COMS 213 Exam 3

Affirming Another Person'sCultural Identity

A fifth challenge is affirming the other person's cultural identity •One should recognize that the other person might havedifferent beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes •Should accept those characteristics as an important part of the other's identity

anxiety

A fourth challenge is overcoming the increased anxiety commonly found in early stages of the relationship One may be afraid that he/she will look stupid or will offend someone because of unfamiliarity with that person's language or culture Levelof anxiety: •May be higher if people have negative expectations based on previous interactions or on stereotypes •May be lower if there are few negative expectations and no history of negative contact

Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict pp

Ambiguity Language issues Contradictory conflict styles Conflictis usually defined as involving a perceived or real incompatibilityof goals, values, expectations, processes, or outcomes between two or more interdependentindividuals or groups

Intercultural Relationships in Everyday Life

Benefits of intercultural relationships Challenges in intercultural relationships Foundations of interculturalrelationships Relationshipsacrossdifferences Society and interculturalrelationships

Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Conflicts happen all around the world at different levels Interpersonalconflict: Occurs between individuals Politicalconflict: Happens at the societal level over political issues Internationalconflict: Occurs on the international level, often between nations

Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture PP

Consumingpopular culture Resisting popular culture

Society and Intercultural Relationships

Contact hypothesis:Intercultural contacts can result in positive and tolerant attitudes toward other cultural groups, but only under very specific conditions Helps explain patterns of interethnic dating andmarriage

Influences on Conflict Management pp

Cultural values influences Family influences Two approaches to conflict Intercultural conflict styles Gender, ethnicity, and conflict Religion andconflict

Cultural Imperialism PP

Domination through the spread of cultural products •Media imperialism:Domination or control through the media •Electronic colonialism:Domination or exploitation utilizing technological forms Most popular culture is produced in the U.S. and circulated globally The imbalance in exchange of U.S. popular culture and other popular culture texts has raised concerns about cultural imperialism It is through popular culture that we try to understand the dynamics of other cultures and nations

Engagement style

Emphasizes a verbally direct and confrontational approach to dealing with conflict •Preferred by African Americans, Southern Europeans, Russians, and Israelis

accommodating style

Emphasizes an indirect approach for dealing with conflict and a more emotionally restrained manner •Preferred by American Indians, Latin Americans, and Asians

Competitive versus Cooperative Conflict

Exploration is essential in developing a cooperative atmosphere but must be done in various ways in different cultures Basicsteps 1.Issue is put on hold 2.Both parties explore other options 3.Problem is delegated to a 3rdparty If all conflicting parties are committed to the process, there is a sense of joint ownership of the recommendedsolution

Cultural Values Influences

Faceworkrefers to specific communication strategies we use to "save"our own or another person'sface and is a universal concept •How we "do" faceworkvaries from culture to culture and influences conflict styles

Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict pp

Genderand ethnicity may influence how one handles conflict Some research shows that men and women tend to behave in stereotypical ways in some contexts •Men use a more engagement conflict style Womenuse a more accommodating style

Understanding Conflict and Society pp

Historical and political forces Societal response to conflict Peacebuilding Forgiveness

Consuming Popular Culture

Popular culture serves important cultural functions that are connected to our cultural identities—our view of ourselves in relation to the cultures we belong to Nadine Dolby - Popular culture is a key site for the formation of identities, for the ways in which we make sense of the world, and locate ourselves within it

Productive versus Destructive Conflict

Productive conflict Identify specific problem Focus on the original issues Direct discussion toward cooperative problem solving Value leadership that stresses mutually satisfactory outcomes Destructive conflict Make sweeping generalizations and have negative attitudes Escalate conflict from original issues and reexamine anything in relation to those issues Try to seize power and use threats, coercion, and deception Polarize behind single-minded and militant leadership The general theme in destructive conflict is competitive escalation

Managing Intercultural Conflict

Productive versus destructive conflict Competitive versus cooperative conflict

Intercultural Marriage

Referredto as love revolution •Therehas been a steady increase in the number of intercultural marriages over the past 20 years •Oppositionto such marriages seems to be declining continuously What are the major concerns of couples who marry interculturally? Dealing with pressures from families and society Issue of raising children Those in intercultural marriages must deal with these issues and are more likely to have problems related to: •Values •Eating and drinking habits •Gender roles •Attitudes regarding time •Religion •Place of residence •Stress Ethnocentrism Four styles of interaction •Submission:One partner accepts the culture of the other partner, abandoning or denying his/her own (most common) •Compromise:Partners give up some parts of their culturally bound habits and beliefs to accommodate the other •Obliteration:Both partners deal with differences by attempting to erase their individual cultures •Consensus:Based on agreement and negotiation but it not a tradeoff (most desirable)

Religion and Conflict pp

Religious beliefs are often a source of very strongly held views that can cause religious conflict with others who may not share those views

Foundations of Intercultural Relationships PP

Similarities and differences Cultural differences in relationships

Similarities and Differences PP

Similarity principle:People tend to be attracted to other people with similar attitudes Complementarity:Peopletend to seek out people with different personality traits in order to provide balance •If a person is attracted initially by differences, some common ground or similarity must be established for the relationship to develop, flourish, and be mutually satisfying

Conflict of interest

Situation in which people have incompatible preferences for a course of action or plan to pursue

Cognitive conflict

Situation in which two or more people become aware that their thought processes or perceptions are in conflict

Societal Responses to Conflict pp

Some conflict may be motivated by a desire to bring about social change In social movements, individuals work together to bring about social change Confrontation is often used as a strategy to highlight the injustices of the present system

Resisting Popular Culture

Sometimes, people seek out to consume particular popular culture texts, but, at other times they resist it •For example, some people avoid TV and violent movies Concerns about stereotyping and media images have motivated resistance

Forgiveness pp

Strategybeing used around the world to break the trap of conflict •Means letting go of feelings of revenge •Includes an acknowledgement of feelings of hurt and angerand a need for healing

Peacebuilding pp

Workingtoward equilibrium and stability in a society so that new disputes do not escalate into violence and war Intergroup dialogueis one of several strategies in peacebuilding •Government leaders alone cannot negotiate true peace; the general population and civic leaders must also be involved Facilitatedintergroup dialogue:Focuses on the powerof speaking and being understood •Involves listening and speaking, not to persuade, but to clarify and truly understand an opposing viewpoint Three-phase systematic dialogue •Step1 Analyzethe current situation that affects peacebuildingefforts •Step2 Builda collective vision for the future •Step3Develop a specific action plan to achieve peaceful collaboration

Affirming Another Person's Cultural Identity

· A fifth challenge in intercultural relationships is affirming the other person's cultural identity. This means that people need not only to recognize that the other person might have different beliefs, perceptions and attitudes, but also to accept those characteristics as an important part of the other's identity. o There is often a tendency for members of the majority culture to assume their attitudes, beliefs and behaviors are the norm and that the minority member should adapt to them.

