comm 101 MIDTERM

Define Listening (know the steps or components of Listening) CHAPTER 6

- Being Mindful - Physically Receiving Communication - Selecting and Organizing Communication - Interpreting Communication - Responding - Remembering

4 things a good introduction should do CHAPTER 13

- Captures listeners' attention - Motivates listeners to listen - Informs listeners of the main idea (thesis) of the speech and the key points supporting that idea - Enhances the speaker's credibility

Three ways that NV regulates Interaction CHAPTER 5

- Responsiveness - Liking - Power

The five types of evidence CHAPTER 13

- Statistics - Examples - Comparisons - Quotations - Visual aids

Personal Constructs CHAPTER 3

A personal construct is a mental yardstick that allows us to measure a person or situation along a bipolar dimension of judgment (Kelly, 1955). Examples of personal constructs are intelligent-not intelligent, kind-not kind, and trustworthy-not trustworthy.

The three A's of language (recognize difference) CHAPTER 4

Abstract, arbitrary, ambiguous

The Critical Approach CHAPTER 2

An approach to research that aims to identify, critique, or change communication practices that oppress, marginalize, or otherwise harm people It aims to change society

Fundamental Attribution Error CHAPTER 3

An explanation of why things happen or why people act as they do; not necessarily correct interpretations of others and their motives

Responding CHAPTER 6

Effective listening involves responding, which includes expressing interest, asking questions, voicing our own ideas on a topic, and otherwise communicating attentiveness.

Internal vs external CHAPTER 6

External- situational obstacles that are in communication contexts Internal- internal obstacles that are within communicators

Prototypes CHAPTER 3

Knowledge structures that define the clearest or ideal examples of some category. For example, you probably have a prototype of a teacher, a friend, and a team leader. A prototype is an ideal, or best example, of a category.

Superiority vs Equality CHAPTER 7

Most of us resent people who act as if they are better than we are. Consider several messages that convey superiority: "I know a lot more about this than you"; "You don't have my experience"; "Is this the best you could do?"; "You really should go to my hair-dresser." Each of these messages says loudly and clearly, "You aren't as good (smart, competent, attractive) as I am." Predictably, the frequent result is that we try to save face by shutting out the people and messages that belittle us. Carl's experience in his job provides an example of the impact of communication that conveys superiority.

Forms of Ineffective listening CHAPTER 6

Pseudolistening, Monopolizing, Selective Listening, Defensive Listening, Ambushing, Literal Listening

Preoccupation vs Prejudgment vs Lack of Effort vs Reacting to Loaded Language vs Not Recognizing Diverse Listening Styles CHAPTER 6

Preoccupation- When we are absorbed in our thoughts and concerns, we can't focus on what someone else is saying. Perhaps you've attended a class right before taking a test in another class and later realized you got almost nothing out of the first class. That's because you were preoccupied with the upcoming test. If you open your e-mail box and find 20 messages, you may be preoccupied by a sense of obligation to read and respond to all of them, so you are not fully, mindfully focused on reading and responding to each one as you open it. In the example that opened this chapter, Suzanne's preoccupation with a report impeded her ability to listen to her colleague. When we are preoccupied with our thoughts, we aren't mindful. Prejudgment- The tendency to judge others or their ideas before we've heard them. Sometimes we think we already know what someone will say, so we don't listen carefully. In other cases, we decide in advance that others have nothing to offer us, so we tune them out. A study of doctor-patient communication found that, on average, doctors interrupted patients 23 seconds into patients' explanations of medical problems (Levine, 2004). Doctors who assume they already know what a patient has to say are likely to miss information that is needed to understand a patient's concerns. Keeping an open mind when listen- ing to speakers with whom you disagree is also advisable. Keith's commentary provides an example of the negative impact of prejudgments on listening. Lack of effort- Listening is hard work: We have to be mindful, focus on what others say, interpret and organize messages, remember, and respond. We also have to control dis- tractions inside ourselves and in situations. Sometimes we aren't willing to invest the effort to listen well. In other instances, we want to listen, but we're tired, ill, hungry, or unable to focus for other reasons (Isaacs, 1999). When this happens, it's effective to post- pone interaction until you can listen mindfully. If you explain that you want to listen well, the other person is likely to appreciate your honesty and your commitment to listening. Reacting to Emotionally Loaded Language- the tendency to react to emotionally loaded language—words that evoke very strong responses, positive or negative. You may find some words and phrases very soothing or pleasant. Certain other words and phrases may summon up negative feelings and images for you. When we react to words that are emotionally loaded for us, we may fail to grasp another person's meaning Not Recognizing Diverse Listening Styles- A final hindrance to effective listening is not recognizing and adjusting to different listening styles that reflect diverse cultures and social communities (Brownell, 2002). For example, in general, women are more active than men in giving verbal and nonverbal feedback, using head nods, facial expressions, and responsive questions to show interest (Wood, 2009). Some African Americans call out responses to a speaker or preacher as a way to show interest in what the speaker is saying. A speaker who doesn't understand this pattern is likely to misinterpret the responses as interruptions. Conversely, some African Americans may perceive European American listeners as uninterested because they don't participate by calling out during a speech or sermon. Nancy's reflections on her perceptions as a white person at a black church illustrate the importance of recognizing and respecting diverse listening styles.

Examples of Qualitative CHAPTER 2

Textual analysis- how couples manage conflict or how attorneys interrogate witnesses Ethnography- researchers try to discover what symbolic activities activities mean by immersing themselves in naturally occurring activities and natural contexts that have not been manipulated by researchers Historical research- examines past events, people and activities

Person Centeredness CHAPTER 3

The ability to perceive another as a unique individual

Self-serving Bias CHAPTER 3

The tendency to attribute our positive actions and successes to stable, global, internal influences that we control and to attribute negative actions and failures to unstable, specific, external influences beyond our control

Cognitive Schemata CHAPTER 3

We rely on four schemata to make sense of phenomena: prototypes, personal constructs, stereotypes, and scripts

Responsiveness CHAPTER 5

We use eye contact, inflections, facial expressions, and body posture to show interest in others, as Maria did in one of the examples that opened this chapter. In formal presentations and casual conversations, we signal interest by holding eye contact and assuming an attentive posture. As the example with Haru Watanabe and Ben Thompson reveals, however, all cultures do not have the same rules for eye contact. To express lack of interest, Westerners tend to avoid or decrease visual contact and adopt a passive body position or turn away from the other person. Members of Asian cultures are less likely to overtly express lack of interest.

