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Earliest known comprehensive statements of prohibited behavior: -Sumerian Law of Mesopotamia (3100 B.C.E)-Code of Hummurabi (1750 B.C.E)-These codes were divided into sections to cover different types of offenses and contained descriptions of the punishments to be imposed on offenders.-The Draconian Code comes from ancient Greece and was the first code to erase the distinction between citizens and slaves before the law. Rome: -Law of Twelve Tables (450 B.C.E.)-Code of Justinian (534 B.C.E.)-Laid the groundwork of European law.-As with other ancient societies, Roman law breakers were made into slaves, killed, exiled, or imprisoned, and physically brutalized. lex talionis: Law of retaliation; the principle that punishment should correspond in degree and kind to the offense. Secular Law The law of the civil society as distinguished from church law and organized according to feudal system Wergild Payment of money as compensation for a wrong done and to prevent a violent blood feud. Main criminal punishments were (Middle Ages to American Revolution) -penance and payment of fines and restitution-Lower-class offenders without money received physical punishment at the hands of masters What was the dominant social institution? Church Gave refuge from secular prosecution to people of who could claim benefit of clergy, which was extended to all literate people Benefit of Clergy Five punishments common in Europe before the 1800s besides fines: 1. Galley Slavery-Forcing men to row ships, in many cases for life2. Imprisonment- Offenders were incarcerated in cages, rock quarries, or even chambers, where conditions were horrible, unsanitary, etc.3. Transportation- People who disobeyed the law were often cast out or banished4.Corporal Punishment & Death- Used extensively in Europe for many years (the Germanic Code of 1532) Imprisonment- House of Correction -Detention facility that combined the major elements of a workhouse, poorhouse, and penal industry by both disciplining inmates and making them work; also referred to as "Bridewells".-Short terms of imprisonment were used for a variety of crimes in countries ranging from Holland, France, -Germany, Italy, and England. "My hand is severe but my intention benevolent."-Conditions in jails were appalling as men, women, and children were locked up together, regardless of crime. Transportation The practice of transplanting (or banishing/casting out) offenders from the community to another region or land, often a penal colony. Hulks Abandoned ships along the banks of the Thames where a large number of convicts lives Corporal Punishment and Death -Punishment inflicted on the offender's body with whips or other devices that cause pain.-Mutilation-Removing hand or finger-Slitting the nostrils-Severing an ear-Branding-Offenders were publicly branded so they could be identified-Hanging-72,000 people were hanged during Henry VIII's reign Main principles of classical criminology: (6) -Basis of all social action must be the utilitarian concept of the greatest good for the greatest number of people.-Crime must be considered an injury to society, and the only rational measure of crime is the extent of the injury.-The prevention of crime is more important than punishment for crimes. To prevent crime, laws must be improved and codified so that citizens can understand and support them.-Secret accusations and torture must be abolished. Accused have a right to speedy trials and to humane treatment before trial and right to bring forward evidence on their behalf.-The purpose of punishment is crime deterrence, not social revenge. Certainty and swiftness in punishment, rather than severity best secure this goal.-Imprisonment should be more widely employed, and better physical quarters should be provided, with prisoners classified by age, sex, and degree of criminality. The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason The 1700s in England and France, when concepts of liberalism, rationality, equality, and individualism dominated social and political thinking.Martin Luther, John Calvin, John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire Advances in scientific thinking led to: -Observation-Experimentation-Technological development-Sir Isaac Newton Scientific Revolution led to: -Reconsidering how criminal law should be administered-Redefining the goals and practices of corrections Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) -Italian scholar who applied the rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment to the criminal justice system-True aim and only justification for punishment is utility-First attempt to explain crime in secular, or worldly, terms instead of religious terms-Came up with 6 principles of Classical Criminology Punishment must be essentially public, prompt, necessary, the least possible in given circumstances, proportionate to the crime, dictated by laws. Beccaria's views: Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) -English advocate of utilitarianism (greatest good for greatest number) in prison management and discipline.