Anxiety

· A fourth challenge in intercultural relationships involves overcoming the increased anxiety commonly found in the early stages of the relationship.(Some anxiety always exists in the early stages of any relationship.) o This anxiety stems from fears about possible negative consequences of one's actions. A person may be afraid that he or she will look stupid or will offend someone because the individual is unfamiliar with that person's language or culture. · Differences of age are not usually cause for discomfort, but relationships that span differences in physical ability, class, or race may engender more anxiety. · People face a kind of "hurdle" in developing intercultural relationships, and once they pass that hurdle,it's much easier to develop other intercultural relationships. · The level of anxiety may be higher if people have negative expectations based on previous interaction or on stereotypes.

Influences on Conflict Management

· A key question is this: Is open conflict good or bad? That is, should conflict be welcomed becauseit provides opportunities to strengthen relationships? Or should it be avoided because it can only lead to problems for relationships and groups? · Another key question is this: What is the best way to handle conflict when it arises? Should individuals talk about it directly, deal with it indirectly, or avoid it? Should emotions be part of the conflict resolution? Are expressions of emotions viewed as showing commitment to resolving the conflict at hand? Or is it better to be restrained and solve problems by rational logic rather than emotional expressiveness?

Conflict Types and Contexts pp

Types of conflict The importance of context

Popular Culture From Other Cultures

U.S. popular culture dominates the world market

Dynamic style

Uses an indirect style of communicating along with a more emotionally intense expressiveness •Preferred by Arabs in the Middle East

Discussion style

Combines direct and emotionally restrained dimensions and emphasizes a verbally direct approach for dealing with disagreements •Preferred by White Americans, Europeans, Australians, and New Zealanders

Relationships Across Differences

Communicating in intercultural relationships Intercultural dating Intercultural marriage Onlinerelationships

Communicating in Intercultural Relationships PP

Comprises four unique themes Competence- Language skills are of utmost importance in interactions Levels of intercultural communication competence •Unconsciousincompetence- "Be yourself" approach •Individual is not conscious of cultural differences and does not see a need to act in any particular way •Consciousincompetence -One realizes that things may not be going very well but is not sure why •Consciouscompetence -Focus is on analytic thinking andlearning •Necessary part of the process of becoming a competent communicatorbut is not sufficient •Unconsciouscompetence- Level at which communication goes smoothly but is not a conscious process •Can be achieved when the analytic (conscious and rational) andholistic (unconscious and intuitive) parts of one's brain function together Similarity •Dissimilarity may account for an initial attraction between two people but it is important to find and develop some similarity that transcends cultural differences Forexample, shared religious beliefs, shared interest in sports or other activities, or similar physical appearances, lifestyles, or attitudes Involvement- All relationships take time to develop, but it is especially important to make time in intercultural relationships Elements of involvement •Intimacy of interaction Shared friendshipnetworks Turning points - Significant events that relate to perceived changes in the relationship •Move the relationship forward or backward

The Importance of Context pp

Conflictcontext can be viewed in two ways •In terms of the actual situation in which the conflict happens Asa larger societalcontext

Cultural Differences in Relationships PP

How are friendships(personal, nonromantic relationships with culture- specific overtones) formed? Whois a friend? •The term "friend" may have different meanings for different cultural groups There are similarities and differences in how romantic relationshipsare viewed in different cultures Most cultures stress the importance of some degree of openness, involvement, shared nonverbal meanings, andrelationship assessment •Americans are individualistic in orientation •Other cultural groups emphasize the acceptance of the potential partner by family members Gay relationships may be intracultural or intercultural •They share many similarities with straight relationships •They differ in four ways 1.Viewson intimacy 2.Roleof sexuality 3.Conflictmanagement strategies Importanceof closefriendships

Contradictory Conflict Styles pp

Intercultural conflict may be characterized by contradictory conflict styles Differentstyles in handling conflict cause problems in the workplace and may lead to more conflict

Intercultural Dating PP

Intercultural dating involves the pursuit of an intercultural romantic relationship Why do some people date interculturally and others do not? Five factors •Gender - More men date interculturally (Reflects greater power and ability to choose) •Ethnicity - People of color more likely to date interethnically •Diversityof social environment - People are more likely to date interculturally if they have contact with people from different cultures or if their neighborhoods, schools, and churches are culturally diverse •Diversity of friendship network - One must form friendships in order to develop romantic relationships •Diversityof parents' friendships - Decision to continue dating depends on the ethnic diversity of parents' friends and the attitudes and behaviors of parents

Benefits of Intercultural Relationships PP

Intercultural relationships are formed between individuals from different cultures and can offer many rewards and opportunities Benefits 1.Learning about the world 2.Breaking stereotypes 3.Acquiring new skills Intercultural communication can lead to a sense of connection with others and can establish lifelong patterns of communicating to bridge differences

Motivation PP

Interculturalrelationships can enrich our lives and provide tremendous benefits •However, they can also present challenges The most fundamental challenge is motivation

Language Issues pp

Language can sometimes lead to intercultural conflict and can also be the primary vehicle for solving it

Representing Cultural Groups PP

Migrants' perceptions of mainstream culture Popular culture and stereotyping

Family Influences pp

Most people deal with conflict in the way they learned while growing up Conflictresolution strategies usually relate to how people manage their self-image in relationships (preserve or sacrifice) Peopletend to prefer a particular conflict style for many reasons 1.Childrenaccept the conflict style of their family as normal 2.Childrenmay reject the conflict styles their parents used Familyconflict can arise from generational differences in immigrant families that highlight intercultural differences

Challenges of Intercultural Relationships

Motivation Differences in communication styles, values, and perceptions Negative stereotypes Anxiety Affirming another person'scultural identity The need for explanations

Historical and Political Forces pp

Much of our identity has historical roots It is only through understanding the past that we can understand what it means to be a member of a particular group

Affective conflict

Occurs when people are aware that their feelings and emotions are incompatible

Goal conflict

Occurs when people disagree about a preferred outcome or end state

Value conflict

Occurs when people have differing ideologies

Global Circulation of Imagesor Commodities

People view other cultural groups through the lens of popular culture •One needs to think about the power relations that are embedded in these popular culture dynamics U.S. popular culture is circulated worldwide •People interpret and consume popular culture, so how might U.S. culture represent particular groups in specific ways? (Consider U.S.-made films, television, and newspapers) What are the implications of the dominance of U.S. media around the world?

