggests that the filter for blocking signals occurs after sensory processing and allows for both perceptual and conceptual analysis of information to take place?
Deutsch and Deutsch's late filter model
____ practice refers to learning in which various sessions are spaced over time.
Distributed
____ refers to a situation in which we must prudently allocate cognitive resources so we can complete two or more tasks simultaneously.
Divided attention
____ refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory.
Encoding
____ memory stores personally experienced events or episodes.
Episodic
____ memory refers to a form of memory retrieval in which a person consciously acts to recall or recognize particular information.
Explicit
What methods were used to answer the question?
Field Experiment: The participant was first asked to make judgements on individual words, then they were asked to recall if individual words were repeated from the first phase.
What methods were used to answer the question?
Field Experiments: Response time to the appearance of a green circle presented after a variable amount of time. Identifying whether alternating pictures are the same or different.
____ memory refers to a memory of an event that is so emotionally powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film.
Flashbulb
____ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which the participant recalls items in any order he or she chooses.
Free
The initial discovery of the existence of the iconic store is credited to ____.
George Sperling
Which model, based on neuroscientific research, suggests that episodic and semantic memories are distinct from one another and that they activate different parts of the brain?
Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA Model)
What was the pattern of results that Marcel (1983) found using primes that have two different meanings (e.g., palm: hand or tree)?
His results depended on whether or not the prime was viewed long enough to become conscious.
What was the research question for the Levels of Processing lab?
How much can someone incidentally learn and recall?
What was the research question for the Simple Detection lab?
How quickly can you respond to something?
You have a friend who is taking Biology, Anatomy and Physiology, Comparative Politics, and American Government and he/she has tests in all of these classes on the same day, this upcoming Friday. Your friend decided to study for two of the exams on Wednesday and two of the exams on Thursday. Based on what you have learned about memory span, which classes would you advise him/her to study on each of these days?
I would advise for them to study all four subjects both days due to the benefits of the spacing effect.
____ memory refers to a form of memory retrieval in which a person uses recalled or recognized information without consciously being aware of doing so.
Implicit
Individual A and Individual B are training to be baggage scanners at the airport. The airport evaluates its baggage scanner trainees by using a signal detection situation and calculating each baggage scanner's sensitivity (d-prime) to the presence of illegal items. Individual A correctly identified illegal items 90% of the time and individual B correctly identified illegal items 83% of the time during their training. Based on this information can you identify which trainee will receive a higher evaluation?
Individual A will receive a higher evaluation because they were more accurate at identifying illegal items than Individual B during training.
____ amnesia refers to the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young.
Infantile
____ occurs when competing information causes us to forget something.
Interference
Katie and Inez are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00 - 11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Inez will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?
Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect.
____ practice refers to learning in which sessions are crammed together all at once.
Massed
____ refers to the means by which people draw on past knowledge in order to use such knowledge in the present; it refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with the retention and retrieval of information.
Memory
____ is an aspect of cognition that involves thinking about how to remember more effectively, such as by using various mental strategies.
Metamemory
____ are persons who use memory-enhancing techniques for greatly improving their memory or who have a distinctive sensory or cognitive ability to remember information.
Mnemonists
Which model of selective attention suggests that messages that are of high importance to a person may break through the filter of selective attention?
Moray's selective filter model
What does research on attention state about multitasking?
Multitasking makes you slower and more prone to make mistakes.
____ model combines early-filter and later-filter models by suggesting that there are two processes, preattentive and attentive, that govern attention.
Neisser's
In the false memory demonstration, why do participants often report they saw the special/related distractor or lure?
Oftentimes, the individual recalls the associated word with the rest of the list because they perceived that the word was associated to the context of the other listed words at the time of encoding.
Which best describes the dual-task paradigm used to study divided attention in the laboratory?
Participants are asked to watch a film showing two activities superimposed on one another.
