Consumer Behavior Exam 2, Chapters 8, 9, 10, and 11

What is figure-ground?

Figure-ground involves presenting the stimulus in such a way that it is perceived as the focal object to be attended to and all other stimuli are perceived as the background.

What is memory?

Memory is the total accumulation of prior learning experiences.

How can knowledge of personality be used to develop marketing strategy?

Brands, like individuals, have personalities, and consumers tend to prefer products with brand personalities that are pleasing to them. Consumers also prefer advertising messages that portray their own or a desired personality.

Two Types of Motivation

1. Homeostasis - the body naturally reacts in a way so as to maintain a constant, normal bloodstream. 2. Self-improvement - changing one's current state to a level that is more ideal.

Negative Motivation

A driving force away from some object or condition. Avoidance Goal - a negative value goal from which behavior is directed away.

Name five possible characteristics of an appeal that would influence or change attitudes. Describe each.

Fear appeals, humorous appeals, comparative ads, emotional appeals, and value expressive/utilitarian appeals are types of appeals that affect attitudes.

Tri-component Attitude Model (ABC Model and Hierarchy of Effects)

(Feel) Affective - emotions or feelings (Think) Cognitive - the knowledge and perceptions (Do) Behavorial - action or behave Standard Learning Hierarchy: Cognition -> Affect -> Behavior Low-Involvement Hierarchy: Cognition -> Behavior -> Affect Experiential Hierarchy: Affect -> Behavior -> Cognition

Interesting Motivational Conflict Situations

1. Approach-Approach Situation - Two desirable alternatives but only one can be purchased Cognitive dissonance Ex. trying to choose between Ford Focus and Honda Accord 2. Approach-Avoidance Situation - Positive and negative aspects of the desired product. The guilt of desire occurs Ex. Wanting the dessert that you shouldn't have because of its calories 3. Avoidance-Avoidance Situation - Facing a choice with two undesirable alternatives, I.e., between a rock and a hard place!! Ex. Keep spending more money on car repairs or buy a new one with a monthly note!! Ex. Prepaying for funeral expenses.

Applications of Perception in Marketing

1. Brand Names&Logos 2. Brand Positioning&Repositioning Price/Value Quality Reliability/durability Class/Category Benefits Brand name Country of origin 3. Price-Quality Relationships The perception of price as an indicator of product quality. 4. Purchase Risks The degree of uncertainty perceived by the consumer as to the consequences of a specific purchase decision. 5. Retail store evaluation Brands carried Prices Level of Service Ambiance Clientele Product assortment Discounts Security Previous Experience

Changing the Affective Component

1. Classical Conditioning 2. Affect toward the Ad or Website 3. Mere Exposure - multiple exposure to a brand

Types of Behavioral Theories

1. Classical Conditioning (unintentional learning) 2. Instrumental Conditioning (unintentional learning) 3. Modeling or Observational Learning (intentional learning)

Stimulus or brand factor

1. Intensity of stimuli Louder sounds Brighter colors 2. Contrast Color with b/w images Sound and silence 3. Movement Static vs. Moving/electronic billboards 4. Suprise or unexpected stimuli Teaser ads Disney world rides Unexpected sounds or sights 5. Size of the stimuli Bigger is better Ex. Billboards attracts more attention than a magazine ad! 6. Motive/Involvement/Prev. Experience Enhancing Consumers' Attention Motive- Personal relevance Level of interest - physical and psychological needs-wants Previous exp - hightened sense of happiness (Disney) or regret

Elements of Perception

1. Sensation The immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to stimuli. A stimulus is any unit of input to any of the senses. 2. Absolute threshold The lowest level at which an individual can experience a sensation. 3. Differential Threshold The minimal difference that can be detected between two similar stimuli. Also, know as the just noticeable difference (JND) The JND between two stimuli is not an absolute amount but an amount relative to the intensity of the first stimulus. Weber's Law states that the stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different. Marketing Implications of JND Make positive changes or improvements so that they are very apparent to consumers. Make negative changes such as they are not readily discernible to the public. JMD- Just Meaningful Difference The difference in price might cause you to buy or not. Product decisions Packaging decisions Advertising decisions Sales promotion decisions

Attention is influenced by three factors

1. Stimulus or brand factors 2.Individual Consumer factors 3. Situational factors

Changing the Behavior Component

1. Trial 2. Induce an immediate purchase

Changing the cognitive component

1. change beliefs 2. Add another belief 3. Changing importance 4. change ideal

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

A behavioral learning theory according to which a stimulus is paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response that serves to produce the same response when used alone. 1. Repetition 2. Stimulus Generalization

Operant Conditioning

A behavioral theory of learning based on the trial-and-error process, with habits formed as a result of positive experiences (reinforcement) resulting from certain responses or behaviors.

Why are celebrity sources sometimes effective? What risks are associated with using a celebrity source?

A celebrity attached to the message enhances its ability to draw one's attention, increases message believability, may share his or her image with the product, and fans may buy the product to emulate the celebrity. However, not everyone will like any given celebrity and the celebrity may do something to generate negative publicity.

What is source credibility? What causes it?