Migrants' Perceptions ofMainstream Culture

Popular culture images are often influential in constructing particular ways of understanding culture groups other than our own

Differences in Communication Styles, Values, and Perceptions PP

The second challenge is that intercultural relationships are characterized by cultural differencesin: •Communication styles •Values •Perceptions 1.Most noticeable in the early stages of the relationship 2.Differencesmay be obvious Challengeis to discover and build onsimilarities

The Need for Explanations PP

The sixth challenge in intercultural relationships is having to explain things. A lot of the work has to do with explaining—explaining to themselves, to each other, and to their respective communities •Can be more work than in-group relationships •Can require more "care and feeding" To be successful, intercultural friendships require mutual respect, acceptance, tolerance for the faux pas, and the occasional closed door, open discussion, and patient mutual education •People in intercultural relationships recognize and respect differences Interculturalrelationships add a special richness to ourlives

Negative Stereotypes PP

The third challenge is negative stereotyping

Two Approaches to Conflict pp

The way one approaches conflict probably depends on his/her cultural background and the way he/she was raised Director indirect approach •Direct approach emphasizes that conflict is fundamentally a good thing and should be approached head-on •Indirect approach emphasizes that conflict should be avoided; it includes pacifism, an opposition to the use of force under any circumstances Emotionallyexpressive or restraint conflict style •An emotionally expressive person prefers to display intense and overt emotions during a discussion of disagreement •People who believe in the restraintstyleprefer to discuss disagreements in an emotionally calm manner

Ambiguity pp

There is often ambiguity in intercultural conflicts When one encounters ambiguity, he/she quickly resorts to his/her default style of handling conflict, which is usually the style learned from one's family

Differences in Communication Styles, Values, and Perceptions

· A second challenge is that intercultural relationships, by definition, are often characterized by cultural differences in communication styles, values, and perceptions. o These dissimilarities probably are most noticeable in the early stages of the relationship, before people get to know each other on a more personal, individual level. · However, once some commonality is established, these cultural differences may have less effect because all relationships become more individualized as they move to more intimate stages. · There is an interplay of both differences and similarities in intercultural relationships. o The differencesmay be more obvious but the challenge is to discover and build on the similarities in intercultural relationships.

Similarities and Differences

· According tothesimilarity principle, people tend to be attracted to people whom they perceive to hold attitudes similar to theirs in terms of politics, religion, personality, and so on. o Finding people who agree with one's own beliefs confirms those beliefs. · But one may also seek out people who have different personality traits and therefore provide balance, or complementarity, in the relationship. · Some individualsare attracted to people simply because they have different cultural backgrounds. o Although people may be attracted initially by differences, some common ground or similarity must be established if the relationship is to develop, flourish, and be mutually satisfying over time.

Types of Conflict

· Affective conflict occurs when individuals become aware that their feelings and emotions are incompatible. · A conflict of interest describes a situation in which people have incompatible preferences for a course of action or plan to pursue. · Value conflict, a more serious type, occurs when people have differing ideologies. · Cognitive conflict describes a situation in which two or more people become aware that their thought processes or perceptions are in conflict. · Goal conflict occurs when people disagree about a preferred outcome or end state.

Popular Culture from Other Cultures

· Although U.S. popular culture tends to dominate the world market, the power of popular culture from outside the United States can also make important impacts in the world. o For example, the James Bond books and movies have roots in Britain but have been exported to the international market. The appropriation of the British character into U.S. ideological and economic terrain complicates arguments about the dominance of U.S. popular culture products. o The popularity of Japanese animé or cartoons reflects another non-U.S. popular culture phenomenon. The fascination with animé highlights the ability of non-U.S. popular culture to become popular internationally.

Resisting Popular Culture

· At times, people actively seek out particular popular culture texts to consume. At other times, they resist cultural texts. · People often resist particular forms of popular culture by refusing to engage in them. · People resist popular culture because of the impact that outside cultural influences might have on a nation. · People resist popular culture in many ways, and organizations have emerged to monitor media images and coverage. o For example, Media Action Network for Asian Americans (MANAA) monitors anti-Asian images in the media and organizes resistance to them. Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) serves a similar function by focusing on gay and lesbian media images. · Resistance can happen on an individual level or a social level.

Competitive Versus Cooperative Conflict

· Conflict often spirals into long-term negativity, with the conflicting parties establishing a self-perpetuating, mutually confirming expectation. · According to Morton Deutsch, the general tone of a relationship will promote certain processes and acts. · Exploration may be done in various ways in different cultures, but it has several basic steps. o The issue is put on hold o Both parties explore other options. o They delegate the problem to a third party.

Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict

· Conflictis usually defined as involving a perceived or real incompatibilityof goals, values, expectations, processes, or outcomes between two or more interdependentindividuals or groups. · One unique characteristic of intercultural conflictis that it tends to be more ambiguous than intracultural conflict. Other characteristics involve language issues and contradictory conflict styles.

Migrants' Perceptions of Mainstream Culture

· Ethnographers and other scholars have crossed international and cultural boundaries to examine the influence of popular culture. · It can be observed that popular culture images are often influential in constructing particular ways of understanding cultural groups other than one's own. · The use of popular culture to learn about another culture should not be surprising. o Many teachers encourage their students to use popular culture not only to improve their language skills but also to help them learn many of the nuances of another culture.