____ refers to accidentally repeating steps of an automatic procedure after the procedure has been completed.
Perseverations
____ interference occurs when the interfering material was learned before, rather than after, learning of the to-be-remembered material.
Proactive
____ knowledge refers to the understanding and awareness of how to perform particular tasks or skills (i.e., "knowing how").
Procedural
____ memory refers to a memory system for knowledge of how to perform particular tasks or skills.
Procedural
Which stage of sleep seems to be important for the process of consolidating memories?
REM
____ refers to a process of memory often employed in memory tasks, in which the person is asked to produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
Recall
____ refers to a process of memory often employed in memory tasks, in which the person may be asked to identify from among several choices a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
Recognition
____ refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory.
Retrieval
___ amnesia refers to an inability to recall events that occur before the trauma that causes a memory loss.
Retrograde
____ memory refers to memory for facts that are not unique to us and that are not recalled in any particular temporal context.
Semantic
____ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which the participant recalls items in the exact order in which they were presented.
Serial
____ refers to an experimental task in which you listen to two different messages and then are required to repeat back only one of the messages as soon as possible after you hear it, while ignoring the other.
Shadowing
____ refers to how you retain encoded information in memory.
Storage
The ____ refers to the psychological difficulty in selective attention that occurs when a literate person attempts to name the colors of ink used to print the color words for other colors (e.g., "blue" may be printed in red ink).
Stroop effect
____ refers to the experiencing of a sensation in a sensory modality different from the sense that is physically stimulated.
Synesthesia
Several recommendations have been made to improve eyewitness testimony. Which of the following is one of those recommendations?
Tell eyewitnesses that the perpetrator may not be in the line-up.
____ refers to an experience involving the preconscious level of consciousness, in which a person tries to remember something that is known to be stored in memory, but that the person cannot quite retrieve.
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Which statement about attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is true?
Those with it have difficulty focusing their attention.
Which model of selective attention suggests that instead of blocking out stimuli, the filter merely weakens the strength of all stimuli other than the target stimulus?
Treisman's attenuation model
Which best describes the capacity model of attention?
We have a fixed amount of attention that we can use on multiple tasks.
____ memory refers to a portion of memory that may be viewed as a specialized part of long-term memory, which holds only the most recently activated portion of long-term memory, and which moves these activated elements into and out of short-term memory.
Working
Your child attends a school that requires all children to wear particular uniforms, although the shirts can be white or light blue and the pants and skirts can be khaki or dark blue. When you search for your child in a sea of children whose faces you cannot see, you must search for a child wearing the same color shirt and pants as your child wore, with the same color hair of your child and the same height and build of your child. In other words, you must use a
a conjuction
Your child attends a school that requires all children to wear particular uniforms, although the shirts can be white or light blue and the pants and skirts can be khaki or dark blue. Although it can be difficult to spot your child, when it is raining, it is easy for you to spot the red umbrella that your child uses in the sea of dark umbrellas. The search has changed from
a conjunction search; a feature search
As a child, every time you went to a place with large crowds, your mother had you wear a bright colored shirt. She knew that it would be easier to spot you in the crowd by the color of your shirt. She was making use of ____.
a feature search
The serial-position curve represents the probability of recall of ____.
a given word, given its order of presentation in a list
Enhanced vividness and perceptual detail of our recollections has been associated with ____.
a memory's emotional intensity
In an effort to remember some grocery items, Andrew visualizes a huge loaf of bread, with a bottle of soda balanced on one side of the bread and a can of soup on the other. Andrew is using ____.
a mnemonic device
As tested by a psychologist, the capacity of Jerry's short-term store appears to be 11 items. Jerry's short-term memory capacity is ____.
above average
Sometimes we know that we know something, like the name of a neighbor from many years ago, but we just cannot bring it to mind. In this situation, we are experiencing difficulty with ____.
accesibility
Aricept® may slow the progression of Alzheimer's because it slows destruction of the neurotransmitter ____ in the brain.