Ambiguous CHAPTER 4

Which means it doesn't have clear-cut, precise meanings

Symbols CHAPTER 1

arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract representations of phenomena. Symbols are the basis language, much nonverbal behavior and human thought

Communication as a Process CHAPTER 1

comm is ongoing and dynamic; always in motion, moving forward and changing continually

Examples of Quantitative CHAPTER 2

descriptive statistics, surveys, instruments, questionnaires, interviews

Aristolte's three proofs CHAPTER 2

ethos= proof based on the speakers' credibility(trust, worthiness, expertise, and goodwill) pathos= proof based on appealing to listeners' emotions logos= proof based on logic and reasoning

Communication Apprehension CHAPTER 13

is a detrimental level of anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication encounters; exists in degrees and may occur at times other than when we're actually speaking. Many people feel anxious primarily in advance of communication situations; they worry, imagine difficulties, and dread the occasion long before the communication occurs.

Linear vs. Interactive vs Transactive Models of Comm CHAPTER 1

linear- one person acts on another person interactive- feedback is added transactional- encoder/source/decoder-> message -> decoder/receiver/encoder-> feedback

Five things a conclusion should do CHAPTER 13

A good speech ends on a strong note. The conclusion is a speaker's last chance to emphasize ideas, increase credibility, and gain listeners' support or approval. An effective conclusion accomplishes two goals. First, it summarizes the main ideas of the speech. Second, it leaves listeners with a memorable final idea (a dramatic quote or example, a challenge, an unforgettable computer graphic, and so forth). These two functions of the conclusion parallel the attention and thesis presented in the introduction.

Scripts CHAPTER 3

A script is a sequence of activities that spells out how we and others are expected to act in a specific situation

Stereotypes CHAPTER 3

A stereotype is a predictive generalization about a person or situation.

Expectancy Violation Theory (including the three ways we interpret violations) CHAPTER 3

A theory claiming that when our expectations are violated, we become more cognitively alert as we struggle to understand and cope with unexpected behaviors 1st way- our interpretations are affected by whether the violation is positive(someone gives you a gift that you had not anticipated) or negative (your supervisor criticizes you) 2nd way- our interpretations are influenced by the extent to which the behavior deviates from the expected behavior. If your supervisor has never criticized you before, harshly criticizing you now would be a significant deviation from expectations. 3rd- our interpretations are affected by the impact of the violation on a relationship. Think about the different impacts on a dating relationship if the person you are dating doesn't call when she or he promises and if she or he dates your best friend

Aggressive vs deferential vs assertive CHAPTER 7

Aggressive- Aggressive communication occurs when one person puts herself or himself ahead of others or derides others' thoughts, feelings, goals, or actions. In contrast, assertive communication simply expresses the speaker's thoughts, feelings, preferences, and goals without disparaging anyone else. Assertive- Assertive communication is also not deferential. Unlike deference, assertion doesn't subordinate your needs to those of others. Assertion also differs from passive aggression, in which a person blocks or resists while denying that she or he is doing so. Assertion is a matter of clearly stating what you feel, think, or want. This should be done without disparaging others and what they feel, think, or want. You should simply state your feelings in an open, descriptive manner. How aggression, assertion, and deference differ. Even when people disagree or have conflicting needs, each person can state her or his feelings and con rm the other's perspective. Usually, there are ways to acknowledge multiple viewpoint. Agressive= - I demand that we spend time together - Get this report done today. I need it. - Tell me what you're feeling; I insist. Assertive= - I'd like to create more time for us. - I'd like to get this report today. Can you manage that? - I would like to understand more how you feel. Deferential= - If you don't want us to spend time with each other, that's okay with me - I need this report today, but if you can't get it done, that's all right - If you don't want to talk about how you feel, okay

Key Features of Verbal Communication CHAPTER 4

Arbitrary- which means that verbal symbols are not intrinsically connected to what they represent. For instance, the term chat room has no natural relationship to virtual spaces for online interaction. Certain words and terms seem right because as a society we agree to use them in particular ways, but they have no inherent correspondence to their referents. Because meanings are arbitrary instead of necessary, they change over time. The word apple used to refer exclusively to a fruit, and mouse and hamster used to refer to rodents, whereas today all three words are likely to be used to refer to computers as well. Ambiguous- which means it doesn't have clear-cut, precise meanings. The term good friend means someone to hang out with to one person and someone to con de in to another. The words Christmas, Kwanzaa, and Hanukkah have distinct connotations for people with different religious and cultural backgrounds, and Thanksgiving may mean different things to Native Americans and European Americans. Abstract- which means that words are not the concrete or tangible phenomena to which they refer. They stand for those phenomena- ideas, people, events, objects, feelings, and so forth, but they are not the things they represent

Brute facts vs Institutional Facts CHAPTER 4

Brute facts- are objective, concrete phenomena and activities Institutional facts- are the meanings of brute facts based on human interpretation

Types of speech organizations CHAPTER 13

Chronological Spatial Topical Comparative Problem-solution Cause and Effect

Chronological vs Spatial vs Topical vs Comparative vs Problem-solution vs Cause and Effect CHAPTER 13

Chronological- or time patterns organize ideas chronologically. They emphasize progression, sequences, or development. Spatial- organize ideas according to physical relationships. They are useful in explaining layouts, geographic relationships, or connections between parts of a system. Topical- order speech content into categories or areas. This pattern is useful for speeches in which topics break down into two or three areas that aren't related temporally, spatially, or otherwise. Comparative- compare two or more phenomena (people, machines, planets, situations). This pattern demonstrates similarities between phenomena ("In many ways, public speaking is like everyday conversation") or differences between phenomena ("Public speaking requires more planning than everyday conversation"). Problem-solution- allow speakers to describe a problem and propose a solution. Cause and Effect- order speech content into two main points: cause and effect. This structure is useful for persuasive speeches that aim to convince listeners that certain consequences will follow from particular actions.