Productive Versus Destructive Conflict

· Given all the variations in how people deal with conflicts, what happens when there is conflict in intercultural relationships? One option involves distinguishing between productive and destructive conflict in at least four ways: o First, in productive conflict, individuals or groups try to identify the specific problem; in destructive conflict, they make sweeping generalizations and have negative attitudes. o Second, in productive conflict, individuals or groups focus on the original issue; in destructive conflict, they escalate the conflict from the original issues and anything in the relationship is open for reexamination. o Third, in productive conflict, individuals or groups direct the discussion toward cooperative problem solving ("How can we work this out?"); in destructive conflict, they try to seize power and use threats, coercion, and deception ("Either you do what I want, or . . ."). o Finally, in productive conflict, individuals or groups value leadership that stresses mutually satisfactory outcomes; in destructive conflict, they polarize behind single-minded and militant leadership.

Cultural Differences in Relationships

· How are friendships—personal, nonromantic relationships with culture-specific overtones—formed? What are the characteristics of a friend? How do these notions vary across cultures? · The term friend may have different meanings for different cultural groups. · For example, in the United States, the term applies to many different kinds of relationships. In contrast, in India and in many other countries, the concept is defined more narrowly. · What most people in the world consider simply a friend is what U.S. Americans would consider a "close friend." · Europeans are often amazed at the openness and informality of Americans and how quickly they can form friendships. · The upshot is that Americans often come across as forward, intrusive, and overbearing. · It might be better for Americans to give their European acquaintances more time to open up and initiate intimacy, and they should be careful not to interpret European reserve as lack of warmth. o For example, international students in the United States often remark that U.S. American students seem superficial. o That is, they welcome interactions with strangers and share information of a superficial nature—for example, when chatting at a party. When some international students experience these types of interactions, they assume that they have become "close" friends. · The differences in the openness and informality of Americans compared to Europeans may have something to do with the different histories and geography. · There are also both similarities and differences between Japanese and U.S. American students with regard to friendships. o In general, young people in both countries seem to be attracted to people who are similar to them in some way, and they use the same words to describe characteristics of a friend: trust, respect, understanding, and sincerity. However, they give these characteristics different priority. o The Japanese value relational harmony and collectivism, whereas the U.S. Americans value honesty and individuality. · Hispanic, Asian American, African American, and Anglo American students hold similar notions about two important characteristics of close friendship: trust and acceptance. · However, whereas Latino/a, Asian American, and African American students report that it takes, on average, about a year to develop a close friendship, Anglo Americans report that it takes only a few months. And each group may emphasize a slightly different aspect of friendship. o For example, Latinos/as emphasize relational support; Asian Americans emphasize a caring, positive exchange of ideas; African Americans emphasize respect and acceptance; and Anglo Americans emphasize recognizing the needs of individuals. · There are also similarities and differences in how romantic relationships are viewed in different cultures. · Ingeneral, most cultures stress the importance of some degree of openness, involvement, shared nonverbal meanings, and relationship assessment in romantic relationships. · There are differences between cultures, such as: o In general, U.S. American students emphasize the importance of physical attraction, passion, love, and autonomy, reflecting a moreindividualisticorientation. o But many other cultural groups emphasize the acceptance of the potential partner by family members as more important than romantic or passionatelove, reflecting a morecollectivist orientation. · The U.S. American emphasis on individual autonomy in relationships can be problematic. Trying to balance the needs of two "separate" individuals is not easy, and extreme individualismmakes it difficult for either partner to justify sacrificing or giving more than he or she is receiving. o All this leads to fundamental conflicts as partners try toreconcile the need for personal freedom with marital obligations. · There is far more information about heterosexual friendships and romantic relationships than about gay relationships, and even less about transgender relationships. · Homosexuality has existed in every society and in every era. And while in the United States people tend to have fairly rigid categories ("heterosexual," "bisexual," "homosexual," and so on), cross-cultural and historical studies show a great deal of variety in how intimate human relations are carried on. · Gay relationships may be intracultural and intercultural. Although there are many similarities between gay and straight relationships, they also differ in at least four ways: their views on intimacy, the role of sexuality, conflict management strategies, and the importance of close friendships. o First, U.S. gay males tend to seek emotional support from same-sex friendships, whereas straight males, socialized toward less self-expression and emotional intimacy, turn to women for emotional support—often a wife or female romantic partner, rather than a same-sex friend. o Second, the role of sexuality also may differ in heterosexual relationships and in gay friendships. In heterosexual relationships, friendship and sexual involvement typically are mutually exclusive; the sex thing always seems to "get in the way." Friendships between straight men and women can be ambiguous because of the sex thing. · Close friendships may be more important for gay people than for straight people. Gay people often sufferdiscrimination and hostility from the straight world. o In addition, they often have strained relationships with families. o For these reasons,the social support they receive from friends in the gay community can play a special role. · By the time the United States legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, about 20 countries had already done so, including Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, France, the Netherlands, South Africa, Spain, and Uruguay. · In countries where same-sex marriage is not legal, some offer other kinds of recognition, including "domestic partnerships" and "civil unions." o In Cameroon, homosexuality is a crime, and there have been a number of arrests of gay men. In that country, gay men risk a prison term of five years, as same-sex activities are unlawful. o Even more repressive than Cameroon is ISIS which has reportedly killed more than 25 men suspected of being gay. o Under these conditions, same-sex relationships are undertaken with great risk, because the anti-gay attitudes are institutionalized under the law.

Representing Cultural Groups

· People often are introduced to other cultures through the lens of popular culture. And these introductions can be quite intimate. o For example, through movies, the audience sees and enters the private lives of people they do not know, in ways they never could as tourists. · Because some groups are not portrayed as often in popular culture, it is easier to stereotype them. o Conversely, some groups are portrayed so often in popular culture that it is difficult to stereotype them.

Cultural Values Influence

· How do cultural values influence conflict management? One way to answer this question is to look at cultural variations in facework. o Faceworkrefers to specific communication strategies people use to "save" their own or another person's face and is a universal concept; how people "do" facework varies from culture to culture and influences conflict styles. o For example, people from individualistic societies tend to be more concerned with saving their own face than another person's, so they tend to use more direct conflict management styles. o In contrast, people from collectivistic societies tend to be more concerned with preserving group harmony and with saving the other person's face (and dignity) during conflict. § They may use a less direct conversational style; protecting the other person's face and making him or her look good is considered a skillful facework style.