A credible source is one that the target market believes will provide accurate information. Trustworthiness and expertise are key factors in establishing source credibility. To be credible, a source should have no apparent reason to provide anything other than complete, objective, and accurate information and it should have the ability to do so.

What is attitude?

A learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given situation.

Describe low-involvement learning. How does it differ from high-involvement learning?

A low-involvement learning situation is one in which the consumer has little or no motivation to learn the material. High-involvement learning occurs in situations where the individual is highly motivated to learn the material. Low-involvement learning can involve the same processes as high-involvement learning, but classical conditioning, iconic rote learning, and modeling are most common. Repetition appears to be particularly important in low-involvement situations (iconic rote learning). Operant conditioning and analytical reasoning are common learning processes in high-involvement situations.

What is meant by a motive hierarchy? How does Maslow's hierarchy of needs function?

A motive hierarchy simply means that some motives are more important or basic than others. Maslow's hierarchy-of-needs approach is based on four premises: (1) all humans acquire a similar set of motives through genetic endowment and social interaction, (2) some motives are more basic or critical than others, (3) the basic motives must be satisfied to a minimum level before other motives are activated, and (4) after basic motives are satisfied, more advanced motives come into play.

What is a motive?

A motive is a construct representing an unobservable inner force that stimulates and compels a behavioral response and provides specific direction to that response.

Dogmatism

A personality trait that reflects the degree of rigidity a person displays toward the unfamiliar and toward information that is contrary to his or her own established beliefs.

Observational Learning (Modeling or Vicarious learning)

A process by which individuals observe how others behave in response to certain stimuli and reinforcement.

What is a benefit segment?

A segment based on needs or sought benefits. Importance ratings are a way to measure what consumers feel is important. Clustering those who rate the importance of product features the same allows the marketer to group consumers based on attribute importance and benefits sought.

What is ad avoidance? How is DVR technology affecting it? How are marketers dealing with this phenomenon?

Ad avoidance occurs when the consumer selectively avoids exposure to advertising messages, e.g., zipping, zapping, and muting. Technologies such as the DVR are giving consumers more control over exposure to television commercials. In response, companies can utilize various strategies in a DVR context including compressed ads, still-frame ads, hybrid ads, interactive ads, and dynamic ad placement. In addition, marketers are increasingly using nontraditional media to gain exposure for their messages. For example, marketers are increasingly placing ads on the sides of trucks and taxis as well as placing products in TV shows, videos, and movies.

What does leveraging brand equity mean?

Brand leverage refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity. This can be achieved with family branding, brand extensions, and umbrella branding, as well as licensing a brand name for other marketing promotions. The degree to which leveraging brand equity works depends upon the degree of stimulus generalization.

What strategies can be used to change the following components of an attitude?

Affective: Various forms of classical conditioning, affect toward the ad or website (using humor, celebrities, or emotional appeal), and mere exposure (simply presenting a brand to individuals on a large number of occasions). Behavioral: Operant conditioning and "shaping" are most effective. Cognitive: Cognitive learning including, iconic rote learning, is important in this area. Strategies used to alter the cognitive structure of a consumer's attitude include change beliefs, shift importance, add beliefs and/or change ideal.

Are the components of an attitude consistent? What factors reduce the apparent consistency among attitude components?

All three components of attitude tend to be consistent and reinforce a particular attitude. That is, a favorable attitude is generally composed of positive cognitions (beliefs), positive feelings (affective), and intentions to use, recommend or support (behavioral). There are six factors found to reduce the apparent consistency among attitude components: lack of need, lack of ability, failure to consider relative attitudes, attitude ambivalence, weakly held beliefs and affect, and failure to consider interpersonal and situational influences.

Basic nature of attidues

Always directed at something or someone Learned predisposition Have consistency

What is an attitude?

An attitude is an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of our environment. It is the way one feels, thinks, and acts toward an object.

What is a consumer inference? Why is this of interest to marketers?

An inference goes beyond what is directly stated or presented. Consumers use available data and their own ideas to draw conclusions about information that is not provided. For example, consumers may use price and/or ad intensity as quality signals.

Describe analogical reasoning.

Analogical reasoning allows consumers to use an existing knowledge base to understand a new situation or object. The use of analogy is a form of analytical reasoning.

What is meant by analytical reasoning?

Analytical reasoning is the most complex form of cognitive learning, involving individuals' engaging in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new information to form new associations and concepts. Information from a credible source that contradicts or challenges one's existing beliefs will often trigger reasoning.

What is meant by attention? What determines which stimuli an individual will attend to? How do marketers utilize this?

Attention occurs when the stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves and the resulting sensations go into the brain for processing. Attention is determined by three factors: (1) the stimulus, (2)the individual, (3) the situation. Marketers use their knowledge of the effects of manipulating these factors, alone and in combination, to bring about attention to ads, packages, and so forth.

Describe attribution theory.

Attribution theory relates to consumers having a need to attribute an underlying cause to a given outcome. This approach to understanding the reasons consumers assign particular meanings to the behaviors of others has been used primarily for analyzing consumer reactions to promotional messages (in terms of credibility). When consumers attribute a sales motive to advice given by a salesperson or ad message, they tend to discount the advice. In contrast, similar advice given by a friend would likely be attributed to a desire to be helpful and might therefore by accepted.