acetylcholine
Research shows that encoding in short-term memory is primarily ____.
acoustic
It appears that although encoding in short-term memory is primarily ____, there may be some secondary ____ encoding, and perhaps even fleeting ____ encoding.
acoustic; semantic; visual
Short-term memory is usually encoded ____ and long-term memory is usually encoded ____.
acoustically; semantically
Retroactive interference is caused by new learning occurring ____ we learned the target information and ____ we are asked to recall the target information.
after; before
_____ involves being prepared to focus on incoming information.
alerting
The ____ appears to be important in the regulation of vigilance.
amygdala
At present, the only definitive test for Alzheimer's disease involves ____.
an analysis of brain tissue after death
A person with isolated brain damage affecting only the hippocampus is most likely to have ____.
anterograde amnesia
Your usual walk home has been changed because of construction. Instead of turning right when you pass the park, you must now turn left right before the park. Unfortunately, you typically do not remember this until you are midway through the park. You are making a(n) ____ error.
associative activation
A typical serial position curve shows that recall of words in a list is best for items ____ of the list and poorest for items ____.
at and near the end; in the middle
According to the ____ theories of attention, people have a fixed amount of attentional capacity that they allocate to the perceived task requirements.
attentional-resource
____ processing refers to cognitive manipulation that requires no conscious decisions or intentional effort.
automatic
Suppose you are participating in a study, in which stimuli are flashed on a screen. Following the presentation of the first stimulus, a second stimulus is presented in the same location on the screen and it effectively "erases" the original stimulus. This is called ____.
backward visual masking
Proactive interference occurs when the interfering material is learned ____ rather than ____ the to-be-remembered material.
before; after
Words at the ____ of a list in a free-recall task are most subject to retroactive interference.
beginning
In memory studies, the retention interval refers to the time ____.
between the presentation of the last stimulus and the start of the recall phase
A person with lesions in the visual cortex may report not being able to see information; however, if forced to answer about an item, the person can often correctly guess the location and orientation of various objects. This suggests that some processing of visual information occurs outside of conscious awareness, a process called ____.
blindsight
The difficulty in recalling information that one knows they should know is called ____.
blocking
When someone has information "on the tip of their tongue," but is unable to retrieve it, ____ is occurring.
blocking
Thomas is supposed to stop for milk, bread and cheese on his way from home from work. This requires that he get off train two stops early to pick up the items. Unfortunately, he does not remember to get off early and must backtrack to get to the store. Thomas has made a(n)
capture error
In ____ we intend to deviate from a routine activity we are implementing in familiar surroundings, but at a point at which we should depart from the routine, we fail to pay attention and to regain control of the process.
capture errors
Frank is organizing his grocery list into a set of categories in order to remember what he needs to buy at the store. Frank is using what type of memory technique?
categorical clustering
Which component of the working memory model is responsible for coordinating attentional activities and regulating the flow of information?
central executive
Procedural memory seems to depend most on the ____.
cerebellum.
The long-term storage declarative information is governed by the ____.
cerebral cortex
A person who fails to detect changes that occur for attended or unattended objects in a viewed scene is demonstrating ____.
change blindness
In the making of a movie, any particular scene is often filmed several times. No matter how hard they try during the editing process, there is often some discontinuity in the scenes (e.g., an object suddenly changes location from one location to another). Failure to notice these changes would be an example of ____.
change blindness
The ____ phenomenon refers to the process of tracking one conversation in the face of the distraction of other conversations.
cocktail party
In a ____ search, we must search for a combination of stimulus characteristics..
conjuction
Which model of memory consists of nodes and links between the nodes, and suggests that knowledge is represented in the connections between the nodes?
connectionist model of memory
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of attention?
consciousness
Suppose you were researching memory function in an isolated group of individuals that eschews contemporary culture and technology. You need to create a memory task that is appropriate for 12- to 16-year-olds and wonder what words you should include. You would be well-advised to ____.