The Importance of Context

· How people choose to manage conflict may depend on the particular context or situation. o Thus, the conflict context can be viewed in the following two ways: § In terms of the actual situation in which the conflict happens § As a larger societal context

Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture

· In order to maintain their identities, as well as to reshape them, people often turn to popular culture. o At times, they seek out cultural texts; at other times, they try to avoid certain texts.

Contradictory Conflict Styles

· In the maquiladoras, the biggest difference between U.S. Americans and Mexicans seems to be in the way U.S. Americans express disagreement at management meetings. o The Mexican managers tend to be more indirect and more polite in conflict situations, whereas the U.S. American managers prefer to confront conflict directly and openly.

The Need for Explanations

· Intercultural relationships can be more work than in-group relationships. A lot of the work has to do with explaining. · First, in some way, consciously or unconsciously, people ask themselves what it means to be friends with someone who is not like the them. · Second, people explain things to each other. This process of mutual clarification is one of the healthiest characteristics of intercultural relationships. o It should be noted that usually the biggest obstacles to boundary-crossing friendships come not from minority communities but from majority communities. § This is because, those in the majority, such as Whites, have the most to gain by maintaining social inequality and are less likely to initiate boundary-crossing friendships. § By contrast, minority groups have more to gain. Developing intercultural relationships can help them survive and succeed, particularlyeconomically and professionally. · Overall, intercultural friendships add a special richness to people's lives.

Communicating in Intercultural Relationships

· Intercultural relationshipsamong people from different cultures may be similar to intracultural relationships in many ways. · But some unique themesrelated to issues of competence, similarity, involvement, and turning points can guide people's thinking about communicating in intercultural relationships. · There are four levels of intercultural communication competence. o Unconscious incompetence reflects a "be yourself" approach in which an individual is not conscious of cultural differences and does not see a need to act in any particular way. § Sometimes this works. However, being oneself works best in interactions with people who are very similar to one. In intercultural contexts, being oneself often means that one is not very effective and one doesn't realize one's ineptness. o At the level of conscious incompetence, people realize things may not be going very well in the interaction, but they're not sure why. o As instructors of intercultural communication, they teach at a conscious, intentional level. Their instruction focuses on analytic thinking and learning. This describes the level of conscious competence. o Unconscious competence is the level at which communication goes smoothly but is not a conscious process. · While dissimilarity may account for an initial attraction between two people, it is very important to find and develop some similarity that transcends the cultural differences. · All relationships take time to develop, but it is especially important to make time in intercultural relationships.This is one aspect of involvement. · Intimacy of interactionis another element of involvement, as are shared friendship networks. · There are often significant events that relate to perceived changes in the relationship—turning points that move the relationship forward or backward.

Cultural Imperialism

· It is difficult to measure the impact of the U.S. and Western media and popular culture on the rest of the world. · The discussions about media imperialism (domination or control through the media), electronic colonialism (domination or exploitation utilizing technological forms), andcultural imperialism (domination through the spread of cultural products), which began in the 1920s, continue today. o These are three of the terms that are often used to discuss the larger phenomenon of one culture dominating another, typically through economic domination and the infusion of cultural products that change the cultural values of the recipient culture. § While media imperialism emphasizes this domination through media systems, electronic colonialism draws attention to the technological means of domination. § The interrelationships among economics, nationalism, and culture make it difficult to determine how significant cultural imperialism might be. § In his survey of the cultural imperialism debates, scholar John Tomlinson identified five different ways of thinking about cultural imperialism: (1) as cultural domination, (2) as media imperialism, (3) as nationalist discourse, (4) as a critique of global capitalism, and (5) as a critique of modernity. · Popular culture plays an enormous role in relations among nations worldwide. · It is through popular culture that people try to understand the dynamics of other cultures and nations.

Society and Intercultural Relationships

· It is important to consider how society views and influences intercultural relationships. o The census indicates that many people are marrying outside their cultural group. o 61 percent of American Indian females and 54 percent of American Indian males marry outside of their group, while only 7 percent of Whites do. · Despite what those in the marriage think, society will tend to view them as unequal, as the stereotypes and attitudes are not equal. This phenomenon is reflected in who marries whom. o In 2013, Black men were much more likely than Black women to marry outside their group with 25 percent of Black men marrying outside versus 12 percent of Black women. o In contrast, 37 percent of Asian women married a non-Asian, while only 16 percent of Asian men did so. · Contact hypothesis is the notion that only under very specific conditions do intercultural contacts result in positive and tolerant attitudes toward the other groups.

Intercultural Conflict Styles

· It is possible to combine the four dimensions discussed and come up with four different conflict resolution styles that seem to be connected to various cultural groups: the discussion style, the engagement style, the accommodating style, and the dynamic style. o The discussion style combines the direct and emotionally restrained dimensions and emphasizes a verbally direct approach for dealing with disagreements—to "say what you mean and mean what you say." o The engagement style emphasizes a verbally direct and confrontational approach to dealing with conflict. This style views intense verbal and nonverbal expression of emotion as demonstrating sincerity and willingness to engage intensely to resolve conflict. o The accommodating style emphasizes an indirect approach for dealing with conflict and a more emotionally restrained manner. People who use this style may be ambiguous and indirect in expressing their views, thinking that this is a way to ensure that the conflict "doesn't get out of control." § People who think that interpersonal conflict provides opportunities to strengthen relationships also use mediation, but mainly in formal settings. For instance, people retain lawyers to mediate disputes, hire real estate agents to negotiate commercial transactions, and engage counselors or therapists to resolve or manage interpersonal conflicts. o The dynamic style uses an indirect style of communicating along with a more emotionally intense expressiveness. People who use this style may use strong language, stories, metaphors, and use of third-party intermediaries. · As with any generalization, however, it must be remembered that all conflict resolution styles can be found in any one cultural group, and while cultural groups tend to prefer one style over another, people must be careful not to stereotype. o Also, these cultural differences may depend on a number of factors, including the following: § Whether regions have been historically homogeneous and isolated from other cultures § The influence of colonization § The immigration history of different cultural groups

Language Issues

· Language can sometimes lead to intercultural conflict, and it can also be the primary vehicle for solving intercultural conflict. · However, when people don't know the language well, it is very difficult to handle conflict effectively. o At the same time, some silence is not necessarily a bad thing. o Sometimes it provides a "cooling off" period during which the participants can calm down and gather their thoughts.