Guidelines for building and sustaining healthy comm climates (Five of them) CHAPTER 7

Communicate in Ways at Confirm Others Communicate in Ways at Confirm Yourself Respect Diversity among People Time Conflict Effectively Show Grace When Appropriate

Conflict (Define and types) CHAPTER 7

Conflict exists when people who depend on each other have different views, interests, values, responsibilities, or objectives and perceive their differences as incompatible. Overt and Covert

Conflict (components and management) CHAPTER 7

Conflicts of Interest- The first component of conflict is goals, interests, or views that are perceived as incompatible. You want to set up a time each day when you and a friend will both be online for instant messages, but your friend doesn't want to do that. You believe money should be enjoyed, and your partner believes in saving for a rainy day. You want your team to meet twice weekly, and another member of the team wants to meet only monthly. Conflict Orientations- The second component is how we perceive conflict. Do you view conflict as negative? Do you assume that everyone is bound to lose in conflict situations? Your answers to these questions shape your orientation toward conflict and thus how you approach it. lose-lose approach/win-lose/win-win Conflict Responses- The third component of conflict is how we respond to it. The exit response involves leaving a relationship, either by walking out or by psycho- logically withdrawing. "I don't want to talk about it" is a vocal exit response. Because exit is forceful, it is active; because it fails to resolve tension, it can be destructive. The neglect response occurs when a person denies or minimizes problems. "You're making a mountain out of a molehill" is a neglect response that denies that a serious issue exists. The neglect response is also disconfirming because it fails to acknowledge and respect how another feels. Neglect can be destructive because it evades difficulties, and it is passive because it doesn't actively promote discussion. The loyalty response is staying committed to a relation- ship despite differences. Loyalty involves hoping that things will get better on their own. Loyalty is silent allegiance, so it is passive. Because loyalty doesn't end a relationship and preserves the option of addressing tension later, loyalty can be constructive. However, if people never get around to addressing the tension or problem, loyalty can harm a relationship. Conflict Outcomes- The final component of conflict is the outcome. When most people think of conflict outcomes, they think of the decision that has resulted and whose preferences have prevailed. Although these are indeed outcomes of conflict, they are neither the only ones nor the most important.

Conflict (Define and types) CHAPTER 7

Conflicts of interest: Goals, interests, or opinions that seem incompatible Conflict orientations: Individuals' attitudes toward conflict Conflict responses: Overt behavioral responses to conflict Conflict outcomes: How conflict is man- aged and how the process of conflict affects relationships between people

Constructivism CHAPTER 3

Constructivism is a theory that holds that we organize and interpret experience by applying cognitive structures called cognitive schemata

Control vs Problem Orientation CHAPTER 7

Controlling communication attempts to dominate others. In response, others often feel defensive, and they may respond with resentment or even rebellion (Stone et al., 1999). For example, a wife who earns a higher salary than her husband might say to him, "Well, I like the Honda more than the Ford you want, and it's my money that's going to pay for it." The speaker not only pushes her preference but also implies that her salary gives her greater power. Whether the issue is trivial (which movie to see) or serious (which policy a group will recommend), controllers try to impose their points of view on others. Winning an argument or having the last word is more important than nding the best solution. Controlling communication prompts defensiveness because the relationship-level meaning is that the person exerting control thinks she or he has greater power, rights, or intelligence than others. Rather than imposing a preference, problem-oriented communication focuses on resolving tensions and problems. The goal is to work collaboratively to come up with something that everyone nds acceptable. Here's an example of problem-oriented com- munication: "It seems that we have really different ideas about how to get started on this task. Let's talk through what each of us wants and see if we can nd a way for all of us to achieve what we need." Note how this statement invites collaboration and con rms the other people and a team focus by expressing a desire to meet all members' needs. Problem-oriented communication tends to reduce convict and foster an open inter- action climate (McKinney, Kelly, & Duran, 1997; McNutt, 1997). The relationship level of meaning in problem-oriented interaction emphasizes that the communicators care about and respect each other. In contrast, controlling behaviors aim for one person to triumph over others, an outcome that undercuts harmony.

Credibility CHAPTER 13

Credibility exists when listeners believe in a speaker and trust what the speaker says. Credibility is based on listeners' perceptions of a speaker's position, authority, knowledge (also called expertise), dynamism, and trustworthiness (also called character). Therefore, to earn credibility, speakers should demonstrate that they are informed about their topics, that they are dynamic communicators, and that they are ethical in using evidence and reasoning. There's initial, derived and terminal credibility

Empathy vs Person Centeredness CHAPTER 3

Empathy- the ability to feel with another person—to feel what he or she feels in a situation. Feeling with another is an emotional response that some scholars believe is not really possible. Our feelings tend to be guided by our emotional tendencies and experiences, so it may be impossible to feel precisely what another person feels. However, it is possible to recognize others as unique persons, to identify connections between us and them, and to adapt our communication to their frames of reference (Muehlhoff, 2006). Person centeredness- the ability to perceive another as a unique individual. When we perceive distinctions between people, we can adapt our communication to particular individuals.