-Came up with the idea of hedonistic calculus.-Created a penitentiary based on utilitarian principles, called a panopticon or inspection house. Bentham's views: -Criminals were childlike or unbalanced, lacking the self-discipline to control their passions by reason.-Behavior was not preordained, rather an exercise of free will.-Crime not sinful but the result of improper calculation.-Criminal law should be organized so that the offender would derive more pain than pleasure from a wrongful act. John Howard (1726-1790) -English prison reformer whose book The State of Prisons in England and Wales contributed greatly to the passage of the Penitentiary Act of 1779 by the House of Commons.-County squire-Social activist-Sheriff of Bedfordshire John Howard Part 2 -Shocked by conditions in English correctional facilities-Rallied legislative interest in reform-Major proponent of the penitentiary-English Parliament passed Penitentiary Act of 1779 based on Howard's principles The Penitentiary Act of 1779 -A secure and sanitary structure-Systematic inspections-Abolition of fees-Reformatory regimen What Really Motivated Correctional Reform? (5) -Emergence of middle class-Emergence of humanism-The extreme harshness of punishment often led to jurors' failure to convict criminals-Want for swift and certain sanctions-Want to discipline the working class, to provide more labor for growing industrial demands

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William Penn -Adopted the Great Law of Pennsylvania-Based on humane Quaker principles and emphasized hard labor in a house of correction as punishment for most crimes.-Death reserved for premeditated murder-The law was used until 1718 when it was replaced by the Anglican Code The Anglican Code -The Anglican Code featuring 13 laws, 12 of which were punishable by death (larceny was the exception)-Corporal punishment was used for a variety of offenses The Arrival of the Penitentiary -Penitentiary was a place intended to isolate prisoners from society and from one another so that they could reflect on their past misdeeds, repent, and thus undergo reformation.-First appeared in 1790-Philadelphia's Walnut Street Jail-By 1830 foreign observers were looking at the American System as a model-Tocqueville-William Crawford The Pennsylvania System -Prisoners would not be treated vengefully but should be convinced that through hard and selective forms of suffering they could change their lives.-Solitary confinement would prevent further corruption inside prison.-In isolation, offenders would reflect on their transgressions and repent. Pennsylvania system principles: -Solitary confinement would be punishment because humans are by nature social beings.-Solitary confinement would be economical because prisoners would not need long periods of time to repent, and therefore fewer keepers would be needed and the costs of clothing would be lower. The New York (Auburn) System Congregate System and Contract Labor System Congregate System -Began by Elam Lynds in 1821. Inmates held in isolation at night but congregated on workshops during the day under a rule of silence. Inmates were forbidden from talking or even looking at each other while working. Contract Labor System -Inmate labor sold on a contractual basis to private employers who provided the machinery and raw materials with which inmates made salable products in the institution. States negotiated contracts with manufacturers and prisoners created raw goods. Debating the Systems? Questions about disciplining citizens in democracy and -Questions about disciplining citizens in democracy and maintaining conformity to social norms-Proponents of New York System believed inmates had to first "be broken"-Proponents of Auburn System rejected harsh punishment-Most European visitors favored the Pennsylvania model regarding the design and management of penitentiaries Lease SystemThe Development of Prisons in the South and West -Inmates were leased to contractors who provided prisoners with food and clothing in exchange for their labor. In southern states, the prisoners were used as field laborers, and in many cases, were treated worse than slaves, as the field bosses had no ownership interest in the prisoners.-Leasing program used extensively in California, Montana, Oregon, and Wyoming until passage of the Anti-Contract Law of 1887.-Upon becoming a state in 1850, California reformatted its system, which led to San Quentin and other prison reforms. The Reformatory Movement -By mid-1800s reformers became disillusioned with the penitentiary due to overcrowding, understaffing, and minimal financing.-Nationwide survey of prisons exposed inadequacies, authored by Enoch Cobb Wines and Theodore Dwight. Alexander Maconochie -urged adoption of the mark system where penalties would be graded according to crime and release would be based on good behavior. Sir Walter Crofton -adopted a similar practice in Ireland called the Irish or intermediate systems, earning transfer to a halfway house or the intermediate stage Cincinnati, 1870: -Meeting held in 1870 with America's best know penal reformers, the National Prison Association, forerunner to American Correctional Association.