Historical and Political Forces

· Many derogatory words gain power from their historical usage and the legacy of oppression that they reference. · It is only through understanding the past that people can understand what it means to be a member of a particular cultural group. o For example, understanding the history of Ireland helps one understand the meaning of Irish identity. o Other examples of historical and political forces can be seen in international conflicts over border disputes. · Sometimes ongoing tensions between groups is not limited to those groups and draws in others. o For example, the conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians is not limited to those two groups. · Another type of political influence on intercultural conflict is anti-Americanism. o Anti-Americanism refers to the ideas, feelings, and sometimes actions against the United States—most often against the U.S. government, although it can also refer to the culture and people. o Anti-Americanism is complex because it is a unifying perspective that crosses many cultures in ways that many cultural values do not: Foreign policy decisions by the U.S. government, like U.S. and NATO presence in the Middle East and unmanned drone attacks on civilians in Pakistan and Afghanistan, have resulted in anti-American sentiments in many parts of the world. · When people witness conflict, they often assume that it is caused by personal issues between individuals. When people reduce conflict to the level of interpersonal interaction, they lose sight of the larger social and political forces that contextualize these conflicts.

Understanding Conflict and Society

· Many intercultural conflicts can be better understood by looking at the social, economic, historical, and political forces.

Online Relationships

· More and more people are using new technologies to communicate. · The most important impact of new communication technologies, particularly for young people, is the opportunities they provide for developing and maintaining relationships. · Through social networking sites (SNSs) like Facebook, e-mail, instant messaging (IM), and Twitter, we can stay in touch with old friends, maintain almost constant contact with current friends, and find new friends. · These new media technologies present us with enormous opportunities to communicate and develop relationships with people who are very different from each other. One can communicate with people in other countries as easily as talking to one's next-door neighbors. · Social media and social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter are a world-wide phenomenon. Facebook reports that "approximately 84.2 percent of our daily active users are outside the U.S. and Canada." o Whatever the particular audience, they present endless opportunities to develop and maintain intercultural relationships. · In addition, it appears that communication technologies like the Internet and social media both facilitate and inhibit the development of intercultural relationships. · Another way that intercultural communication may be facilitated online—the asynchronicity of some new media formats (email, text messaging, twitter)—allows nonnative speakers more time to compose a message and to decode and respond than in true face-to-face interaction. · Language differences can lead to possible misunderstanding of specific words and phrases and humor online can often be misunderstood—thus inhibiting intercultural communication. · Understanding humor in a language often requires a sophisticated understanding of subtle nuances: irony, sarcasm, and cynicism in online communication across cultures should be approached with great caution.

Benefits of Intercultural Relationships

· Most people have a variety of intercultural relationshipsthat span differences in age, physical ability, gender, ethnicity, class, religion, race, and nationality. · The key to these relationships is often an interesting balance of differences and similarities. · The benefits of such relationships include the following: o Learning about the world o Breaking stereotypes o Acquiring new skills · In intercultural relationships, people learn specific information about unfamiliar cultural patterns and language. · People may also learn more about what it really means to belong to a different culture. · People may learn something about history. This is a kind of "relational learning," learning that comes from a particular relationship but generalizes to other contexts. · Finally, the Internet can also be an important influence in helping new arrivals establish friendships in their new country.

Global Circulation of Images/Commodities

· Much of U.S. popular culture is circulated worldwide. o Some media scholars have noted that the U.S. film industry earns far more money outside the United States than from domestic box-office sales. · Many other U.S. media are widely available outside the United States, including television and newspapers.

U.S. Popular Culture and Power

· One of the dynamics of intercultural communication is power. · If people largely view other cultural groups through the lens of popular culture, then one needs to think about the power relations that are embedded in these popular culture dynamics.

Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict

· People's gender and ethnicity may influence how they handle conflict. · Someresearch shows that men and women do tend to behave in stereotypical ways in some contexts—men use a more engagement conflict style, whereas women use a more accommodating style. o This may reflect the fact that in many cultures, women are socialized to focus on relationships and to be more accommodating and indirect in their interaction, while men are socialized to be more competitive. · Ethnicity may also influence conflict style. o At least one study showed that Asian and Latino Americans tended to use accommodating and third-party conflict styles more than African Americans and Asian Americans also tended to use more accommodating conflict tactics than European Americans.

Conflict Types and Contexts

· Perhaps if everyone agreed on the best way to view conflict, there would be less of it. The reality is that different approaches to conflict may result in more conflict.

Motivation

· Perhaps the most fundamental challenge in intercultural relationships is motivation. o In order to build relationships across cultural boundaries, there has to be a desire. · There are increasing opportunities to meet people from other cultures through the Internet, and increasing cultural diversity in many schools and workplaces, and yet a recent survey shows that today's first-year college students have less interest in meeting people who are different from them.

Consuming Popular Culture

· Popular culture texts do not have to win over the majority of people to be "popular." · In fact, people often seek out or avoid specific forms of popular culture. · Although there is unpredictability in the ways in which people navigate popular culture, certain patterns are evident. o Advertising departments of popular magazines even make their reader profilesavailable to potential advertisers. o These portrayals of readership demographics indicate what the magazine believes its readership "looks" like. · An important point is that popular culture serves important cultural functions that are connected to peoples cultural identities—people's view of themselves in relation to the cultures they belong to. · Readers actively negotiate their way through cultural texts such as magazines, consuming those that fulfill important personal and social needs.

Religion and Conflict

· Religious differences also can be an important source of conflict. o Religious beliefs are often a source of very strongly held views that can cause religious conflict with others who may not share those views. While not all people read the Bible in the same way, religious differences can influence how people view their o civic responsibilities and how to appropriately respond.

Social and Economic Forces

· Social conflictarises from unequal or unjust social relationships. o Some experts say it's just hooliganism—young undisciplined looters lashing out against society. And some point out the religious element, describing the conflict as rooted in Islamic discontent with the West, particularly in France, because many of the rioters come from Islamic backgrounds. · However, people need to look beyond religious or ethnic differences to economic, political, and even historical contexts and emphasize the point that conflicts are often more complicated than they first appear. · Some experts said that it was more a lack of jobs than religious fanaticism that motivated the riots and may have even contributed to the 2015 terrorist attacks in Paris. o On the other hand, to exclude other explanations is to insult the poor people who didn't riot (i.e., most of them). · In addition to economic marginalization, many ethnic and racial minorities who rioted feel excluded from French and English society. o Unlike the United States and Canada, where there is a belief (not always realized) that anyone can become American or Canadian, immigrants in France, particularly of African heritage, can never really become French; they remain forever on the margins. · Similar conflicts can be seen in the United States as the disparity between the wealthy and the poor steadily increases. o The Occupy Wall Street protests in 2011 and 2012 drew attention to the "greed and corruption" of the top 1 percent of the U.S. population that controls almost 50 percent of the country's wealth. · Some believe protests and even violence are ways that society can be forced to confront social inequalities and begin the long process of improving the situation.