consider items and concepts with which they are already familiar in creating the list
The process of taking new information and integrating it with stored information in long term memory is called ____.
consolidation
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we correctly report that a signal is absent.
correct rejection
Your younger sibling has a nasty habit of trying to annoy you when you are calling a phone number that is not already in your phone by shouting out random numbers as you enter the correct digits. Your sibling is hoping you will make a(n) ____ error.
data driven
Marianne took a chemistry course three years ago in high school and has not studied any chemistry since. She believes that the reason why she barely remembers any chemistry is because she has not used it. This illustrates the ____ theory of forgetting.
decay
Jennifer has an excellent understanding of geography. This is an example of ____ knowledge.
declarative
Verlys just picked up mail at her post office box and is standing at a table sorting it. Catalogs and junk mail get thrown away while important mail is placed in her bag. Unfortunately, she drops several important pieces of mail into the trash. This is best described as a(n) ____.
description error
____ presentation refers to the simultaneous presentation of different auditory stimuli (such as verbal messages) to each ear.
dichotic
____ refer to nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus.
distracters
People tend to learn better when they acquire knowledge via ____ learning.
distributed
Shantell has a cumulative final exam in physics coming up. To ensure a good grade, she has been studying throughout the semester, at least one hour each day. Shantell's studying schedule illustrates ____ practice.
distributed
___ practice refers to learning in which various sessions are spaced over time.
distributed
Splitting your attentional resources between two or more different task is called ____.
divided attention
You are watching your favorite TV show when a friend enters the room and wants to engage you in conversation. You really want to watch your show, but know that you should attend to the conversation. You try to do both. This is an example of ____.
divided attention
In evaluating the causes of neuropathologies, scientists look for ____ or situations in which people with different kinds of neuropathological conditions show opposite patterns of deficits.
double dissociations
In which type of rehearsal does the learner try to make the information more meaningful and/or connects the information to other information already learned?
elaborative rehearsal
According to ____, the way of representing information as it is placed into memory affects the way in which the information may be recalled later.
encoding specificity
Words at the ____ of a list in a free-recall task are most subject to proactive interference.
end
According to Endel Tulving, if you need to remember that you saw a friend yesterday at the library, you will draw upon a(n) ____ memory.
episodic
Which part of the working memory model allows for an interface that can integrate different types of information from various systems?
episodic buffer
Raphael has amnesia. When specifically asked to remember particular information, Raphael does poorly. When indirectly measured on the same information he shows signs of learning. This shows that his ____ is impaired by amnesia while ____ is not impaired.
explicit memory; implicit memory
Recall memory is to ____ as recognition memory is to ____.
expressive knowledge; receptive knowledge
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we incorrectly report that a signal is present when it is, in fact, absent.
false alarm
Researchers should consider culture when developing tests of memory because _____.
familiarity with an object an affect recall for it
Fred needs to spot a particular friend in a crowded auditorium. Fred's friend has very bright red hair, so Fred scans the hall for very bright red hair. Fred is using a ____ search.
feature
In a ____ we look for just one characteristic (e.g., color, shape, or size) that makes our search object different from all others.
feature search
According to ____ theory, the key factor affecting the relative ease or difficulty of visual searches is whether or not we must combine various characteristics of objects to successfully complete our search.
feature-integration
According to ____, all searches, whether conjunctive or feature, involve two stages. The first stage involves the analysis of features and the second involves combining features into objects.
feature-integration theory
According to the ____ theories of attention, information is selectively blocked out or attenuated as it passes from one level of processing to the next.
filter and bottleneck
Many people believe that they remember with great detail and vividness the context in which they heard the news that the Challenger space shuttle had exploded. This is an example of a(n) ____ memory
flashbulb
Reyna won an Olympic gold medal many years ago. Yet, she can still recall with great detail and vividness standing on the podium, medal in hand. This is an example of a(n) ____ memory.
flashbulb
In ____, we use the physical constraints of our environment to help us remember things (e.g., putting an important document on your alarm clock so you remember to take it to work).
forcing functions
Max is a volunteer for a psychological experiment. He has been asked to listen carefully to a list of words. He has been instructed to try to remember as many of these words as possible in any order and to write them down after a signal. Max is participating in a ____ recall task.
free-
In retrograde amnesia, the memories that return typically do so starting ____.
from the more distant past and progressing up to the time of the trauma.