-Prison operations should stem from a philosophy of inmate change, with reformation rewarded by release.Indeterminate length sentences replaced by fixed sentences.-Reformation, rather than lapse of time necessary for prisoner's release.-Individuals such as Gaylord Hubbell and Enoch Wines were motivated by human concerns and paved the way for reform. Cincinnati, 1870 (cont.) -Classification of prisoners on the basis of character and improvement.-Penitentiary practices of fixed sentences, the lockstep, rules of silence and isolation seen as debasing and humiliating.-The Cincinnati declaration insisted that "reformation is a work of time," and that for the protection of society reformations need to be long enough for the reformatory process to take effect. Elmira Reformatory -Zebulon Brockway was superintendent of first reformatory at Elmira, New York-Believed that diagnosis and treatment were the keys to reform and rehabilitation-Wanted to identify the "root causes" of the offender's deviance-Designed for first-time felon offenders between ages of 16 and 30-Claimed to rehabilitate at an 80% rate. Lasting Reforms: -Indeterminate sentencing-Inmate classification-Rehabilitative programs-Parole Progressives (the rise) -Early 1900s-1960-Attacked the excesses of big business and placed their faith in state action to deal with the social problems of slums, adulterated food, dangerous occupational conditions, vice, and crime-Mostly came from upper-class backgrounds Individualized Treatment and the Positivist School -Two words that describe this positivist school of thought: conscience & convenience-A benevolent set of men and women sought to understand crime, case by case-Need to know life history of each offender and then devise a treatment program specific to that individual Two words that describe this positivist school of thought: conscience & convenience Positivist school assumptions: -Criminal behavior is not the result of free will but stems from factors over which the individual has no control:-Biological characteristics-Psychological maladjustments-Sociological conditions-Criminals can be treated so that they can lead crime-free lives.-Treatment must center on the individual and the individual's adjustment. Progressive Reforms -Probation-Indeterminate Sentences-Parole Probation Recognized individual differences and allowed offenders to be treated in the community under supervision. Indeterminate Sentences Minimum and maximum terms, within which the correctional process of rehabilitation could operate. Parole Caught on in the US in 1920, during that time period 80% of felons who left prison were placed on parole Medical model Assumption that criminal behavior is caused by social, psychological, or biological deficiencies that require treatment. Howard Gill ran Mass. Norfolk State Prison Colony under this model, much like a college, and an escape led to his removal in 1934. 1929 -Congress authorized the Federal Bureau of Prisons to develop institutions to ensure proper classification, care, and treatment of offenders.-Stanford Bates was the first director of the Bureau and pushed forth the medical model. From Medical Model to Community Model -Social and political values of 1960s and 1970s:-Civil rights movement-War on poverty-Resistance to the Vietnam WarAmericans challenged government institutions dealing with:-Education-Mental health-Juvenile delinquency-Adult corrections Community corrections -Reintegrating the offender into the community should be the goal of the criminal justice system.-Corrections should turn away from psychological care and turn to programs that would increase offenders' success upon leaving the institution. Attica Prison Riot Officials urged to make decarceration through community corrections the goal and make greater use of alternatives such as:-Probation-Halfway houses-Community service The Decline of Rehabilitation -Proponents called for longer sentences , especially for career criminals and violence offenders-Robert Martinson's "Nothing Works" report-Also challenged unwarranted amount of discretion given to correctional decision makers, particularly that of the parole board The Emergence of Crime Control: -Political climate change in 1970s and 1980s-Crime rate at historic levels-Response by legislators, judges, criminal justice officials-By 1980, crime and punishment became intense subject for ideological conflict, partisan politics, and legislative action.-A more punitive ethos during that time (1980s & 1990s) also influenced its return. Where Are We Today? -It would be a good time for us as a society to reexamine correctional policy.-For the first time in decades the costs of the retributive crime control policy of the 1990s are being scrutinized.