Societal Responses to Conflict

· Some conflict may be motivated by a desire to bring about social change. In social movements, individuals work together to bring about social change. They often use confrontation as a strategy to highlight the injustices of the present system. o For example, when African American students in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat down at white-only lunch counters in the 1960s, they were pointing out the injustices of segregation. Although the students were nonviolent, their actions drew a violent reaction that, for many people, legitimized the claims of injustice. o The women's suffrage movement of the early twentieth century is another example of a social movement, a mass effort to win women the right to vote in the United States. o Many contemporary social movements involve conflicts, including movements against racism, sexism, and homophobia; movements to protect animal rights, the environment, free speech, civil rights; and, recently, the Black Lives Matter movement. o College campuses are likely locations for much activism and a 2016 survey found that the number of students who said there was a "very good chance" they would participate in a protest while in college rose to 8.5 percent (up from 5.6 percent in 2014). o There is, of course, no comprehensive list of existing social movements. They can arise and fall apart, depending on the opposition they provoke, the media attention they attract, and the strategies they use. o Confrontation, then, can be seen as an opportunity for social change, and social movements have also used violent forms of confrontation. § Groups such as Action Directe in France; the Irish Republican Army; the environmental group Earth First!; and independence movements in Corsica, Algeria, Kosovo, and Chechnya have all been accused of using violence, which tends to result in their being labeled as terrorists rather than simply protesters. · However, confrontation does not necessarily mean violence. Nonviolent sanctions like strikes and boycotts confront and undermine the status quo. For example, in the resistance to apartheid in South Africa, widespread boycotts and strikes put pressure on white business owners, employers and government officials. · Even the suggestion of violence can be threatening to people.

Peacebuilding

· Some of the conflicts described in this chapter involve long standing and violent intergroup conflicts that have lasted for decades, often between ethnic or religious groups within the same geographic area (e.g., Palestinians and Israelis, Sunni and Shia Muslims in Iraq and other countries, Hindus and Muslims in India, Serbs and Croats in former Yugoslavia, Greeks and Turks in Cyprus). · These conflicts—where neighbor or sometimes members of the same family are on different sides—are particularly horrific and have devastating psychological effects, often enduring for generations. · After years of working with these types of conflicts, communication scholar Benjamin Broome has developed a particularly effective type of dialogue group—facilitatedintergroup dialogue. o Dialogue differs from conversation in that it focuses on the power of speaking and being understood; it involves listening and speaking, not to persuade, but to clarify—even to clarify and truly understand an opposing viewpoint. · Intergroup dialogue is one of several strategies of peacebuilding (working toward equilibrium and stability in a society so that new disputes do not escalate into violence and war). o The idea behind facilitated intergroup dialogue, and peacebuilding, is that government leaders alone cannot negotiate a true peace in these types of conflict. · The facilitated intergroup dialogue process usually begins with bringing together members from the two sides—persons, often community leaders, who are interested in working toward peace. · Sometimes, presentations are made by each party describing their view of the conflict. Then a three-phase systematic dialogue—an exchange of ideas and perceptions—is conducted, facilitated by an impartial, third-party expert, like Ben Broome. o The first step involves analyzing the current situation that affects peacebuilding efforts, the second is building a collective vision for the future, and the final step is developing a specific action plan to achieve peaceful collaboration. · Third-party facilitator need to deal with cultural differences as per the following, when conducting peacebuilding efforts. o Between the two groups (e.g., Greek Cypriots tend to be more expressive than Turks and so, monopolized some of the early dialogue sessions) o Between the facilitator's own cultural orientation and the culture orientation of those involved in the discussion.

Foundations of Intercultural Relationships

· Some relationships develop because of circumstances—for example, when students work together on a course project. · Some relationships develop because people come into contact with each other on a frequent basis: for example, neighbors in dorms or apartments. · Others develop because of a strong physical attractionor because of similar interests, attitudes, or personality traits. · And sometimes relationships develop between dissimilar people simply because they are different.

What Is "Popular Culture"?

· Sometimes it may seem obvious what constitutes popular culture and what does not. o For example, people often consider soap operas, reality television shows, and romance novels to be popular culture, while symphonies, operas, and the ballet are not. o Popular culture often is seen as populist, in that it includes forms of contemporary culture that are made popular by and for the people through their mass consumption of these products. · Popular culture can be said to have four significant characteristics: (1) It is produced by culture industries, (2) it is different from folk culture, (3) it is everywhere, and (4) it fills a social function. · John Fiske, professor of communication arts, points out that popular culture is nearly always produced by what are called culture industrieswithin a capitalist system that sees the products of popular culture as commodities to be sold for profit. · Folk culture refers to the traditional rituals and traditions that maintain cultural group identity. · Popular culture also is ubiquitous. o Not only is it ubiquitous, but it also serves an important social function.. · The ways in which people negotiate their relationships to popular culture are complex. It is this complexity that makes understanding the role of popular culture in intercultural communication so difficult. o Clearly, people are not passive receivers of this deluge of popular culture. o They are, in fact, quite active in their consumption of or resistance to popular culture.

Negative Stereotypes

· Stereotypes are a way of categorizing and processing information, but they are particularly detrimental when they are negative and held rigidly. · These mainstream ideas and stereotypes can be powerful and persistent. · It takes conscious effort to detect the stereotypes we hold in everyday life and to find information that counteracts them.

