COM 275 Exam 1 Practice Questions

Mass Society Theory

Corresponds to the 'dominance' model of media power Media is controlled by a dominant elite Rupert Murdock - owns Fox News and many large media organizations all by himself Produce standardized content promoting own interests Strong influence on audience

Kurt Lewin

Dynamics of group communication, "sweetbreads study"

What is Lasswell's five-factor model of communication?

"Who says what in which channel to whom with what effects?"

Lazarsfeld's Two-step flow model

A few people; some important people, are exposed and influenced by media messages, they then send the messsage on to other people. There are opinion leaders in our world who are directly affected by mass media messages and would spread that influence to opinion followers

What is a model

A graphic means of explicating an abstract process such as communication

What is meta-analysis

A means of systematically integrating the extant findings from a large number of empirical studies on any given topic

Hegemony

A term used to describe the power of the media to covertly promote a particular ideology among the masses

Critical Analysis of Media

Ability to fulfill intended functions, critical scholars would say here's what the media should be doing, are they doing that? Domination of media establishments

Cons of lab experiments

Artificial surroundings may affect a participant's behavior experimental bias

What is one of the six concepts of the audience research when discussing how big of an audience does the message reach?

Attentive Audience

What are the four main types of audiences?

Audience as a group or public, gratification set as audience, the Medium audience, audience as defined by content

How do relations with an audience impact content?

Audience not a salient concern to some content creators, hostility to the audience An alternative view of audience need, exemplified in a lot of news coverage right now; many news agencies are challenging a lot of what Trump is doing right now; providing the audience with what they think they need to hear, not what they want to hear

Linear Model

Based on principles of stimulus-response psychology

What is the fourth estate?

Based on the theory of the free press, right to publish free of censorship is essential for a democracy, but what if profit motives of press owners promote self-interest

What is traditional content analysis?

Basic sequence (implement sample, categories, unitizing, coding, data analysis) Two main assumptions, frequency of occurrence will express 'meaning', link between the external object and reference will be clear Limits to traditional analysis, risk of imposing an incorrect meaning-system, imposing a meaning-system that says shooting someone is more violent than stabbing someone but viewers might think the opposite

Why was the "War of the Worlds" important

Because it is used as evidence of powerful media effects, not all viewers reacted the same

Pros of longitudinal research

Can see change over time

Gender Representation

Cigarettes to be manly, botox to be pretty

Interactive Model

Circular model in which communication is shown to be interactive and interpretive

What media audience is associated with Clausse

Clausse's 5-layer model: demonstrates how most communication receives a small fraction of its potential attention and impact

President Woodrow Wilson established this agency during World War I to engage in propaganda and censorship activities

Committee on Public Information

What is information theory?

Communication is the intentional transfer of information Content should be judged by its efficient in reducing uncertainty Informative text, pictures, and narratives can be quantified to judge effectiveness

Effects of Varying Levels

Debate on power and limits of effects remains. Knowledge in the field continues to advance, cognitive effects, behavioral effects, affective (emotional), direct vs. indirect effects. Individual differences and environments are important moderators of media effects

Transactional Model

Describes the giving and receiving of information through communication

Pros of Content Analysis

Describes what's on helps identify areas of interest and/or concern

How do relations internal to the organization itself impact content?

Division exists within the organization Several sources, diversity of function (e.g. news vs. entertainment), personnel from different social backgrounds, duality of purpose (both material and ideal)), conflict between creativity and the need to sell

Powerful Media Effects

Early scientists assumed powerful effects (Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle, Mass society allowed strong media influence, Payne Fund studies interpreted as evidence)

Carl Hovland

Effects of military training films. Experimental research about media effects on attitude change, first experiments in mass communicatio. At the end of WWII, the military came to him for help to help them develop persuasive messages and strategies to convince Americans to sacrifice things at home and go into war and kill people (found out it wasn't so easy to do)

Paul F. Lazarsfeld

Effects of radio. "Opinion leaders", two-step flow model of media effect. People's choice study

Lazarsfeld's People's Choice study

Expected to find that campaign messages had a really strong effect people's voting preferences but he conducted the study and didn't find anything. Took this study and made an explanation for the failed research said radio has small effect on few individuals (two-step flow model)

Nick wants to study the effect of violent media on children. To do this, he designs an experiment in which children are randomly assigned to either view a violent movie or a non-violent movie, and then Nick measures the children's aggressive behaviors. What method of research is this?

Experiment

What is structuralism?