3 purposes of Public communication (types of speeches) CHAPTER 13

Entertain, inform and persuade

Defensive vs Supportive Climates CHAPTER 7

Evaluation versus Description Certainty versus Provisionalism Strategy versus Spontaneity Control versus Problem Orientation Neutrality versus Empathy Superiority versus Equality

Evaluation vs Description CHAPTER 7

Examples of evaluative statements are "You have no discipline," "It's dumb to feel that way," and "That's a stupid idea." Descriptive communication doesn't evaluate what others think and feel. Instead, it describes behaviors without passing judgment. In Chapter 4, we discussed I-language, in which a speaker takes responsibility for what she or he feels and avoids judging others. For example, "I feel upset when you scream" describes what the person speaking feels or thinks, but it doesn't evaluate another. On the other hand, "You upset me" evaluates the other person and holds her or him responsible for what you feel. "I felt hurt when you said that" describes your feelings, whereas "You hurt me" blames another for your feelings. Descriptive language may refer to others, but it does so by describing, not evaluating, their behavior (for example, "You seem to be less involved in team meetings lately" versus "You're not involved enough in our team"; "You've shouted three times today" versus "Quit flying off the handle"). Nonverbal communication can also convey evaluation—a raised eyebrow expresses skepticism, shaking your head communicates disapproval. Therefore, it's important to keep facial cues and other nonverbal messages as nonevaluative as words. The Sharpen Your Skill feature on this page gives you an opportunity to practice using descriptive language.

Reasons for Organizing Speeches CHAPTER 13

First, organization affects comprehension of ideas. Listeners can understand, follow, and remember a speech that is well planned and well ordered. Listeners are less likely to retain the key ideas in a poorly organized speech. Second, experimental evidence shows that listeners are better persuaded by an organized speech than by a disorganized one. Finally, organization enhances speakers' credibility, probably because a carefully structured speech reflects well on a speaker's preparation and respect for listeners. When someone gives a disorganized speech, listeners may regard the person as incompetent or unprepared, which reduces derived and terminal credibility.

Mindfulness CHAPTER 6

Focusing on what is happening in the moment. When you are mindful, you don't think about what you did yesterday or the paper you need to write or a problem in your relationship or your response to what someone is say- ing. Instead, listeners who are mindful focus on the people with whom they are inter- acting. Simone's commentary highlights the impact of mindfulness on communication.

Impromptu vs Extemporaneous vs Manuscript vs Memorized CHAPTER 13

Impromptu- involves little or no preparation Extemporaneous- involves substantial preparation and practice, but it stops short of memorizing the exact words of a speech and relies on notes Manuscript- involves presenting a speech from a complete, written manuscript Memorized- a speaker commits an entire speech to memory and presents it without relying on a written text or notes

Demand Withdraw Pattern CHAPTER 4

In personal relationships, a common instance of conflicting punctuation is the demand-withdraw pattern. In this pattern, one person tries to create closeness through personal talk, and the other strives to maintain autonomy by avoiding intimate discussion. The more the first person demands personal talk ("Tell me what's going on in your life"), the more the second person with- draws ("There's nothing to tell"). The people involved may be friends, romantic partners, or a parent and an adolescent child. Each person punctuates the interaction as having started with the other: The demander thinks, "I pursue because you withdraw," and the withdrawer thinks, "I withdraw because you pursue." There is no objectively correct punctuation, because it depends on subjective perceptions.

Nonverbal Defined CHAPTER 5

Includes all aspects of communication other than words. In addition to gestures and body language, nonverbal communication includes how we utter words (inflection, volume), features of environments that affect meaning (temperature, lighting), and objects that affect personal images and interaction patterns (dress, furniture).

Incomprehensibility vs Message Overload vs. Message Complexity vs Environmental Distractions vs CHAPTER 6

Incomprehensibility- It exists when a message is not clearly understandable because of language or transmission problems. In my case, the lack of clarity resulted from an accent and use of a language that I didn't know. Other causes for unclear messages may be use of jargon that listeners don't understand, lack of a microphone when one is needed for audibility, fading in and out on cell calls, mum- bling by a speaker, and syntax or grammar that makes it difficult to grasp what a communicator means to say. Message Overload- occurs when we receive more messages than we can effectively process. For good reason, our era has been dubbed "the information age." Each day, we are inundated by messages—face-to- face and mediated. We simply can't be mindful of and totally involved in all the messages that come our way. Instead, we have to choose which communication gets our attention. Message Complexity- Listening may also be impeded by message complexity, which exists when a message we are trying to understand is highly complex, is packed with detailed information, or involves intricate reasoning. The more detailed and complicated the ideas, the more dif cult they are to follow and retain. Many jobs today are so specialized that communication between co-workers involves highly complex messages (Cooper, 1999; Hacker, Gross, & Townley, 1998). Effective com- municators make an effort to reduce the complexity of their messages. When speak- ers don't translate complex ideas into understandable language, effective listeners have to invest more effort. Environmental Distractions- They constitute a fourth impediment to effective listening. These are occurrences in the communication set- ting that interfere with effective listening.

Inference vs Judgement vs Facts CHAPTER 3

Inference- a deduction that goes beyond what you know or assume to be a fact. For instance, if Taylor's teacher has known other students who were late to class because they didn't care about the class, the teacher might generalize from them to infer, "Taylor doesn't care about this class." Note that the inference goes beyond facts that the teacher knows about Taylor as an individual. Judgement- a belief or opinion that is based on observations, feelings, assumptions, or other phenomena that are not facts. In our example, the teacher might judge that "Taylor is an irresponsible student." But judging Taylor as irresponsible goes beyond the facts. Taylor's lateness to class may be due to a work shift that ends right before the class. The teacher might treat Taylor differently if a work schedule, rather than laziness, explained the tardiness.