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Rehabilitation -The goal of restoring a convicted offender to a constructive place in society through some form of vocational or educational training or therapy.-Goal is oriented solely toward the offender.-Severity of punishment and gravity of crime not related. Compare the murdered who is amenable to treatment to the lower level offender who resists institutional programming.-Offenders "treated," not punished.-Since the 1970s, we have questioned whether or not we really know how to reform criminal offenders.-Interdeterminate Sentence Recently, some have abandoned concept of rehabilitation goal in favor of: -Retribution-Deterrence-Incapacitation Restoration -Views crime as more than a violation of penal law but as a breaking down of trust in the community-Requires that the community determine how to communicate to the offender the implications of their wrongdoing-Aim of criminal justice system should be to repair harm done-Programs involve the offender, the victim, and the community-"It takes a village..." Victim/Offender Reconciliation programs Incarceration: -Most visible penalty imposed by U.S. courts.-At the end of 2012, nearly 1.57 million Americans in federal and state prisons. (this figure does not include 700,000 more in jails) Three basic sentencing structures: Indeterminate sentencesDeterminate sentencesMandatory sentences Determinate sentence: -A fixed period of incarceration imposed by a court; associated with the concept of retribution or deserved punishment. Presumptive sentence: A sentence for which the legislature or a commission sets a minimum and maximum range of months or years; judges are responsible for setting the length of the sentence within that range, allowing for special circumstances.-An example of a presumptive sentence in Wyoming would be 2nd Degree Murder, which carries sentence of 20 years minimum to Life. Mandatory sentence: -A sentence stipulating that some minimum period of incarceration must be served by people convicted of selected crimes, regardless of background circumstances. Wyoming's 2nd Degree Murder could also fit here.-Most often specified for:-Violent crimes-Drug violations-Habitual offenders-Crimes with a firearm Good time -A reduction of an inmate's prison sentence, at the discretion of the prison administrator, for good behavior or for participation in vocational, educational, and treatment programs.-Good time can be removed or restored - in Wyoming, only the Board can restore it. It can be a powerful prison management tool. In Wyoming it reduces a sentence by 2/3 at 15 days a on month, on parole you can get 20 days a month, which reduces a sentence by 40%. Truth-in-Sentencing: -Laws that require offenders to serve a substantial proportion of their prison sentence before being released on parole - these sentences came about as result of frustration over good time reductions. Usually must serve 85% of the sentence, example is the federal system. Three goals of Truth in Sentencing -Providing the public with more-accurate information about the actual length of sentences.-Reducing crime by keeping offenders in prison for longer periods.-Achieving a rational allocation of prison space by prioritizing the incarceration of particular classes of criminals. Intermediate Sanctions A variety of punishments that are more restrictive than traditional probation but less severe than incarceration. Shock probation: -Sentence in which the offender is released after a short incarceration and resentenced to probation.-Probation generally advocated for rehabilitating offenders whose crimes are less serious or who have clean prior records-Viewed as less expensive and more effective than imprisonment-Weekends in jail are common, permitting the offender to maintain job while serving sanction Death: -Number of people facing death penalty increased dramatically over last 2 decades.-In 2013, 3,108 people awaited execution.-Over half of those awaiting execution are in the South.-Number of executions carried out in U.S. annually has dropped from 52 to 39 between 2009 and 2013.-No one on death row in Wyoming, not currently. At least two pending cases where the death penalty is on the table. Forms and Goals of Sanctions: -More attention toward "invisible punishments"-Termination of parental rights-Felony conviction as grounds for divorce-Barring felons from public welfare programs and benefits-Denying felons the right to vote (e.g., felon disenfranchisement) Factors that influence the sentencing process: -The administrative context of the courts-The attitudes and values of judges-The presentence reportSentencing guidelines Attitudes and Values of Judges: -Blameworthiness of offender:-Offense severity-Criminal history-Role in commission of crime-Practicality of sentence-Impact of offender's family The Presentence Report -Report prepared by a probation officer, who investigates a convicted offender's background to help the judge select an appropriate sentence.-PSI-presentence investigation United States v. Booker (2005) -The Supreme Court returned much of the discretion back to the judges-Stated that sentencing guidelines should be discretionary rather than mandatory Sentencing Disparities: -Divergence in the lengths and types of sentences imposed for the same crime or for crimes of comparable seriousness when no reasonable justification can be discerned.-Discrimination occurs when criminal justice officials either directly or indirectly treat someone differently because of their race, ethnicity, gender, or class.-Average prison term for white offenders is 58 months, compared to 63 months for African American offenders Wrongful Convictions -Occurs when an innocent person is found guilty by either plea or verdict-18 death-row inmates have been exonerated by DNA evidence-How much is a year in prison worth? $25 grand in Louisiana? Why do wrongful convictions occur? -Eyewitness error-Unethical conduct by police/prosecutors-Community pressure-False accusations-Inadequacy of counsel-Plea-bargaining pressures