Explores the nature of sign systems that regulate latent meaning of texts Suggests that signs evoke meaning by their use and associations within a culture Goal is to identify the 'cultural meaning' of medial content Sign composed of signifier plus signified --> signification --> referent (external reality), signification = process of giving meaning, using a sign to give meaning to a referent (some aspect of reality) Texts have meaning built-in by way of langauge, meanings depend on a wider cultural and linguistic frame of reference Sign-sytems can be 'decoded' using knowledge of culture and sign-system, this helps us identify 'cultural meaning' of media

Douglas Waples

Famous definition of communication "Who says what to whom by what channel with what effects" (Lasswell, 1948) Added "under what conditions", this addition as been the focus of most mass communication research for the last 50 years and probably the next 50 years too

The goal of the behavioral tradition in audience research is

Finding media effects and media uses

Bernard Berelson

Five variables in generalization There is evidence that: some communication on some issues, on some people, under some conditions, has some effects

Harold Lasswell

Five-question model: helps organized different aspects of mass media effect research Content analysis, propaganda research, Freudian analysis 3 functions mass communications

Limited Media Effects

Focus shifts to individual's post-depression. Interactivity in groups limited impact of media. Paul Lazarsfeld: 1944 election study People's Choice. Carl Holland: U.S. War Department research. Joseph Klapper: 1960, Effects of Mass Communications

What is the culturalist perspective

Focuses on aspects of media including: producer practices, media content, and audience reaction

Pros of Survey Research

Generalizability, participants are observed in natural settings, behaviors are more natural, expedient for providing description

Media Violence

Glorification

How do relations with society impact content

Goals of media organizations (e.g. financial, political, public service) The journalist's role (engagement or neutrality): information, interpretation, opposition- a clear but distinctive third option. Sense of professionalism

Pros of lab experiments

Good for establishing causality researcher has a lot of control relatively expensive easier for others to replicate

Cultural Quality

Hard to evaluate quality, what does it mean for something to be high and low in quality Quality standards and hard to agree on and they change from one culture to another

Which author became famous for his five-question model of media effects?

Harold Lasswell

What are lab experiments?

Having people watch, listen to or read a certain type of media fare while other people watch, listen to or read innocuous content then compare the two groups (most popular method for measuring media effects)

Lewin's "Sweetbreads" Study

In the 1950s, nutritionists were convinced that Americans weren't getting enough iron in their diet. Lewin tried to communicate to nutrition household opinion leaders (mostly moms) that their families should eat more sweetbreads to get more iron. Could convince mothers to serve things like liver to their families because it was named "sweetbreads" and had a different look

Ex-President Bill Clinton has just donated $3 billion to a world-wide initiative to curb global warming. Rupert Murdoch, the head of Fox News and an ardent opponent of Clinton and his green policies, does not want his news organization to cover the event. How would he flex his influence and promote his personal agenda?

In the company's pre-existing editorial guidelines, the policy is "let the rain forest burn" and, thus, the story is bumped for a coverage of a car bombing in Kabul

Cons of Content Analysis

Incomplete picture (limited categories) no evidence of media's effect

What were the trends leading to modern society?

Industrialization, urbanization, modernization

What characterized 1920's Mass Society

Interpersonal communication became more difficult, media became important information sources, social differentiation increased and people had less-strong interpersonal ties to one another

Marxist Approaches

Media contains images favorable to ruling class Audiences uncritically consume these images and adopt this favorable view

Wilbur Schramm

Known as the father of mass communication study. Mediating Factors (or moderating), focus on different reactions to the same media. Selective process, selective exposure, selective perception, selective retention. Social categories perspective, similar populations have similar reactions, moderate to powerful media effects are possible. Why different people have different reactions to the same things

What defines mass communication?

Larger scale distribution and reception process characterized by: one directional informational flow, impersonal source and anonymous receiver, asymmetrical source-receiver association, market (i.e. economics) exchange, standardized message content

What are some of the characteristics of the modern mass media audience?

Larger, more dispersed , individualized and privatized

Critical Political-Economic Theory

Media economics and technology concentrates ownership. Results in commodification of content and audiences, diversity of available information decreases, oppositional positions become marginalized Public interest is subordinated to private interests

Which dichotomy is NOT one of the conflicting influences on organizations and individuals? Commerce vs. Art Liberal vs. Conservative Constraint vs. Autonomy Profit vs. Social Purpose Routine Production vs. Creativity

Liberal vs. Conservative

A model of communication based on principles of stimulus-response psychology is which kind of model?

Linear

Cons of Survey Research

Little or no evidence of casual relationships, poor quality of self-report data

What are the types of theories of media-society relations?