Sophie's working memory is having difficulty integrating information so that the information makes sense to Sophie. What component is most likely to be causing this problem?
her episodic buffer
Animal research has revealed that cells in the ____ that are activated during initial learning are reactivated during sleep.
hippocampus
During sleep, the ____ is more active after learning new spatial information.
hippocampus
Patients who have sustained damage to the ____ have difficulty in storing new information or retrieving old memories from their long-term store.
hippocampus
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we correctly identify the presence of a signal.
hit
Which process involves using a number of different retrieval cues in order to retrieve memories that appear to have been forgotten?
hypermnesia
Louise put a light bulb on a lamp, turned it on, and looked at it directly. Immediately after that, she looked away and she could still "see" the bulb shining brightly. This visual persistence is an example of the type of information held in the ____ store.
iconic
The ____ store refers to a sensory register for the fleeting storage of discrete visual images, usually resembling whatever is being represented.
iconic
Anytime we read, we unconsciously and effortlessly remember the meanings of particular words and even how to read. These are examples of everyday tasks that primarily involve ____ memory.
implicit
The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval ____ with each other and are ____.
interact; interdependent
According to the ____ theory of forgetting, forgetting occurs because new information ultimately displaces old information in the short-term store.
interefernce
In general, as the amount of learning prior to recall increases, ____ increases.
interference
Results from many studies suggest that the forgetting of information from short-term memory can largely be accounted for by ____.
interference
Stephanie has been studying for two exams scheduled on the same day, one for her Spanish class and the other for French. While taking the Spanish exam, she remembers more French than Spanish. Stephanie is most likely to be experiencing ____.
interference
The serial-position curve can be well explained in terms of the ____ theory of forgetting.
interference
Whereas ____ theory views one piece of information as knocking out another, ____ theory views the original piece of information as gradually disappearing unless something is done to keep it intact.
interference; decay
Roediger and McDermott have shown that ____.
it is easy to create false memories
The ____ suggests that memory does not comprise three, or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather it varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding.
levels-of-processing framework
Linton's self-study of autobiographical memory found that her rate of forgetting events was ____.
linear
Most people can listen to music and write a paper simultaneously, but it is harder to listen to the news station and concentrate on writing at the same time. This is because ____.
listening to the news and writing a paper both require verbal processing
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the ____ store refers to the memory store characterized as having the greatest capacity for storing information and the longest duration for memory storage.
long-term
By making connections or associations between new information and what we already know we facilitate transfer of information from short-term memory to ____ memory.
long-term
People's names, where we keep things, and humorous incidents from our childhood are all examples of information held in our ____ store.
long-term
Your roommate has made it abundantly clear to you that you are to pick up a particular bottle of wine on your way back from class and you dutifully stop at the wine store, only to discover you cannot remember the name of the wine. You are experiencing a(n) ____ error.
loss of activation
The hippocampus shows increased activation during sleep after one has learned new declarative information. This increased activation is correlated with extremely ____ levels of acetylcholine. If patients are given acetylcholine while sleeping, they demonstrate ____ memory for the new information.
low, worse
In which type of rehearsal does the individual simply repeat the information to be learned over and over again?
maintenance rehearsal
An individual can reflect on and use his/her awareness or knowledge to influence thinking. This use of your knowledge about cognitive processes is called ____.
metacognition
Manuela, a college student, has a clear awareness of what she knows and does not know about a particular topic, such that when she needs to study for an exam, she knows exactly what to study to enhance her understanding. This description illustrates ____.