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The Contemporary Jail: Entrance to the System -Jails in U.S. descend directly from feudal practices in twelfth-century England.-Officer of crown, reeve, appointed in each shire.To collect taxes, keep the peace, and operate the gaol (jail).-English settlers brought these traditions and institutions with them to American colonies.-Jails used to detain accused persons awaiting trial and to shelter misfits. Reform movement of the 19th century -Overwhelming majority of accused and convicted misdemeanants were held in jail.-Individuals serving short term sentences (vagrants, debtors, beggars, etc.) were often sent to jail.-Juvenile reforms as well as the creation of mental hospitals also siphoned off jail inhabitants. National Jail Census -86% of inmates are men-2/3 under 35 years of age-Over 2/5 are white-Most have little education and are low income Increasing rate of incarceration for African Americans. -In 1990 the jail incarceration rate of African Americans was 560 per 100,000; since then the rate has increased almost 35 percent to 751 per 100,000 Americans.-The incarceration rate for white Americans has gone from 89 per 100,000 in 1990 to 169 per 100,000 in 2010. Administration: -Of 2,876 jails in the U.S.:-80% have county-level jurisdiction-Most administered by elected sheriff-About 600 municipal run jails-6 states run jails-Estimated 13,500 police lockups: Recently, Regional Jails have been created which combine jails over multiple counties/jurisdictions. 50 largest jurisdictions hold almost 1/3 of nation's jailed inmates. Suicide: -Hours immediately following arrest are often a time of crisis:-Vulnerability-Hopelessness-Fear of loss of freedom-Sheer terror-Over 1/3 of deaths occurring in jails are suicides-Most happen within first 6-10 hours Mental Health Problems -Almost 2/3 of jail prisoners have a history of mental problems.-1/5 have a very recent history of mental disorder.-Most jails lack resources to provide care.-Many jails now screen new arrivals for mental health problems.-Inmates with mental health problems are typically referred to social services for treatment, and diverted from criminal prosecution. Substance Dependency -Half of all people placed in jail were under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs at time of arrest-Over 2/3—more than 400,000 jail inmates—have a history of substance abuse-More than 1/2 have history of failed drug treatment-Most dramatic problem is withdrawal-Addicts are more likely than non addicts to attempt suicide Legal needs -People locked up suffer a disadvantage preparing for a case-Likely to need public defender-Public defenders do not have the time or resources to spend sufficient time on their cases-Detainees have relatively dim legal prospects Bail: An amount of money, specified by a judge, to be posted as a condition for pretrial release to ensure the appearance of the accused in court. Bondsman: An independent businessperson who provides bail money for a fee, usually 5-10 percent of the total. Dissatisfaction with bail stems from several factors. Many, in some cases over 90%, of pretrial detainees cannot afford bail.Money is a weak incentive for appearance in court in many casesHuman freedom can be had for a priceTo avoid problems associated with bail, some jurisdictions are doing more with summons and citations. Release on Recognizance: Alternative to bail; pretrial release because the judge believes the defendant's ties in the community are sufficient to guarantee the defendant's appearance in court. Day reporting center Facility where offenders such as pretrial releases and probation violators attend daylong intervention and treatment sessions. Pretrial Diversion: An alternative to adjudication in which the defendant agrees to conditions set by the prosecutor in exchange for withdrawal of charges. Diversion controversy -Many offenders' crimes are caused by special problems—vagrancy, alcoholism, and/or emotional distress.-Formal criminal labeling often works against rehabilitation.-Diversion is cheaper than criminal justice processing. Legal Liability Employees may be legally liable for their actions Jail Standards: Important to have a standard set of practices and procedures Personnel Matters: Correction workers are typically poorly trained and not well educated Jail Crowding: Too many individuals are being placed into limited spaces The Jail Facility: Many jail facilities are old and in need of repai Jail budgets have been increased to pay for: -Training programs-Classification procedures-Managerial policies Jail Standards:Important for 3 reasons: -Indicate proactive criteria-Provide a basis by which administrators can evaluate staff performance-Standards aid the planning and evaluation of jail programs by giving program managers a target to consider in their work. New-generation jail: Facility with a podular architectural design and management policies that emphasize interaction of inmates and staff and provision of services. Podular unit: Self-contained living areas for 12-25 inmates, composed of individual cells for privacy and open areas for social interaction. Direct supervision: Method of correctional supervision in which staff members have direct physical interaction with inmates throughout the day. Therapeutic justice: A philosophy of reorienting the jail experience from being mostly punitive to being mostly rehabilitative. Community model for jails: An innovative model for jail administration that promotes a sense of community among staff and inmates alike, while using community to promote rehabilitation.