Macro-theories: dealing with the media as part of the larger social setting Media institution theories: focusing on the workings of the media as organizations Audience theories: concerned with audience uses of media Mainly concerned with: power, social integration, social change Values will influence the perception of these categories

Which theory of media-society relations clads that the media creates a false consciousness among the working class?

Marxist Theory

What type of communication is least likely to involve mutual interaction

Mass communication

Which part of the culture-society relations typology would say that society has a big impact on culture, but culture does not impact society?

Materialism

Four typologies of culture-society relations

Materialism: society --> media Idealism: media --> society Interdependence: media <-- --> society Autonomy: society Media

How does technology influence culture?

Media Logic, looks at the potential of the media to construct real events, pseudo-reality Cultivation, cultivation theory, media technology (television in particular) can only focus on some aspects of social life, it creates false perceptions of social life Postmoden culture, culture that's characterized by diversity, uncertainty, etc Global culture, one definition: "A mass media dominate society in which there is no originality but only copies of what has been done before"

Modernization and Development Theory

Media can promote modernization and development, particularly in the developing world Media can disseminate, skills and technical know-how, progressive work ethics, democracy Media can aid educational, health, welfare programs

Joseph Klapper

Media effect generalization, ordinarily, media is not a necessary or sufficient cause of change (change can occur without media, media doesn't cause change). Typically, mediating (moderating) factors result in media being an agent of reinforcement rather than change. When media does cause change, two things are likely: mediating factors are inoperative allowing a direct mass media effect, mediating factors themselves impel change. Media effects do occur in certain residual situations

Marxist Theory

Middle/ruling class controls media Media and other social institutions operate in owner's interest Media creates false consciousness among working-class Middle/ruling class monopolizes media to halt political opposition & preserves status quo

Samuel A. Stouffer

Pioneered the use of empirical (observable/scientific) research, emphasized control for audience traits, noted problems for measuring cumulative effects. Known for pushing communication scholars to use scientific research

Information Society Theory

New communication technology promotes social change characterized by: an economy based on the production of information as a commodity, the prominence of information related occupations, a greater volume of information flow, integration and convergence of activities (i.e. an information society)

As a cultural theorist, you are concerned with the portrayal of homosexual men on network television. Specifically, you are concerned that the stereotype of the "effeminate gay man" that is glorified in shows like "Queer Eye for the Straight Gay" and "Will and Grace" is an unfair, negative representation of homosexual men. What is your specific concern?

Not all homosexual men are "prissy" and you worry that this representation is an unfair, negative stereotype of homosexuality as a subculture

Theory of social responsibility concluded (fourth estate)

OWnership of the media is a public trust, large companies have the right to broadcast on certain frequencies, they are granted these frequencies as a public trust (pay for the right to do it). Press must be truthful, accurate & objective. Press should be free but self-regulated (free of censorship), means that the government should ot control what messaged are distributed but the industry itself should set up norms/guidelines/rules that everyone should follow Government should intervene only to protect the public interest

How do relations with pressure groups impact content

Often little impact on content, but evidence shows that outside agencies can influence contents when; commercial interests are threatened, bad publicity is feared (for non-commercial reasons)

What are the I've categories central to the media-society debate?

Ownership; should be plurality, not be monopolized Order; should assist in maintenance Expectations; should be fair, accurate and complete Values; should support dominant values of society Right should respect the rights of individuals

What is Magic Bullet Theory?

Perspective of much early research. People are socially isolated, not influenced by social ties, and have uniform instincts. Symbolic bullets - media strikes every eye and ear, direct, immediate, powerful, uniform effects

How do relations with owner, client and supplier impacts content?

Proprietor influence, media owners tend to set broad lines of policy The influence of advertisers, rarely slant news; more often try to suppress, sensitive about the environment for messages, media producers veer towards self-censorship, end of local press shows advertiser importance, sponsorship for programs can shape content

How is quality evaluated in research using a "media performance discourse" approach?

Quality of information is measurable Usually based on some notion of public interest such as: freedom and independence, content diversity, news objectivity, reality reflection or distortion

What is longitudinal research?

Research observing outcomes at more than one point in time

Understand perspectives of 19th Century Beginnings

Scholars have debated effects for years. Several early studies influenced initial beliefs about mass media effects

What are Biocca's different definitions of "activity"?

Selectivity, utilitarianism, intentionality, resistance to influence, involvement

What characterizes the Payne Fund Studies?