Two Types of Learning Theories

Behaviorism Cognitive/Information Processing

Materialism

Being possessive Unwilling to share with others Prone to envy

Brand Personification:

Brand Personification: Set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a person. Brand personality which is strong and favorable will strengthen a brand but not necessarily demand a price premium Distinctive brand personality = brand loyalty Sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, ruggerdness.

What is brand equity?

Brand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond any specific functional characteristics of the product. Thus, there is a halo effect associated with the reputation of the brand such that it has added value or meaning to consumers.

What is a brand image? Why is it important?

Brand image refers to the schematic memory of a brand. It contains the target market's interpretation of the product's attributes, benefits, usage situations, users, and manufacturer/marketer characteristics. It is what we think of and feel when we hear or see a brand name. Company image and store image are similar except they apply to companies and stores rather than brands. Consumers tend to prefer brands and outlets with images that meet their needs and expectations.

Influencer Marketing

Certain level of influencers

Change Attitudes

Changing the ABC components

Formation/Changes of Attitude

Characteristics of the message - Types of appeals, simple vs. complex message, framing the message. Characteristics of the source - Attractiveness, expertise, trustworthiness, likeability. Matching endorser with product and target audience. Characteristics of the receiver - level of intelligence, level of involvement, customer expectations, right vs. left brain, familiarity.

Distinguish between learning via classical conditioning and learning that occurs via operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning refers to the process of using an existing relationship between a stimulus and response to bring about the "learning" of the same response to a different stimulus that consistently appears with the original stimulus. Operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) differs in that the learner must first engage in the desired behavior and then receive an appropriate reward.

Perceptual Organization

Classifying or categorizing stimulus or information in a way that is meaningful to us. 1. Figure and ground Marketers usually design so that the figure is the noticed stimuli. Assimilation/Grouping/Similarity People group stimuli to form a unified impression or concept. Grouping helps memory and recall. Closure principle Filling in the gaps

What is co-branding? Is it effective?

Co-branding (also referred to as co-marketing, brand alliances, and joint marketing) is when two brands are given to a single product. Co-branding has been shown to modify attitudes toward the participating brands. However, the effects can be positive or negative and can differ for the two brands involved. Perceived fit will determine the success of the new brand.

What is the difference between cognitive and affective interpretation?

Cognitive interpretation involves the process whereby new stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning. Affective interpretation is an emotional response triggered by a stimulus such as an ad for wearing safety belts that depicts a rather ugly accident in which the driver was not wearing a safety belt.

What do we mean by cognitive learning, and how does it differ from the conditioning theory approach to learning?

Cognitive learning encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems or cope with situations. It involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, and facts that contribute to our ability to reason, solve problems, and learn relationships without direct experience or reinforcement. Cognitive learning can range from very simple information acquisition (iconic rote learning) to complex, creative problem solving (as in analytical reasoning). Unlike conditioning theory, it does not require any form of conditioning (rewards or unconditioned stimuli).

Are comparative appeals effective? Why?

Comparative ads are often more effective than noncomparative ads in generating attention, message and brand awareness, greater message processing, favorable sponsor brand attitudes, and increased purchase intentions and behaviors. However, they can also have negative consequences for the sponsor brand such as lower believability, lower attitude toward the ad and sponsor brand, and more positive attitude toward the competitor brand(s).

What is consumer ethnocentrism and why is it important to global marketers?

Consumer ethnocentrism reflects an individual difference in consumers' propensity to be biased against the purchase of foreign products.

What is attitude ambivalence?

Consumers sometimes hold mixed beliefs and/or feelings about an attitude object (e.g., seafood). These attitudes are less stable over time and less predictive of behavior.

Need for Uniqueness

Consumers who avoid conforming to expectations or standards of others.

What is a contextual cue? Why is it of interest to marketers?

Contextual cues present in a situation, such as the background color on a web page or the nature of the programming surrounding a brand's ad, play a role in the consumer's interpretation independent of the actual stimulus. Marketers must be aware of these cues to ensure ads are evaluated in the manner in which they are intended.

What is coping and what are the general types of coping mechanisms used by consumers?

Coping involves consumer thoughts and behaviors in reaction to a stress-inducing situation, designed to reduce stress and achieve more desired positive emotions. Coping mechanisms include (1) active coping, (2) expressive support seeking, and (3) avoidance.

What is cross-promotion retail strategy? Provide two examples?

Cross-promotion involves placing signage in one area of the store to promote complementary products in another area. For example, placing Stove Top stuffing signage in the chicken section of the meat counter, or mustard coupons near or on the kielbasa packages in the meat/deli section of the store.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Customer Satisfaction - with the product and its features/benefits as a form of reinforcement. Changing Shopping Behavior - Reinforcement schedules (Continuous/every time) Systematic/fixed Shaping - reinforcement before behavior takes place thereby increasing the probability of desired behavior. Personal hygiene

Emotions - EI-EE-EI

Emotional Involvement Relates to personal relevance, connection, and significance of the situation, product or service. Ex. Buying a wedding dress vs. a gallon of gasoline Emotional Expressiveness Relates to how consumers act out their emotional state. Ex. Fav. Team winning vs. losing Emotional Intelligence Relates to awareness of the emotion-laden situation and the ability to control it. Ex. Angry customers (YouTube it!)