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How many people are incarcerated? In 2010, U.S. imprisonment rate has exceeded 500 per 100,000.Over 3,100 people on death row and 159,000 serving life sentences. No one in Wyoming on death row, although Dale Wayne Eaton was until recently.Nearly 3% of all adults under some form of correctional control. Is there a relationship between prison population and crime rate? Little relationship between prison population and crime rate. Compare U.S. with England and Australia.-1 in 6 African American males have been to prison. More Stats on Incarceration. 6.9 million Americans are now in the correctional systemOf today's men in their 30s, 1 in 28 have been sent to prison11% of male children and 2% of female children born this year will go to prison What is the purpose of Corrections? -Protect society by punishing people who break society's rules as method of social control.-Help define the limits of behavior.-Durkheim - deviance is natural, even good on some level, and deviance exists even in a society of monks. For instance, some monks would be too loud, too messy, etc.-The three basic concepts of offense, guilt, and punishment define the purposes/procedures of criminal justice system.-Central purpose is to carry out the criminal sentence. Percentage of people in each category of correctional supervision. 21.3% prison10.4 % jails12.1% parole56.2% Probation 5 parts of system of corrections goals, interconnectedness, environment, feedback, complexity Goals Fair punishment & community protection interconnectedness A series of processes that have an effect on the rest of the system environment - Relationship with the outside community FEEDBACK Systems learn & grow according to outside feedback COMPLEXITY As the system grows & matures, it becomes more complex The Corrections System Today -Employs more than 700,000 administrators, psychologists, counselors, and social workers-Average annual cost of corrections is more than $60 billion-Most criminal justice and correctional activity takes place at state level (e.g., there are 102 federal prisons and 1,719 state prisons) Correction system today PT 2 -Federalism- A system of government in which power and responsibilities are divided between a national government and state governments.-All levels of government (state, county, municipal, etc.) are involved in one or more aspects of the correctional system.-Big Four-Texas - 170,000 in prison; California - 149,000; Florida - 103,055; New York - 103, 055.-Wyoming has 2500, and it is a much better place to do time, at least from what inmates have told me. At what level is most paid for Corrections? -state level Goals of Corrections Goals:-Punishment-Protection-When these two functions do not correspond, corrections faces goal conflict.-Correctional activities make sense when prisoners are punished fairly.-Conflicts or vagueness between the goals of punishment and protection can cause problems. Five key issues facing corrections today: 1.Conflicting goals - Some disagreement exists as to whether or not prisoners can be "corrected." Issues exist regarding rehabilitation and employment among other factors.2.Adequate funding - Competition with other services for funding. In tight budgetary times, security always wins out over programming.3.Making the bureaucracy of correctional services more effective - Monitoring how workers use their time/energy has to become more effective.4.Coordinating correctional activity across different agencies - Dispersed decision making improves interagency coordination.5. Dealing with correctional uncertainty - It is impossible to predict how individual choice will impact the system. Goals as vague generalities: "Protect the public""Rehabilitate offenders"(Rehabilitation/Punishment) Funding: -Corrections paid for by tax revenues:Vie for funding-Conflicts among branches and levels of government.-Per capita spending on criminal justice activities ranges from less than $100 dollars in West Virginia to more than $400 dollars in Alaska & New York. Bureaucracy: -Street-level bureaucrats-Limited resources-Bureaucratic model guarantees that services are delivered only up to a point and that goals are never fully achieved. Interagency Coordination: -Most correctional systems comprise several loosely related organizations that are themselves bureaucracies.-Decision making dispersed.-Great deal of policy is formally interconnected.-One agency determines the workload of the next.-Isolation of systems makes it more likely that different units will run into problems resulting in lack of cooperation from other units. Professional Versus Nonprofessional Staff -Psychologists, counselors, and administrators-Usually have at least one degree-View themselves as members of various professionsvs-Correctional officers-Frequently only have a high school diploma-Function under close supervision Uncertain Technology Technology:-A method of applying scientific knowledge to practical purposes in a particular field.-Validity of approaches for treating offenders remain in doubt:-Group therapy-Behavior modification-Anger management Exchange: -Exchange occurs when two parties trade promises or concessions that make each other's work easier or more predictable-Process leads to an informal enforcement and resolution of problems-Correctional transactions involve some aspect of worker-offender contact and interaction Uncertainty About Correctional Strategies -Greater emphasis on secondary technologies:-Design of a prison's security apparatus-Computer-based offender-tracking system for probation-What happens to offenders? Great Experiment in Social Control - Increase in prison population Effects on crime:No likely effectEffects on society:Increase racial inequality, distort electoral politics, and damage families and communities

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