Viewing Others through Popular Culture

· The complexity of popular culture is often overlooked in the society. · People express concerns about the social effects of popular culture—for example, the effects of television violence on children or the relationship between heterosexual pornography and violence against women. · Yet most people look down on the study of popular culture, as if there is nothing of significance to learn there. This attitude can make it difficult to investigate and discuss popular culture. o Many U.S. film, music, and television stars, such as Beyoncé, Brad Pitt, Angelina Jolie, Ryan Gosling, and Jennifer Lopez, are also popular outside the United States, creating an uneven flow of cultural texts—cultural artifacts that convey norms, values, and beliefs—between the United States and other nations. o By contrast, U.S. Americans are rarely exposed to popular culture from outside the United States. · The dominance of American English and U.S. popular culture makes U.S. Americans more dependent on an American-centric popular culture which can also lead to cultural imperialism.

Family Influences

· The ways in which people respond to conflict may be influenced by their cultural background. More specifically, most people deal with conflict in the way they learned while growing up—their default style. · Conflictresolution strategies usually relate to how people manage their self-image in relationships. o Theymay prefer to preserve their own self esteem rather than help the other person "save face." o They mayprefer to sacrifice their own self-esteem in order to preserve the relationship. · Sometimes people try very hard to reject the conflict styles they saw their parents using. · Family conflict can also arise from generational differences in immigrant families that reflect intercultural differences.

Two Approaches to Conflict

· There are at least two primary ways that one can approach conflict. An individual can be either direct or indirect, and can be either emotionally expressive or restrained. o This direct/indirect approachto conflict is similar to the direct/indirect language dimension. · Some cultural groups think that conflict is fundamentally a good thing; these groups feel that it is best to approach conflict very directly, because working through conflicts constructively results in stronger, healthier, and more satisfying relationships. · Similarly, groups that work through conflict can gain new information about members or about other groups, defuse more serious conflict, and increase group cohesiveness. o People who take this approach concentrate on using very precise language. o The goalin this approach is to articulate the issues carefully and select the "best" solution based on an agreed-upon set of criteria. · However, many cultural groups view conflict as ultimately destructive for relationships. o When conflict does arise, the strong spiritual value of pacifism dictates a nonresistant response—often avoidance or dealing with conflict very indirectly. o Also, these groups think that when members disagree they should adhere to the consensus of the group rather than engage in conflict. In fact, members who threaten group harmony may be sanctioned. · A second broad approach to conflict concerns the role of emotion in conflict. People who value intense and overt displays of emotions during discussion of disagreement rely on the emotionally expressive style. · On the other hand, people who believe in the restraint style think that disagreements are best discussed in an emotionally calm manner. · These two approaches to conflict resolution reflect different underlying cultural values involving identity and preserving self-esteem.

Popular Culture and Stereotyping

· There are many familiar stereotypes of ethnic groups represented in the media. · Stereotypes are powerful ways that people organize their perception of the world and the society they live in. o They help guide people throughout everyday lives, but they can also constrain and affect how others interact and see each other. o Sensitivity to stereotyping is an important part of intercultural interaction and conflict.

Intercultural marriage

· There is increasing acceptance of interracial marriages, but Whites continue to be the least accepting with 84 percent approving, compared with 96 percent of Blacks who approve of interracial marriage. · What are the major concerns of couples who marry interculturally? Their concerns, like those of dating couples, often involve dealing with pressures from their families and from society. o In addition, intercultural couples face the issue of raising children. Sometimes these concerns are closely related. · Of course, every husband and wife develop their own idiosyncratic way of relating to each other, but intercultural marriage poses consistent challenges. o Most couples have their own systems for working out the power balance in their relationships, for deciding who gives and who takes. · Couples may adopt different styles depending on the context. o The submission style, the most common style, occurs when one partner accepts the culture of the other partner, abandoning or denying his or her own. o With the compromise style, each partner gives up some parts of his or her culturally bound habits and beliefs to accommodate the other. o With the obliteration style, both partners deal with differences by attempting to erase their individual cultures. o The style that is the most desirable, not surprisingly, is the consensus style, one based on agreement and negotiation. · Couples who are considering permanent intercultural relationships should prepare carefully for the commitment by living together, spending extended time with the partner's family, learning the partner's language, studying the partner's religion, and learning the partner's cuisine.

Ambiguity

· There is often some ambiguity in intercultural conflicts. o People may be unsure of how to handle the conflict or of whether the conflict is seen in the same way by the other person. And the other person may not even think there is a conflict. · However, often when people encounters ambiguity, they quickly resort to their default style of handling conflict—the style they learned in their family. If one's preferred way of handling conflict is to deal with it immediately but one is already in a conflict with someone who prefers to avoid it, the conflict may become exacerbated as both people retreat to their preferred styles

Forgiveness

· Today, forgivenessis the strategy being used around the world to break the trap of conflict. o This means letting go of—not forgetting—feelings of revenge. · It often includes an acknowledgement of feelings of hurt and anger and a need for healing. · Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of forgiveness is trying to let go of hostile feelings and desire for revenge and retribution. · Yet forgiveness is often complicated, as one can see in the case of Michael Lapsely, an anti-apartheid chaplain who was targeted with a letter bomb in 1990 which took both hands, an eye, and both eardrums.

Intercultural Dating

· involves the pursuit of an intercultural romantic relationship. · The reasons people give for dating within and outside their own ethnic group are very similar: they are attracted to the other person, physically or sexually. · However, the reasons people give for not dating someone within or outside their own ethnic group are often very different. o One reason for not dating someone within the ethnic group is lack of attraction; reasons given for not dating outside the ethnic group include not having an opportunity and not having thought about it. o People are more likely to date someone from another cultural group if they have contact with people from different cultures—if their neighborhood, schools, and churches are culturally diverse. o However, even more important is the diversity of friendship network, a fourth influence. o That is, it isn't enough just to be around people who are culturally different—one must form friendships in order to develop romantic relationships. § Most people, by the time they reach adolescence,have been taught that it is better to date withintheir own ethnic and racial group. § A very recent national survey found that young White and Black students who dated interculturallywere likely to encounter disapproval, ranging from very subtle to overt hostility from their peers—often from students of the same race. o Another influence on the decision to date interculturally is the ethnic diversity of parents' friends. § It's possible that the initial decision to date interculturally may depend on one's friends. § However, the decision to continue dating probably depends on the attitudes and, more important, on the behavior of one's parents.

Online Relationships pp

•Enables one to meet more people •First impressions are not based on physical attributes •Users share their personal information in a public place •People can present false information about themselves (for example, marital status, age, and gender)

Popular culture

•Forms of contemporary culture made popular by and for people through mass consumption of products