Information/Critical Listening vs Relational Listening CHAPTER 6

Information/critical= Closely related to informational listening is critical listening: We listen to make judgments about people and ideas. Like informational listening, critical listening requires attending closely to the content of communication. Yet critical listening goes beyond gaining information to analyze and evaluate it and the people who express it. We decide whether a speaker is credible and ethical by judging the thorough- ness of a presentation, the accuracy of evidence, the carefulness of reasoning, and personal confidence and trustworthiness. Informational and critical listening call for skills that help us gain and retain information. Critical listening also calls for skill in evaluating information. Be mindful, Use aids to recall, ask questions, control obstacles, organize information

Initial vs Derived vs Terminal CHAPTER 13

Initial- the expertise, dynamism, and character that listeners attribute to them before they begin to speak. Initial credibility is based on titles, experiences, and achievements that are known to listeners before they hear the speech. For example, Al Gore has high initial credibility on environment issues Derived- listeners grant as a result of how speakers communicate during presentations. Speakers may earn derived credibility by providing clear, well-organized information and convincing evidence, and by an engaging delivery style Terminal- a cumulative combination of initial and derived credibility. Terminal credibility may be greater or less than initial credibility, depending on how effectively a speaker has communicated

3 Key Principles of Communications CHAPTER 4

Interpretation Creates Meaning- Because language is abstract, ambiguous, and arbitrary, we have to interpret it to determine what it means. Interpretation is an active, creative process we use to make sense of experiences. Communication Is Guided by Rules- Although each of us draws on his or her individual experiences to interpret language, the process of interpretation is not entirely personal. Without realizing it, we learn rules in the process of being socialized into a particular culture, and these rules guide our communication and how we interpret the communication of others Punctuation Affects Meaning- We punctuate communication to interpret meaning. Like the punctuation you studied in grammar classes, punctuation of verbal communication is a way to mark a ow of activity into meaningful units. Punctuation is our perception of when interaction begins and ends

The reasons we study nonverbal communication CHAPTER 5

It includes how we utter words (inflection, volume), features of environments that affect meaning (temperature, lighting), and objects that affect personal images and interaction patterns(dress, furniture). Nonverbal communication accounts for 65% to 93% of the total meaning of communication

The ten types of Nonverbals and be able to recognize them (also note any key concepts related to them) CHAPTER 5

Kinesics- refers to body position and body motions, including those of the face. Haptics- Touch Proxemics- Personal space Silence- Which is a lack of communicated sound. Although silence is quiet, it can communicate powerful messages. Physical appearance- We first notice obvious physical qualities such as sex, skin color, and size. Olfactics- Smell Artifacts- Personal objects; are personal objects we use to announce our identities and to personalize our environments. Environmental factors- are elements of settings that affect how we feel, think, and act. Chronemics- Perception and use of time Paralanguage- Vocal quantities; communication that is vocal but not actual words.

6 Functions of Verbal Communication CHAPTER 4

Language Defines Phenomena- We use words to define ourselves, others, experiences, relationships, feelings, and thoughts (Monastersky, 2002). In turn, the labels we use affect how we perceive what we have labeled. You see a car on the lot at a dealership and it is "a car." You test drive it, decide to buy it, and it becomes "my car," and you perceive it differently than when it was "a car." What has changed is not the car, but what you have attached to it by way of the label. A friend of mine puts his savings into separate accounts designated for travel, retirement, and emergencies. Last spring, he told me he couldn't afford a summer vacation because he'd used up his travel fund. I pointed out that he had extra money in his emergency fund that he could use for a vacation. "No," he replied, "that account isn't for vacations." He had de ned the accounts in specific ways that shaped his view of the money available for travel. The symbols we use define what things mean to us. The labels we use to define others affect how we perceive them. When we label someone, we focus attention on particular aspects of that person and her or his activities. At the same time, we necessarily obscure other aspects of that person's identity. A person might be a loving father, a conservative, a concerned citizen, and a demanding supervisor. Each label directs our attention to certain aspects of the person and away from others. Language Evaluates Phenomena- We describe people we like with language that accents their good qualities and downplays their flaws ("My friend is self-con dent"). The reverse is true of our language for people we don't like ("My enemy is arrogant"). We might describe people who speak their minds as honest, assertive, outspoken, courageous, or authoritarian. Each word has a distinct connotation. Restaurants deliberately use words that enhance the attractive- ness of menu entries. A dish described as "tender, milk-fed veal sautéed in natural juices and topped with succulent chunks of lobster" sounds more appetizing than one described as "meat from a baby calf that was kept anemic to make it tender, then slaughtered, cooked in blood, and topped with the flesh of a crustacean that was boiled to death." The language we use also has ethical implications in terms of how it affects others. Most people with disabilities prefer not to be called "disabled," because that totalizes them in terms of a disability. The term African American emphasizes cultural heritage, whereas black focuses on skin color. Hispanic defines people by the Spanish language spoken in countries of origin, whereas Latina and Latino highlight the geo- graphic origin of women and men, respectively. Language Organizes Experiences- The categories into which we place people influence how we interpret them and their communication. A criticism may be viewed as constructive if made by someone we categorize as a friend but insulting if made by someone we classify as an enemy. The words don't change, but their meaning varies depending on the category into which we place the person speaking them. Because symbols organize our perceptions, they allow us to think about abstract concepts such as justice, integrity, and good family life. We use broad concepts to transcend specific concrete activities and enter the world of conceptual thought and ideals. Because we think abstractly, we don't have to consider each object and experience individually. Instead, we can think in general terms. Language Allows Hypothetical Thought- Where do you hope to be 5 years from now? What is your fondest childhood memory? What would you do if you won the lottery next week? To answer these questions, you must engage in hypothetical thought, which is thinking about experiences and ideas that are not part of your concrete, daily reality. Because we can think hypothetically, we can plan, dream, remember, set goals, consider alternative courses of action, and imagine possibilities. Language allows us to name and imagine possibilities beyond what currently exists. Technology experts have conceived of many possibilities, such as implantable memory chips that will allow us to speak another language without having learned it. Language Allows Self-Reflection- Just as we use language to think about times in the past and future and to shape our perceptions of others, we use it to reflect on ourselves. We think about our existence and reflect on our actions. In his classic work in this area, George Herbert Mead (1934) noted that self-reflection is the foundation of human identity. Since Mead's original work, other scholars have developed his ideas and reaffirmed their importance Language Defines Relationships and Interaction- A sixth way in which language creates meaning in our lives is by defining relationships and interaction. Our verbal communication conveys messages about how we perceive ourselves and others. "Mr. Buster" symbolizes a more formal relationship than "Phil." We also use language to regulate interaction. We signal that we want to speak by saying, "Excuse me" or "Let me jump in here." We invite others to speak by saying, "Do you have an opinion about this?" or "I'd like to hear what you think about the issue."