Are emotional appeals effective? Why?

Emotional ads are designed to elicit a positive affective response rather than to provide information or arguments. Emotional appeals are often effective. These types of ads may enhance attitude formation or change by: a. increasing the ad's ability to attract and maintain attention. b. increasing liking of the ad. c. increasing product liking through classical conditioning. d. increasing product liking through high-involvement processes.

What is an emotion? What are the basic dimensions of emotion?

Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrollable feelings that affect our behavior. Some researchers have suggested that three basic dimensions—pleasure, arousal, and dominance (PAD)— underlie all emotions. Specific emotions reflect various combinations and levels of these three dimensions (see Table 10-4).

What factors characterize emotions?

Emotions can be categorized by the environmental events or internal processes that trigger them, the cognitive thoughts, physiological changes, subjective feelings and unique behaviors that are associated with them.

What is meant by exposure? What determines which stimuli an individual will be exposed to? How do marketers utilize this knowledge?

Exposure occurs when a stimulus is placed within range of sensory receptor nerves. The individual does not need to receive the stimuli for exposure to occur. Most exposure is self-selected and we tend to expose ourselves to information we think will help us achieve our goals. Marketers should make media decisions, store location decisions, and layout decisions based on these exposure patterns.

Explain extinction and retrieval failure and why marketing managers are interested in them.

Extinction (associated with conditioned learning) and retrieval failure (associated with cognitive learning) is the process of forgetting that which has been learned and occurs for various reasons including lack of reinforcement or memory interference. It is important to marketing managers because they do not want consumers to forget their brand names or positive attributes but they sometimes do want them to forget bad experiences with the brand or store.

Are fear appeals always effective in changing attitudes? Why?

Fear appeals make use of the threat of negative consequences if attitudes or behaviors are not altered. For fear appeals to be successful, the level of fear must not be so great as to cause the consumer to distort or reject the message. In addition, the message must be believable in that the source of the fear-arousing message is viewed as highly credible.

What is meant by hemispheric lateralization?

For most individuals, the left side of the brain controls cognitive activities and "rational" thought, while the right side deals with nonverbal information.

Personality Theories

Freudian Theory Unconscious needs or drives are at the heart of human motivation Neo-Freudian personality theories Social relationships are fundamental to the formation and development of personality Trait Theory The quantitative approach to personality as a set of psychological traits

What is consumer gratitude, and what outcomes are associated with this emotion?

Gratitude in a consumer context is the emotional appreciation for benefits received. Firms can create it by making relationship marketing investments. The outcomes include higher levels of trust, purchase, and consumer-based reciprocity that aids the firm in terms of more and broader sales and positive word of mouth.

Freudian or Psychoanalytical Theory

ID - Warehouse of primitive or instinctual needs for which individual seeks immediate satisfaction (pleasure principle) SuperEgo- Individual's internal expression of society's moral and ethical codes of conduct (our conscience) Ego - Individual's conscious control that balances the demands of the id and superego (reality principles)

How can attitudes guide new-product development?

Ideal performance levels, by attribute, provide a particularly useful guide for new product development.

What are infomercials? How effective are they?

Infomercials are long, often 30 minutes or more, commercials that frequently have an 800 number and/or web address through which to order or request additional information. These positively affect brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Infomercials are more likely to be viewed by early adopters and opinion leaders. This implicates a critical indirect influence of infomercials through word-of-mouth communications. This also highlights the role that information and relevance play in driving voluntary exposure to marketing messages.

What is information overload? How should marketers deal with information overload?

Information overload is when there is too much information available to be dealt with effectively. When more information is available than the consumer is comfortable with, he or she may ignore all the information and make inappropriate decisions. Marketers have to determine how consumers acquire information, and how much they are able to use effectively if they want their messages to persuade consumers.

What is information processing? How does it differ from perception?

Information processing is a series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored. Perception involves all but the storage function (memory). It involves exposure to the stimulus, attending to it, and interpreting it.

Type of Motivational Needs

Innate Needs - physiological needs that are considered primary needs or motives. Acquired Needs - Learned in response to our culture or environment. Considered secondary needs. Utilitarian Needs - Functional and basic in nature. Hedonic Needs - Needs to experience, emote, and go beyond the basics.

What determines how an individual will interpret a given stimulus?

Interpretation is a function of the gestalt, or pattern, formed by the characteristics of the stimulus, the individual, and the situation. Individual characteristics of traits, learning/knowledge, and expectations play a role as do situation characteristics. Also, stimulus characteristics such as stimulus traits and organization (proximity, figure-ground, and closure) play a role.

What is meant by interpretation?

Interpretation is the assignment of meaning to sensations. Interpretation is related to how we comprehend and make sense of incoming information.

What is the relationship between involvement and motivation?

Involvement is a motivational state caused by consumer perceptions that a product, brand, or ad is relevant or interesting.

What is semantic memory?

It is the basic knowledge and feelings we have about and object or event.

What is iconic rote learning? How does it differ from classical conditioning? Operant conditioning?