metacognition
You are imagining taking a walk around an area with distinctive landmarks, matching up a landmark with a specific item you need to remember. Which memory technique are you using?
method of loci
Words at the ____of a list in a free-recall task are subject to both proactive and retroactive interference.
middle
Jennifer cannot remember where she heard that pigs were very intelligent animals. Roger thinks he read in The Sunday Herald that Death Valley is the warmest spot in the United States; however, he really read about Death Valley in Outside Magazine. These memory lapses are examples of ____.
misattribution
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we incorrectly report that a signal is absent, when it is, in fact, present.
miss
Debbie participates in a memory experiment and performs exceptionally well. When asked how she could recall long strings of material such as rows and columns of numbers, she says that she memorized numbers by transforming them into dates, and then thinking about what she had done that day. Debbie seems to be a ____.
mnemonist
Under laboratory conditions, participants seem to ____ recall items that have pleasant associations in comparison to items that have unpleasant associations.
more accurately
John participates in an experiment in which he is presented with letters on a screen. Every time he sees an "X", he is supposed to report the letter that appeared three letters earlier. This is an example of a(n) ____ task.
n-back
The effects of practice on automatization show a ____ curve, in which early practice effects are great and later practice makes less and less difference in the degree of automatization.
negatively accelerated
As applied to a model of memory, a ____ is a set of labeled relations between nodes.
network
A ____ refers to a juncture within a memory network.
node
Which memory system is often called implicit memory and includes memory for how to do various tasks or operations?
nondeclarative memory
Research indicates that the neurotransmitter ____ is involved in alerting.
norepinephrine
Marla is carefully transplanting tomato seedlings as she has often done when a neighbor stops by to chat. After Marla has resumed her task, she stops suddenly, realizing she has failed to put fertilizer in the bottom of the hole before she puts in the seedling. Marla has made a(n) ____.
omission
When our routines are interrupted, we may accidentally skip steps despite the fact that our routines are well learned. This describes a(n) _____.
omission
Even when presented with a seemingly random list of words to recall, people spontaneously cluster the words into categories. For example, when presented with a list like "milk, dog, cat, juice," they might cluster milk and juice together as beverages and cat and dog together as animals. This spontaneous ____ reflects the way memory is structured.
organization of information
____ involves being able to select which stimuli to attend to.
orienting
When multiple memory processes are said to occur simultaneously, the processing is best described as ____.
parallel
The ____ refers to a conceptual model of memory in which the cognitive manipulation of multiple operations occurs simultaneously.
parallel-distributed processing model
During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling would flash an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. If participants are then asked to recall symbols presented on the third row, they would be performing a(n) ____ procedure.
partial-report
Patients whose ____ has been damaged can perform well on long-term memory tasks but have trouble keeping information in their short-term memory.
perisylvian cortex
Very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language, is called ____.
permastore
Tony keeps mentally reliving the time that he was hit in the head with a Frisbee. This reoccurrence of this memory is an example of ____.
persistence
Which part of the working memory model is well suited for handling verbal information and for rehearsing information?
phonological loop
When the perpetrator (person who committed a crime) is not present in a line-up, eyewitnesses tend to ____.
pick an individual who looks most like the perptrator
Ulric Neisser synthesized the early filter and the late filter models in part by proposing that there are two processes governing attention: ____.
preattentive and attentive processes
Information about your bedroom, such as the number of windows in it, is often easily pulled from ____ awareness to conscious awareness.
preconscious
Information that is available for cognitive processing but that currently lies outside of conscious awareness exists at the ____ level of awareness.
preconscious
Seth participated in a memory experiment. He has been instructed to count backwards between the last presentation of a stimulus and recall of the stimulus. This procedure was probably designed to ____.
prevent participants from rehearsing
After being given directions to get to the theater, Kurt can remember only the first part of where to turn. This illustrates the ____ effect.