Hearing vs Listening CHAPTER 6

Listening- is at least as important as talking Hearing- A psychological activity that occurs when sound waves hit functioning eardrums

Mediator vs Arbitrator CHAPTER 7

Mediator: Doesn't make the decision for the two people Arbitrator: Makes the decision for the people in the conflict

Superiority vs Equality CHAPTER 7

Most of us resent people who act as if they are better than we are. Consider several messages that convey superiority: "I know a lot more about this than you"; "You don't have my experience"; "Is this the best you could do?"; "You really should go to my hair-dresser." Each of these messages says loudly and clearly, "You aren't as good (smart, competent, attractive) as I am." Predictably, the frequent result is that we try to save face by shutting out the people and messages that belittle us. Carl's experience in his job provides an example of the impact of communication that conveys superiority. We feel more relaxed and comfortable communicating with people who treat us as equals. At the relationship level of meaning, expressed equality communicates respect. This promotes an open, unguarded climate for interaction. We can have special expertise in certain areas and still show regard for others and what they think, feel, and say. Creating a climate of equality allows everyone to be involved without fear of being judged inadequate. We've seen that confirmation, which may include recognizing, acknowledging, and endorsing others, is the basis of healthy communication climates. Our discussion of defensive and supportive communication enlightens us about specific kinds of communication that express confirmation or disconfirmation. The Sharpen Your Skill activity on this page invites you to apply what you've learned about communication that fosters defensiveness and supportive- ness. Our discussion of communication climates is a good foundation for considering the role of conflict in human relationships and how building and sustaining affirming communication climates allows us to manage conflict productively.

The five ways NV and V communication interact CHAPTER 5

Nonverbal Communication Is Ambiguous Nonverbal Behaviors Interact with Verbal Communication Nonverbal Communication Regulates Interaction Nonverbal Communication Establishes Relationship-Level Meanings Nonverbal Communication Reflects Cultural Values

Liking CHAPTER 5

Nonverbal behaviors are keen indicators of whether we feel positive or negative about others. Smiles and friendly touching among Westerners usually are signs of positive feelings, whereas frowns and belligerent postures express antagonism.

Minimal Encouragers CHAPTER 6

One communication skill that helps us gain insight into others is the use of minimal encouragers. These are responses that gently invite another person to elaborate. Examples of minimal encouragers are "Tell me more," "Really?" "Go on," "I'm with you," "Then what happened?" "Yeah?" and "I see." We can also use non- verbal minimal encouragers, such as a raised eyebrow to show that we're involved, a nod to signal that we understand, or widened eyes to demonstrate that we're fascinated. Minimal encouragers say we are listening and interested. They encourage others to keep talking so we can grasp what they mean. Keep in mind that these are minimal encouragers; they shouldn't take the focus away from the other per- son. Effective minimal encouragers are brief interjections that prompt, rather than interfere with, the ow of another's talk.

Conflict Responses CHAPTER 7

Overt conflict- It exists when people express differences in a straightforward manner. They might discuss a disagreement, honestly express different points of view, or argue heatedly about ideas. In each case, differences are out in the open. Covert conflict- It exists when people express disagreement or difference only indirectly. For instance, if you're annoyed that your roommate left the kitchen a mess, you might play the stereo when she or he is sleeping. It's almost impossible to resolve conflicts when we don't communicate openly about our differences.

Psuedolistening vs Monopolizing vs Selective Listening vs Defensive Listening vs Ambushing vs Literal Listening CHAPTER 6

Pseudolistening- pretending to listen Monopolizing- hogging the stage by continually focusing communication on ourselves instead of on the person who is talking Selective Listening- involves focusing only on particular parts of communication. One form of selective listening is focusing only on communication that interests us or corresponds to our opinions and feelings Defensive Listening- involves perceiving a personal attack, criticism, or hostile undertone in communication when none is intended Ambushing- listening carefully for the purpose of gathering ammunition to use in attacking a speaker Literal Listening- involves listening only to the content level of meaning and ignoring the relationship level of meaning

Quantitative vs Qualitative CHAPTER 2

Quantitative= techniques such as descriptive statistics, surveys, and experiments, used to gather quantifiable data Qualitative= interpretive techniques, including textual analysis and ethnography, used to understand the character of experience, particularly how people perceive and make sense of communication

Recognition/Acknowledgement/Endorsement CHAPTER 7

Recognition- The expression of awareness of another person's existence Acknowledgement- Attentiveness to what a person feels, thinks, or says Endorsement- accepting a person's feelings or thoughts as valid

Regulative Rules vs Constitutive Rules CHAPTER 4

Regulative Rules- regulate interaction by specifying when, how, where, and with whom to communicate about certain things. For instance, European Americans generally don't interrupt when someone is making a formal presentation, but in more-informal settings interruptions may be appropriate. Some African Americans follow a different rule; it specifies that audience members should participate in public speeches by calling out responses. Thus, for some African American audiences at speaking events, the call-response pattern is an appropriate form of communication Constitutive Rules- define what a particular communication means or stands for. We learn that most people regard specific kinds of communication as showing respect (listening attentively, not correcting), professionalism (speaking effectively, taking a voice), and rudeness (talking over others). We also learn what communication is expected if we want to be perceived as a good friend (sharing confidences, defending our friends when others criticize them), a responsible employee (making good contributions in group meetings, creating supportive climates), and a desirable romantic partner (offering support, expressing affection)