It is the learning of an association between two concepts in the absence of conditioning. That is, the association is formed without a direct reward (operant conditioning) or pairing the stimulus with an unconditioned response (classical conditioning).

What is learning?

Learning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory and/or behavior.

What strategies can consumers use to resist persuasion? Which consumers are most likely to do so?

Loyal consumers engage in discrediting, discounting, and containment strategies to resist persuasion from competitors. These involve the following: a. Discrediting—loyal consumers' first strategy is to discredit negative information through counter-arguments, whereby the consumers look for weaknesses in competitor attacks. b. Discounting—when discrediting does not work, loyal consumers will often resort to discounting, whereby the consumers protect their brand by decreasing the importance they put on the attribute in question.. c. Containment—if a brand attack cannot be discredited, loyal consumers also engage in containment, whereby consumers "seal off" the negative information as a way to quarantine it and avoid having it spill over and spoil their existing positive attitude.

What is a manifest motive? A latent motive? How is each measured?

Manifest motives are known to the individual and are freely admitted. Latent motives are unknown to the individual or are such that he or she is reluctant to admit them. Manifest motives can be measured by direct questions. Latent motives may require projective techniques or other indirect approaches.

How do you appeal to manifest motives? Latent motives?

Manifest motives can be appealed to directly - when appropriate, for example through detailed product performance and benefits. Latent motives must often be appealed to indirectly via symbolism (sophisticated model) that speaks to the motive being targeted (wealth, power, and status).

How do marketers use emotions in product design and advertising?

Marketers design and position products and services to activate emotions (a thrilling movie) or to reduce emotions (relaxing vacation sites). Emotional content in advertisements enhances their attention-attraction and maintenance capabilities. Emotional messages are processed more thoroughly and trigger greater liking of the ad itself than ads without emotional content.

cognitive learning

Meaningful encoding Repetition Mnemonics Dual Coding Chunking Humor

Need for Variety/Novelty

Measures a consumer's degree of variety seeking.

What is memory interference and what strategies can marketers use to deal with it?

Memory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because other related information in memory gets in the way (e.g., competitive ads). Marketers use a number of strategies to decrease competitive interference, including avoiding competing advertising, strengthening initial learning, reducing similarity to competing ads, and providing external retrieval cues.

What is meant by positive message framing and negative message framing? How does the effectiveness of a positive versus negative frame vary depending on whether it's a goal frame or attribute frame?

Message framing refers to presenting one of two equivalent value outcomes either in positive or gain terms (positive framing) or in negative or loss terms (negative framing). In goal framing, the object is to stress either the positive consequences of performing (better general health by exercising) an act or the negative consequences of not performing the act (developing chronic illness from lack of exercise). In goal framing, the negative message is generally more effective, most likely due to the risk-averse nature of consumers coupled with the risk-enhancing nature of the negative goal frame. In attribute framing, a single attribute is the focus of the frame. A classic example is describing ground beef as wither 80 percent fat free (positive frame) or 20 percent fat (negative frame). In attribute framing, the positive message is usually more effective because it emphasizes the desirable aspects of the specific attribute. Framing effects can vary across products, consumers, and situations, and so, marketers should base their decision to use positive or negative framing upon research for the specific product and market.

Define modeling

Modeling (or vicarious learning) relates to how consumers do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly to learn. Instead, they can observe the outcomes of others' behaviors and adjust their own accordingly. Similarly, they can use imagery to anticipate the outcome of various courses of action.

Emotions

Mood A temporary and changing thought. CB Application: a. Mood-congruent judgment Consumers make judgments about products/ and services differently depending on their mood.

What is meant by motivational conflict, and what relevance does it have for marketing managers?

Most behaviors, including purchase and use, are subject to multiple motives, and there are many situations where these motives come in conflict with each other. The resolution of conflict can affect consumption patterns and, therefore, is of interest to marketing managers. Three types of conflict are approach conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, and avoidance-avoidance conflict.

What ethical concerns arise in applying knowledge of the perceptual process?

Most of the ethical concerns in this area relate to the conflict between presenting one's brand in a favorable light and presenting it completely accurately.

Elements of Learning

Motivation Cues Response Reinforcement

Describe each of McGuire's motives.