primacy
Superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list is referred to as a(n) ____ effect.
primacy
A(n) ____ refers to a node that activates a connected node in a network.
prime
Participants in an experiment read over a list of words. A second unrelated task (a filler task) is then completed. For the final task, participants rate letter strings as words or non-words. The results indicate that participants in general were faster at identifying words from the first list. The faster response is best described as being a result of ____.
priming
Some cognitive psychologists have asserted that the ____ effect refers to the activation of a node by another node in the same network, due to the process of spreading activation.
priming
____ refers to the process by which particular stimuli activate mental pathways that enhance the ability to process subsequent stimuli related to the initial stimuli in some way.
priming
Sandra has just come from studying with some classmates to whom she has just been introduced. She then runs into a good friend who introduces her to David. As Sandra walks away, she realizes that she can't remember David's name. This description illustrates ____.
proactive interference
Jimmy knows how to ride a bicycle. This is an example of a task that involves ____ knowledge.
procedural
A person with damage to the cerebellum might have problems with ____.
procedural memories
The ____ suggests that both implicit and explicit memory play a role in every response.
process-dissociation model.
Tying a string around your finger, keeping a list of things to do, and asking someone to remind you of something are all examples of strategies to improve ____.
prospective memory
Fill-in-the-blank tests can be memory tasks, which require that students employ primarily the memory process of ____.
recall
After being given directions to get to the park, Galvin can remember only the last part of where he is to turn. This illustrates the ____ effect.
recency
Superior recall of words at and near the end of a list is referred to as a(n) ____ effect.
recency
Multiple-choice exams can be memory tasks, which require that students employ primarily the memory process of ____.
recognition
Studies show that memory is not just ____, such that we use only what we have encountered to help us rebuild original remembered experience; it is also ____, in that our schemas for prior experience affect how we recall things.
reconstructive; constructive
Research suggests that children of mothers with lower levels of education show ____ of selective attention on neural processing
reduced effects
After a test, Jill identified and then learned the information that she had forgotten for the test. She noted that there was a "saving" in that the information was learned faster the second time. Jill has discovered the concept of ____.
relearning
H.M. underwent experimental brain surgery in hopes of treating severe epilepsy. Following damage to his hippocampus, he was unable to ____.
remember events occurring after the surgery
The notion that some types of memories (e.g., due to trauma) have been "pushed deep into the unconscious" and therefore may be difficult to retrieve is known as ____.
repressed memories
Retrograde amnesia may be viewed as a problem in ____ information in/from memory.
retrieving old
____ interference occurs when newly acquired knowledge impedes the recall of older material.
retroactive
At a party, Hoshiko was introduced to Steve just as she arrived. Hoshiko then went off to speak with a different group and was introduced to each of them as well. After hearing the new names, Hoshiko could not remember Steve's name. This description best illustrates ____.
retroactive interference
Memory for events that occurred in the past is most accurately termed ____ memory.
retrospective
Trying to locate a particular friend in a crowded auditorium or a particular key term in a large list of terms are examples of ____.
search
____ refers to situations in which we actively seek out particular stimuli.
search
____ refers to our ability to attend to some stimuli while ignoring or minimally processing other stimuli.
selective attention
Participants were shown a list of words and asked to judge whether each word described them or not. Recall was highest for the items that reportedly described the individual. This demonstrates ___.
self-reference effect
According to Endel Tulving, if you need to remember the name of the friend that you saw yesterday at the library, you will draw on a(n) ____ memory.
semantic
The difference between semantic and episodic knowledge is that ______.
semantic knowledge is what we know in the way of facts, whereas episodic knowledge is what we know about experiences linked to particular time referents.