Series of studies commissioned to examine content, audience, and effects. Focused on children/adolescents in film, studies how exposure effects thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors

Bobo Study (Bandura)

Showed children a video of a woman showing violence and then put them in a room with a Bobo doll

Connotation and Denotation

Signification works at two levels, denotative meaning - the surface level or literal meaning, connotative meaning - derived from the associations and images invoked by signs

Communication Technology Determinism

Social change is a direct result of communication technological innovation The form, content or use of each new technology is biased, toward the manipulation of time or space Thes biases influence social change, bias toward oral skills, visual skills, or different mental processes Communication revolution leads to social change, those who harness these forms control production and distribution of knowledge

What characterized 1920's mass society?

Social differential increases, informal social controls weaken, communication = more difficult, media becomes important information sources

Albert Bandura

Social learning theory Social cognitive theory Big impact on the study of mass media effects Best known for his research on children and exposure to media violence (Bobo study)

What are the major perspectives of mass communication research?

Social scientific and culturalist

Functionalism

Society is composed of interdependent institution(including media), all respond and contribute to needs of society Media contributes by: promoting order, control and stability. Maintaining and transmitting culture, norms, and values. Reducing tension by providing entertainment

What can be said about the Payne Fund Studies today?

Still important today, interpreted as evidence of the Magic Bullet Theory

Three functions mass communication should serve in society (Lasswell)

Surveillance of the environment (to inform), correlate society's response to events in the environment (to guide), transmission of cultural heritage (to educate)

What are the six major concepts of reach?

The 'available' (or potential) audience, the 'paying' audience, the 'attentive' audience, the 'internal' audience (attention to particular content), the 'cumulative' audience: % reached overtime, the 'target' audience

The Payne Fund Studies focused on what?

The impact of violent and sexually explicit film on children

Commercialization

The media becomes profits driven (at the expense of values like credibility, trustworthiness) and operates like any other business

The "Fourth Estate" refers to the notion that?

The media is a public trust and should be free but self-regulated

What is mediation

The media's role in providing knowledge. Mediation creates relationships with objects not directly known. Provides versions of events not directly experienced, creates "contact" with actors, politicians, and others not otherwise accessible, cultivates particular perceptions of people, place and events

What is not a positive reason to use experiments?

They allow observation of people in natural settings

What 4 areas of concerns do cultural theorists deal with?

The notion of a mass culture Questions of gender and subculture The role of new technology Political-economic issues

Commodification

The process or treatment of media (content, audiences) as things that can be bought and sold with no disregard for its cultural value

What is characteristic of normative theory?

Value judgment concerning how media ought to operate Early scholar focused mostly on information media

Advertising and Commercialism

Turn everything into an object that can be sold for product (happiness, health, beauty, etc.)

What are the conflicting influences on organizations and individuals?

Two central issues; how much freedom does a media organization possess, and how much is possible within the organizational structure? How do media-organizational routines and procedures from selecting and processing content influence what is processed?

Early Books that advocated powerful media effects

Walter Lippman - Public Opinion (1922), Harold Lasswell - Propaganda Technique in the World (1927), G.G. Bruntz - Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918 (1938)

According to Lazarsfeld, opinion leaders receive information from the media and then pass it along to many others (i.e., many people thus learn indirectly from the media). This is known as what?

Two-step flow model

Triangulation

Use of multiple types of research methods to address questions of media effects

What is content analysis?

Used to examine the presence, absence, or quantity of certain attributes of media messages that allegedly contribute to certain types of media impact

Cons of longitudinal research

Validity time and cost

What is not one of the questions in Lasswell's five question model of communication?

When?

Media performs various roles expressed as metaphors such as

Window on events, mirror image of society, filter for stories to be told, guide to sense-making, platform for voices, interlocutor for questions

What are the five media-organizational relations that organizations have with outside forces?

With society, Pressure groups owner, clients and supplier, An audience, internal to the organization itself

You were listening to the Mercury Broadcasting Company's rendition of War of the Worlds on Oct. 20, 1938. Unlike your neighbors, you knew the broadcast was purely for entertainment. You were not afraid why?

You tuned into the radio broadcast at the beginning and heard the disclaimer, you heard several inconsistencies in the broadcast and didn't trust it, you lived in Downer's Grove, New Jersey was was not aware of any commotion and you were skeptical of the radio broadcast, and checked the reports with other media outlets and discovered that since no other news outlets were covering the "invasion" it must have been a hoax

How do structural features and organizational routines/practices affect media content?

structural features (e.g. size, function ownership) influence organization conduct, performance, and product Organizational routines, practice and goals can influence media content- often more strongly than personal or ideological factors