Need for Consistency: A basic desire is to have all facets or parts of oneself consistent with each other. These facets include attitudes, behaviors, opinions, self-images, views of others, and so forth. Need to Attribution: This set of motives deals with our need to determine who or what causes the things that happen to us. Need to Categorize: We have a need to be able to categorize and organize information and experiences in some meaningful yet manageable way. So we establish categories or mental partitions which allow us to process large quantities of information. Need for Objectification: These motives reflect needs for observable cues or symbols which enable us to infer what we feel and know. Impressions, feelings, and attitudes are subtly established by viewing our own behavior and that of others and drawing inferences as to what we feel and think. Need for Autonomy: The need for independence and of self-government is a characteristic of the American culture as described in Chapter 2. It is likely that all individuals have this need at some level. Americans are taught that it is proper and even essential to express and fulfill this need. Teleological Need: This motive propels us to prefer mass media such movies, television programs, and books with outcomes that match our view of how the world should work (the "good guys" win, the hero gets the heroine, and so forth). Utilitarian Need: These theories view the consumer as a problem solver who approaches situations as opportunities to acquire useful information or new skills. Need for Stimulation: We often seek variety and difference simply out of a need for novelty. Marketers refer to the outcome of this motive as variety-seeking behavior. Need for Tension-Reduction: We encounter situations in our daily lives that create uncomfortable levels of stress. In order to effectively manage tension and stress in our lives we are motivated to seek ways to reduce arousal. Need for Expression: This motive deals with the need to express one's identity to others. We feel the need to let others know by our actions, including the purchase and display of goods, who we are and what we are. Need for Ego-Defense: When our identity is threatened, we are motivated to protect our self-concept and utilize defensive behaviors and attitudes. Need for Reinforcement: We quite often are motivated to act in certain ways because we are rewarded for doing so. This is the basis for operant learning as described in the previous chapter. Need for Assertion: The need for assertion reflects a consumer's need for engaging in those types of activities that will bring about an increase in self-esteem, as well as esteem in the eyes of others. Need for Affiliation: Affiliation is the need to develop mutually helpful and satisfying relationships with others. The need here is to share and to be accepted by others. Need for Identification: These theories view the consumer as a role player. Thus, you may play the role of a college student, sorority member, bookstore employee, fiancée, and many others. One gains pleasure from adding new, satisfying roles and by increasing the significance of roles already adopted. Need for Modeling: The need for modeling reflects a tendency to base behavior on that of others. Modeling is a major means by which children learn to become consumers.

What is meant by non focused attention?

Non focused attention is a low-involvement scanning of the environment. It appears to be mainly a right-brain activity.

What is meant by stimulus generalization? When do marketers use it?

Often referred to as the "rub-off-effect," once we have learned a particular response that works for us, we are able to capitalize on that learning by transferring it to similar learning situations or stimuli (generalizing). This is particularly useful to marketers in branding, where the use of a family brand allows consumers to learn product quality and performance via stimulus generalization.

What is adaptation level theory?

Over time we adjust to (and no longer pay attention to) the level and type of stimulus to which we are consistently exposed.

What is meant by subliminal perception? Is it a real phenomenon? Is it effective?

Perception below the conscious-awareness level (A subliminal stimulus is used in a message whereby the stimulus is presented so fast or so softly or so masked by other messages that one is not aware of seeing or hearing it). Although subliminal advertising has been a concern in the past, there is no evidence marketers are using subliminal messages.

What is perceptual mapping?

Perceptual mapping offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a product's position. This involves mapping how consumers perceive the similarity and dissimilarity between a set of competing brands or products. The closer two brands are in a perceptual map, the more they are perceived to be similar. The farther away any two brands are in the map, the more dissimilar they are perceived to be. The dimensions of the perceptual map are used to understand the attributes consumers use to compare brands.

Factors that influence attitude formation and change

Personal experiences Personality Influence of family and friends Direct marketing and mass media

What is personality?

Personality is the characteristic and relatively enduring ways that people have of responding to the situations they face, which include responses to marketing strategies.

What physiological changes accompany emotional arousal?

Physiological changes that accompany emotions include increased perspiration, eye pupil dilation, increased heart and breathing rate, and elevated blood sugar level.

Describe each level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Physiological: The basic requirements for existence such as food, water, and shelter. Safety: Physical security and protection from bodily harm. Belongingness: Needs for acceptance, love, and friendship. Esteem: Desire for status, self-respect, and prestige. Self-actualization: The desire for self-fulfillment, to reach one's potential.

What are the nonverbal components of an ad? What impact do they have on attitudes?

Pictures, music, surrealism, etc., are nonverbal components of ads. By arousing an emotional response, the nonverbal components can affect attitude. Likewise, they can provide meaning that is not possible to convey with words.

Needs and Motivations are related to Goals

Positive Motivation - A driving force toward some object or condition Approach Goal - A positive value goal toward which behavior is directed

What is product positioning? Repositioning?

Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to competition within a market segment. That is, marketers decide that they want the members of a market segment to think and feel in a certain way about a brand. This is generally expressed in relation to a competitive brand or a usage situation. The term product positioning is most commonly applied to decisions concerning brands but it is also used to describe the same decisions for stores, companies, and product categories. Product repositioning refers to a deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views a product. This could involve its level of performance, the feelings it evokes, the situations in which it should be used, or even who uses it. Repositioning can be very difficult and costly, requiring consumers to unlearn old associations and replace them with new ones, taking years to accomplish.

What impact does program involvement have on the attention paid to commercials embedded in the program?

Program involvement, particularly moving from low to moderate involvement increases the attention paid to ads in the program, as shown in figure 8-4.

Describe regulatory focus theory.

Regulatory focus theory suggests that consumers will react differently depending on which broad set of motives (promotion-focus or prevention-focus) is most salient. The following briefly characterizes the differences: a. Promotion-focused motives—which revolve around a desire for growth and development and are related to consumers' hopes and aspirations. When promotion-focused motives are more salient, consumers seek to gain positive outcomes, think in more abstract terms, make decisions based more on affect and emotion and prefer speed versus accuracy in their decision making. b. Prevention-focused motives—which revolve around a desire for safety and security and are related to consumers' sense of duties and obligations. When prevention-focused motives are more salient, consumers seek to avoid negative outcomes, think in more concrete terms, make decisions based more on factual substantive information, and prefer accuracy over speed in their decision making.