Encoding of information in the long-term store is primarily ____, but there is also is evidence for ____ encoding.
semantic; visual
On his way to the supermarket, Marcelo remembers that he needs tomatoes and cucumbers. He then remembers that he also needs cheese, eggs, and milk. The order in which he remembered the grocery items illustrates that information stored in long-term memory seems to be primarily encoded ____.
semantically
Information stored in long-term memory seems to be primarily ____.
semantically encoded
According to the original levels-of-processing framework, if you were shown lists of semantically related words (e.g., dog and animal), rhyming words (e.g., dog and log), and unrelated words (e.g., dog and sun), the words most easily recalled would be ____.
semantically related words
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the ____ store refers to the memory store characterized as having the shortest duration for memory storage.
sensory
When memory processes are said to occur in order, one after the other, the processing is best described as ____.
serial
Melissa volunteered to participate in a psychological experiment. She has been instructed to listen carefully to a list of words, because later she will have to remember as many of these words as possible in the exact order in which they were presented. Melissa is participating in a ____ recall task.
serial-
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the ____ store has a modest capacity a duration of only a few seconds.
short-term
Keppel and Underwood (1962) showed that proactive interference can operate in the forgetting of material stored in the ____.
short-term store
Suppose you are a radiologist reading mammograms. Your job is to determine whether there are any suspicious, possibly malignant images. In this type of task, the stimulus that you are attempting to detect may be called a ____.
signal
Which function of attention involves the ability to correctly state whether or not a particular stimulus has been presented?
signal detection
Which theory characterizes our ability to correctly state whether or not a particular stimulus has been presented?
signal detection theory
According to the ____ theory, the difficulty of eliminating distractors depends on the characteristics they do or do not share.
similarity
Mistakes are to controlled processes as ______ are to automatic processes.
slips
When a person has a difficult time in remembering the context in which they heard the information and erroneously attribute it to a different context, ____ has occurred.
source-monitoring error
The greater recall associated with distributed practice is called the ____ effect.
spacing
What attentional dysfunction, typically due to lesions in the parietal lobes, occurs when a person ignores information from half of their visual field?
spatial neglect
Mnemonic devices are best described as ____.
specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words
Both _____ anxiety influence attentional processes.
state-based and trait-based
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), ____ is/are structures and ____ is/are the information stored in the structures.
stores; memory
Joanne is studying for a psychology test. Based on the results of studies examining context effects, Joanne should get the best test results if she ____.
studies in the testing room
Your friend insists that you both saw your cognitive psychology professor dancing, rather laughably, at a local club. Because of ____, you may believe that you actually saw the spectacle when, in fact, you did not.
suggestibility
Long-term potentiation (LTP) occurs in the ___.
synapses
Allison is a peculiar thinker. She can remember a great amount of information, in large part because she converts sounds and words into visual impressions and because she experiences a word's taste and weight. Allison seems to make use of ____.
synesthesia
According to the levels-of-processing framework, the deeper the level of processing of information, ____.
the higher the probability that the information will be retrieved
In an exhaustive serial processing search of short-term memory, people generally take ____ amount(s) of time to find a target ____.
the same; regardless of where in this list it is located
Alice is a lifeguard at a busy beach. When on duty, she must remain alert to detect someone having difficulties in the water or other potentially dangerous situations, despite prolonged periods during which no danger is present. Alice's job requires great ____.
vigilance
____ refers to a person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest.
vigilance
In R. Conrad's (1964) landmark experiment on encoding in short-term memory, Conrad found that despite the fact that letters were presented ____ to participants, errors tended to be based on ____ confusability.
visually; acoustic
Which component of the working memory model is important for processing both spatial information and images?
visuospatial sketchpad
During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling flashed an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. If participants are then asked to recall all symbols presented, they would be performing a(n) ____ procedure.
whole-report
Verifying whether a sentence is true or not and having to remember the last word for each sentence is most likely testing ____.
working memory
Which model of memory consists of four main elements: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer?
working memory
In which group is the validity of eyewitness testimony particularly suspect?
young children
Madden's (2007) research examining the impact of aging on visual search ability has found that ____.
younger participants are more accurate and faster than older participants