Conversational Rerouting and Interrupting CHAPTER 6

Rerouting- One is conversational rerouting, in which a person shifts the topic of talk to himself or herself. For example, if Ellen tells her friend Marla that she's having trouble with her roommate, Marla might reroute the conversation by saying, "I know what you mean. My roommate is a real slob." And then Marla launches into an extended description of her roommate problems. In the workplace, people may shift conversations to their accomplishments and concerns. In both personal and work relationships, rerouting takes the conversation away from the person who is talking and focuses it on oneself. Interrupting- can occur in combination with rerouting: A person interrupts and then introduces a new topic. In other cases, diversionary interrupting involves questions and challenges that disrupt or challenge the person who is speaking. Monopolizers may re questions that express doubt about what a speaker says ("What makes you think that?" "How can you be sure?" "Did anyone else see what you did?") or prematurely offer advice to establish their command of the situation and perhaps to put down the other person ("What you should do is . . ."; "You really blew that. What I would have done is . . ."). Both rerouting and diversionary interrupting monopolize conversations. They are the antithesis of good listening.

Totalizing (vs. Stereotyping) CHAPTER 4

Responding to a person as if one label totally represents that person. We fix on one symbol to define someone and fail to recognize many other aspects of the person. Some people totalize gay men and lesbians by noticing only their sexual orientation. Interestingly, we don't totalize heterosexuals on the basis of their sexual orientation. Totalizing also occurs when we dismiss people by saying, "She's old," "He's just a jock," or "She's an illegal alien." Totalizing is not the same as stereotyping. When we stereotype someone, we define the person in terms of the characteristics of a group. When we totalize someone, we negate most of that person by spotlighting a single aspect of his or her identity. Reneé points out a form of totalizing that really bothers her.

Obstacles to Good listening CHAPTER 6

Situational Obstacles(Incomprehensibility, Message Overload, Message Complexity, Environmental Distractions) Internal Obstacles(Preoccupation, Prejudgment, Lack of Effort, Reacting to Emotionally Loaded Language, Not Recognizing Diverse Listening Styles) Forms of Ineffective Listening(Pseudolistening, Monopolizing, Selective Listening, Defensive Listening, Ambushing, Literal Listening)

Selection - what affects what we notice CHAPTER 3

Stop for a moment and notice what is going on around you right now. Is music playing in the background? Or do you perhaps hear several different kinds of music from dif- ferent places? Is the room warm or cold, messy or clean, large or small, light or dark? Is laundry piled in the corner waiting to be washed? Can you smell anything: food cooking, the odor of cigarette smoke, traces of cologne? Who else is in the room and nearby? Do you hear other conversations? Is a window open? Can you hear sounds of activities outside? Is it raining? Now, think about what's happening inside you. Are you tired or hungry? Do you have a headache or an itch anywhere? On what kind of paper is your book printed? Is the type large, small, easy to read?

Strategy vs Spontaneity CHAPTER 7

Strategic communication aims at manipulating person or group for the bene t of the person manipulating. In work situations, employees may become defensive if they feel management is trying to trick them into thinking their jobs are more important than they are (Conrad & Poole, 2004). We may also feel that someone is trying to manipu- late us with a comment such as, "Remember how I helped you with that project you were behind on last month?" After a preamble like that, we suspect a trap of some sort. Nonverbal behaviors may also convey strategy, as when a speaker pauses a long time before answering a question or refuses to look at listeners. A sense of deception pol- lutes the communication climate. Spontaneity stands in contrast to strategy. Spontaneous communication is open, honest, and not manipulative. To be ethical, spontaneous communication must not be used against others. For instance, it may be spontaneous to be verbally abusive, but it is not ethical because it does not re ect respect for the other communicator. "I really need your help with my computer" is more spontaneous than "Would you do some- thing for me if I told you it really mattered?" Likewise, it is more spontaneous to ask for a favor in a straightforward way ("Would you help me?") than to preface a request by reciting everything you've done for someone else. Many people say that they enjoy the spontaneity of text messaging and IMing.

The four ways to reduce anxiety CHAPTER 13

Systematic desensitization- focuses on reducing the tension that surrounds the feared event by relaxing and thereby reducing the physiological features of anxiety, such as shallow breathing and increased heart rate (Beatty & Behnke, 1991). Once people learn to control their breathing and muscle tension, counselors ask them to think about progressively more difficult speaking situations. Cognitive Restructuring- a process of revising how people think about speaking situations. According to this method, speaking is not the problem; rather, the problem is irrational beliefs about speaking. A key part of cognitive restructuring is learning to identify and challenge negative self-statements. Users of this method would criticize the statement "My topic won't interest everyone" for assuming that others will not be interested and that any speaker can hold the attention of everyone. Michael Motley and Jennifer Molloy (1994) report that apprehension decreases when people read a short booklet that encourages them to develop new, rational views of communication. Positive Visualization- aims to reduce speaking anxiety by guiding apprehensive speakers through imagined positive speaking experiences. This technique allows people to form mental pictures of themselves as effective speakers and to then enact those mental pictures in actual speaking situations (Hamilton, 1996). Researchers report that positive visualization is especially effective in reducing chronic communication apprehension Skills training- assumes that lack of speaking skills causes us to be apprehensive. This method focuses on teaching people such skills as starting conversations, organizing ideas, and responding effectively to others (Phillips, 1991).