Why is it useful to match the retrieval and learning environments?

Research indicates that individuals are better able to recall learned material if the situation in which they need to recall it is similar to the situation in which they learned it.

How can rhetorical figures enhance attention?

Rhetorical figures involve the use of an unexpected twist or artful deviation in how a message is communicated either visually in the ad's picture or verbally in the ad's text or headline. The unexpected nature of rhetorical figures attracts and holds attention as consumers decipher the ad's meaning. A classic example of this is "Bounty's quicker picker upper."

Discuss the nature of short-term memory in terms of its endurance and capacity.

STM has a limited capacity to store information and sensations and is short lived in nature.

How does a schema differ from a script?

Schema, often referred to as schematic memory or a knowledge structure, is a complex web of associations linking a variety of concepts and episodes to a particular object or event. A script is a memory of how an action sequence should occur.

How does self-referencing relate to strength of learning and retrieval?

Self-referencing is a message involvement strategy used to highlight a brand's personal relevance to the consumer. For example, ads using nostalgia appeals which encourage the consumer to remember past personal experiences can be very powerful.

What is the difference between semantic and psychological meaning?

Semantic meaning is the conventional meaning assigned to a word as it is found in the dictionary. Psychological meaning is the meaning assigned to a word based on experiences and the context or situation in which the word or other symbol is used.

Define short-term memory and long-term memory

Short-term memory or working memory is that portion of total memory that is currently activated or in use. Long-term memory is that portion of total memory devoted to permanent information storage.

What is a smart banner? How does this relate to selective attention?

Smart banners are banner ads that are activated based on terms used in search engines. There is evidence of preconscious screening among web surfers. It seems they are able to spot a banner ad without actually looking directly at it, thus decreasing direct attention. It seems that experience with the Web allows consumers to build up knowledge about banner characteristics that is used to avoid direct attention. However, since smart banners present consumers with information they are more likely interested in, the sub-conscious filters are likely to pick up on that information and direct conscious attention toward those banners.

What are the two characteristics of the source of a message that influence its ability to change attitudes? Describe each.

Source credibility and celebrity sources

Define stimulus discrimination. Why is it important?

Stimulus discrimination (or differentiation) refers to the process of learning to respond differently to somewhat similar stimuli. Discrimination is important because it is the process by which buyers strengthen their attachment to a particular brand and thus become brand loyal.

What factors affect the strength of learning?

Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: importance, message involvement, mood, reinforcement, repetition, and dual coding. Generally, learning will come about more rapidly, and last longer, the more important the material to be learned, the more motivation to learn, the more favorable mood to learn, the more reinforcement received during the process, the greater the number of stimulus repetitions (or practice) that occurs, and the more imagery the material contains.

What is the elaboration likelihood model (ELM)?

The ELM suggests that involvement is a key determinant of how information is processed and attitudes are changed. High involvement results in a "central route" to attitude change by which consumers deliberately examine and process those message elements that they believe are relevant to a meaningful and logical evaluation of the brand. Low involvement results in a "peripheral" route to attitude change in which consumers form impressions of the brand based on exposure to the readily available cues in the message regardless of the relevance of those cues to the brand itself. Cue relevance and competitive considerations need to be considered before relying solely on general ELM conclusions that central cues (product information) should be used under high involvement and peripheral cues (e.g., celebrity endorser) are only effective under low involvement.

What is sensory discrimination? What is a just noticeable difference (j.n.d.)?

The ability of an individual to distinguish between similar stimuli is called sensory discrimination. The minimum amount that one brand can differ from another with the difference still being noticed is referred to as the just noticeable difference (j.n.d.). Marketers seeking to find a meaningful difference between their brand and a competitor's must surpass the j.n.d. in order for the improvement or change to be noticed by consumers.

The Motivation Process

The actual state, creates tension, motivation (lower red arrow), ideal state (top right arrow)

What are the components of an attitude?

The cognitive components of an attitude consist of an individual's beliefs and knowledge about an object. The affective component represents one's feelings or emotional reactions toward an object. The behavioral component consists of overt actions and/or statements of behavior related to an object.

Innovativeness

The degree to which consumers are receptive to new products and services.

When is a two-sided message likely to be more effective than a one-sided message?

The effectiveness of one- versus two-sided messages depends largely on the product type, the situational variables, and the ad format. However, two-sided messages are generally more effective than one-sided messages in changing a strongly held attitude (partly due to the consumer's increased trust toward the advertiser as a response to the advertiser presenting the two-sides!) and are particularly effective with highly educated consumers.

What is a multiattribute attitude model?

The elements of a multiattribute attitude model include beliefs about an object's attributes, ideal or desired levels of performance for each attribute, and the relative importance attached to each attribute.

What is motivation?

The inner driving force behind human actions as consumers are driven to address needs.

What is personality definition?

The inner psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person responds to his or her environment. A person's unique psychological makeup and how it consistently influences the way a person responds to her/his environment. Nature of Personality Personality reflects unique individual differences. Personality can be understood through a combination of traits. Personality is consistent and enduring for shorter periods of time & can change in the very long run!!

What is meant by mere exposure?

The theory that simply presenting a brand to an individual on a large number of occasions might make the individual's attitude toward the brand more positive. Thus, the continued repetition of advertisements for low-involvement products may well increase liking and subsequent purchase of the advertised brands without altering the initial belief structure. The mechanism appears to be heightened familiarity which enhances liking.

What are the three characteristics of the message structure that influence its ability to change attitudes? Describe each.

The three characteristics are one- versus two-sided messages, positive versus negative framing, and the nonverbal components of the message. One- versus two-sided message: One-sided message, only a positive point of view is expressed. In a two-sided message, both good and bad points are expressed which can enhance effectiveness. Message framing: Refers to presenting one of two equivalent value outcomes either in positive or gain terms (positive framing) or in negative or loss terms (negative framing). The best valence depends on type of frame. For attribute frames, positive framing is best. For goal frames, negative frames tend to work best. Nonverbal components include pictures, music, surrealism, and other nonverbal cues used for attitude change.

What is meant by elaborative activities?

The use of previously stored experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in working memory as well as to add relevant previously stored information.

What is meant by imagery in working memory?

This involves concrete sensory representations of ideas, feelings, and objects. Imagery processing involves the recall and mental manipulation of sensory images, including sight, smell, taste, and tactile sensations.

What is maintenance rehearsal?

This is the continual repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory for use in problem solving or transferal to long-term memory.

What is episodic memory and how does it relate to flashbulb memory?

This is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated. These personal memories of events such as a first date, graduation, or learning to drive, can be quite strong. Flashbulb memories are vividly detailed and highly enduring over time; they contain specific situational detail; they are held with a high degree of confidence, and are perceived as special and different from other ordinary or mundane experiences. As such, they are a type of episodic memory.

What is ambush marketing?

This is the term for a marketing approach in which firms attempt to associate their companies with an event such as the Olympics without becoming an official sponsor. It is "any communication or activity that implies, or from which one could reasonably infer that an organization is associated with an event, when in fact it is not."

What characteristics should humorous ads have?

Though a humorous appeal may gain great attention and viewer satisfaction, to be effective, information must still be communicated. As a result, the humor should be related to the product or usage situation and generally should be used only for "non serious" products.

What is a value-expressive appeal? A utilitarian appeal? When should each be used?

Value-expressive appeals attempt to build a personality for the product or create an image of the product user. Utilitarian appeals involve informing the consumer of one or more functional benefits that are important to the target market. Utilitarian appeals are most effective for products functional products (such as toilet tissue) and value expressive appeals are most effective for products designed to enhance self-image or provide other intangible benefits (such as a designer watch).

What are zipping, zapping, and muting? Why are they a concern to marketers?

Zipping occurs when a viewer fast-forwards through a commercial on a prerecorded program. Zapping involves switching channels when a commercial appears. Muting is turning the sound off during a commercial. All three are extensive and greatly reduce the viewing and thus the impact of commercials.

How does a knowledge of information processing assist the manager in the following:

a) Formulating retail strategy Retailers can structure the interior of their stores to minimize information overload, and to maximize exposure to high-margin items. Shelf position and amount of shelf space can be used to attract attention to high-margin items. Point-of-purchase displays can fulfill the same task. A careful blend of store stimuli can be used to help consumers assign a positive meaning to the store. b) Developing brand names and logos Knowledge of how words are interpreted, the visual images they convey, and the ease with which they are remembered, is very useful in brand name selection. In designing logos, dimensions of naturalness, elaborateness, and symmetry are important. c) Formulating media strategy The fact that exposure is selective, and is correlated with demographics, lifestyle, and product use, is the basis for media strategy. d) Designing advertisements This knowledge can help us design ads that will both attract attention and provide the desired meaning. e) Package design and labels As with ads, this knowledge can help us design packages and labels that will attract attention as well asprovide the desired meaning.

Describe the following motivation research techniques (see Appendix A and Appendix Table A-1 for details): a) Association, b) Completion, c) Construction.

a. Association Techniques: Word Association: Consumers respond to a list of words with the first word that comes to mind. Successive Word Association: Consumers give the series of words that come to mind after hearing each word on the list. b. Completion Techniques: Sentence Completion: Consumers complete a sentence such as "People who buy Cadillacs _________________." Story Completion: Consumers complete a partial story. c. Construction Techniques: Cartoon Techniques: Consumers fill in the words and/or thoughts of one of the characters in a cartoon drawing. Third-Person Techniques: Consumers tell why "an average woman," "most doctors," or "people in general" purchase or use a certain product. Shopping lists (a person who would go shopping with this list) and lost wallets (a person with these items in their wallet) are also third-person techniques. Picture Response: Consumers tell a story about a person shown buying or using a product in a picture or line drawing.

Big Five Personality Traits

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

The process by which an individual ______, _______, ____________ stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world.

selects, organizes, and comprehends/interprets In other words, how we see/hear/smell/feel/taste the world around us.