Attribution and the Four dimensions of Attribution CHAPTER 3

The act of explaining why something happens or why a person acts a particular way (Manusov & Spitzberg, 2008; for the classic research in this area, see Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1967). Four dimensions: 1. Internal- external locus: the attribution of a person's behavior to internal factors ("He's short tempered") or external factors ("The traffic jam frustrated him") 2. Stability- the explanation of actions as the result of stable, enduring factors that won't change over time ("She's a nervous person"; "This job is always stressful") or variable (unstable) temporary factors ("She's nervous right now because of a big deal she's closing"; "This is a stressful period at work") 3. Specificity- the explanation of actions as the result of global factors ("She's intelligent") or specific factors ("She's gifted at math") 4. Control- the ascribing of responsibility for actions either to people themselves ("She doesn't try to control her temper") or to factors beyond their personal control ("She has a chemical imbalance")

Communication Climate Defined CHAPTER 7

The emotional tone of a relationship between people. Perhaps you feel foggy-headed when the sky is overcast or stormy and feel upbeat when it's sunny. Do you respond differently to the various seasons? In much the same way that physical climate influences mood, communication climate affects how people feel and interact with one another. We feel defensive when a super- visor blames us, angry when someone ames us on the Internet, or hurt when a friend judges us. In each case, the communication climate is overcast.

Remembering CHAPTER 6

The final aspect of the listening process. We forget a lot of what we hear. Eight hours after receiving a message, we recall only about 35% of our interpretations of the message. Because we forget about two-thirds of the meanings we construct from others' communication, it's important to make sure we hang on to the most important third (Cooper, Seibold, & Suchner, 1997; Fisher, 1987). Selectively focusing our attention is particularly important when we listen to presentations that contain a great deal of information. Later in this chapter, we'll dis- cuss strategies for improving retention.

Certainty vs Provisionalism CHAPTER 7

The language of certainty is absolute and often dogmatic. It suggests there is only one valid answer, point of view, or course of action. Because certainty proclaims an absolutely correct position, it slams the door on further discussion. Leaders can stifle creativity if they dogmatically state what the team should do (Fisher, 1998). There's no point in talking with people who demean any point of view but their own. Certainty is also communicated when we repeat our positions instead of considering others' ideas. Monika provides an example of certainty and its impact on her relationship with her father. One form of certainty communication is ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is a per- spective based on the assumption that our culture and its norms are the only right ones. For instance, someone who says, "It's always disrespectful to be late" reveals insensitivity to societies that are less time conscious than the United States. Certainty is also evident when we say, "My mind can't be changed," "Only a fool would think that," or "There's no point in further discussion." An alternative to certainty is provisionalism, which relies on tentative language to signal openness to other points of view. Provisional language indicates that we are willing to consider alternative positions, and this encourages others to voice their ideas. Provisional language lessens the chance that others will feel they have lost face in the interaction. Provisional communication includes such statements as, "The way I tend to see the issue is...,""One way to look at this is...,"and "It's possible that..."Note that each comment shows that the speaker realizes that other positions also could be reasonable. Tentative communication reflects an open mind, which is why it invites continued conversation. A recent study by Yong Park and Brian Kim (2008) compared European Americans' and Asian Americans' communication styles. Park and Kim found that European Americans tend to engage in more open communication than Asian Americans

Cognitive Complexity CHAPTER 3

The number of personal constructs used (remember, personal constructs are bipolar dimensions of judgment), how abstract they are, and how elaborately they interact to shape perceptions

Monitoring CHAPTER 3

The process of calling behaviors or other phenomena to our attention so that we can observe and regulate them. Try to monitor the tendency to explain away your failures or adverse behaviors as not your fault and to take personal credit for accomplishments that were helped along by luck or situational factors.

Rhetorical Criticism CHAPTER 2

The process of examining a text to see how it works communicatively It aims to understand how particular texts work. How do they have impact- or fail to have impact- on listeners and viewers? why do they have the impact they do, or not have the impact their creator intended?

Re-appropriation CHAPTER 4

This happens when a group reclaims a term used by others to degrade its members, and treats that term as a positive self-description. Reappropriation aims to remove the stigma from term that others use pejoratively. For instance, some women and feminist musicians have reappropriated the term girl to resist the connotations of childishness.

Selection as part of the Perception Process CHAPTER 3

We organize perceptions even as we select what to perceive, and we interpret in an ongoing manner

Punctuation CHAPTER 4

We punctuate communication to interpret meaning. Like the punctuation you studied in grammar classes, punctuation of verbal communication is a way to mark a ow of activity into meaningful units. Punctuation is our perception of when interaction begins and ends

Neutrality vs Empathy CHAPTER 7

We tend to become defensive when others act in a neutral manner, especially if we are talking about something we feel strongly about. Neutral communication implies indif- ference to others and what they say. Consequently, it may create defensiveness. In contrast to neutrality, expressed empathy con rms the worth of others and shows concern for their thoughts and feelings. We communicate empathy when we say, "I can understand why you feel that way," "It sounds like you feel uncomfortable with your job," or "I don't blame you for being worried about the situation." Gibb stressed that empathy doesn't necessarily mean agreement; instead, it conveys respect for others and what they think and feel. Especially when we don't agree with others, it's important to show that we respect them as people. Doing so fosters a supportive climate and keeps lines of communication open, even if differences continue to exist.

Power CHAPTER 5

We use nonverbal behaviors to assert dominance and to negotiate status. Compared with women, men generally assume more space and use greater volume and more forceful gestures to assert their ideas.

Hypothetical Thought CHAPTER 4

Which is thinking about experiences and ideas that are not part of your concrete, daily reality. Because we can think hypothetically, we can plan, dream, remember, set goals, consider alternative courses of action, and imagine possibilities.

Arbitrary CHAPTER 4

Which means that verbal symbols are not intrinsically connected to what they represent.

Abstract CHAPTER 4

Which means that words are not the concrete or tangible phenomena to which they refer

Loaded Language CHAPTER 4

Words that slant perceptions, and thus meanings, exceedingly. Loaded language encourages extreme perceptions. Terms such as geezer and old fogey incline us to regard older people with contempt or pity. Alternatives such as senior citizen and elder re ect more respectful attitudes.

Communication as a System CHAPTER 1

a change in any part of the system, changes the entire system; a system operates as a totality of interacting elements it is a group of interrelated elements that affect one another/ comm is systematic