CPSY 4345 test 1

Describe Chomsky's explanation for language development.

According to Chomsky, human beings are born with an innate capacity for language, which is hardwired into the structure of the brain. This innate capacity for language is manifested in what Chomsky refers to as "Universal Grammar," a set of innate rules and principles that enable us to understand and produce language. Chomsky suggests suggests that there is a universal grammar that is present in all human brains. This universal grammar is not a specific language, but a set of rules and principles that underlie all human languages.

Associationist

Associationism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of associative learning in shaping behavior and mental processes. According to associationists, behavior and mental processes are the result of the formation of associations between stimuli and responses, or between ideas and concepts.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and its relationship to environmental stimuli. Behaviorists believe that behavior is shaped by learning, and that an individual's behavior can be predicted and controlled through the manipulation of environmental stimuli.

brain plasticity

Brain plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity, refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences and stimuli. This process is driven by the brain's ability to form and reorganize synaptic connections between neurons, which allows the brain to modify its own structure and function.

How does his account differ from Behaviorism?

Chomsky's account of language development represents a departure from the behaviorist approach, which emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping language acquisition. Chomsky's theory emphasizes the role of innate factors, such as universal grammar, and the active role that children play in their own language acquisition.

Connectionist

Connectionism is a theoretical approach to understanding cognitive processes, including language, that emphasizes the ways in which complex mental processes can be modeled as networks of simple interconnected nodes or units. In connectionist models, these nodes or units represent basic cognitive elements, and their patterns of activation and interaction are used to simulate complex cognitive processes.

Constructivist Theory

Constructivist theory is a psychological and educational approach that emphasizes the active role of the learner in the process of knowledge construction. According to this theory, individuals actively construct their own understanding of the world based on their experiences, prior knowledge, and social interactions.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Continuity vs. discontinuity is a theoretical debate in the field of developmental psychology that concerns the nature of human development. The continuity view suggests that development is a gradual and continuous process, with changes occurring gradually over time, whereas the discontinuity view suggests that development is marked by qualitative changes or stages, with periods of rapid change and reorganization.

Critical or Sensitive periods

Critical or sensitive periods refer to a time period in an organism's development during which it is particularly susceptible to acquiring certain skills or abilities. During these periods, the brain is thought to be highly sensitive to particular environmental stimuli, and experiences during this time can have a profound and lasting impact on the individual's development.

In what order do infants typically produce pre-speech sounds?

Crying and vegetative sounds: Infants begin producing sounds almost immediately after birth, and the first sounds they produce are often crying and vegetative sounds, such as burps and coughs. Cooing and laughter: Around 6-8 weeks of age, infants begin producing cooing sounds, which are characterized by the production of back-of-the-throat consonant sounds, such as "goo" and "coo." They may also begin to laugh and giggle. Vocal play: Around 3-4 months of age, infants begin to engage in vocal play, which involves experimenting with different sounds and vocalizations, such as squeals, growls, and raspberries. Babbling: Around 6-8 months of age, infants begin to produce canonical babbling, which involves the repeated production of syllables, such as "bababa" or "dadada." They may also produce variegated babbling, which involves the production of a sequence of different syllables, such as "bagidu." Jargon: Around 10-12 months of age, infants begin to produce jargon, which involves the production of strings of syllables with a speech-like rhythm and intonation, but without clear meaning or communicative intent. First words: Around 12 months of age, infants begin to produce their first words, which typically consist of simple nouns or action words, such as "mama," "dada," or "ball."

What behaviors are culturally stable and what are culturally variable?

Culturally stable behaviors are those that remain relatively consistent across different cultures and contexts. These behaviors are often deeply rooted in human biology and evolution, and are thought to reflect fundamental aspects of human nature. Examples of culturally stable behaviors may include emotions, basic social skills, and cognitive processes such as perception and attention. On the other hand, culturally variable behaviors are those that vary widely across different cultures and contexts. These behaviors are shaped by cultural norms, beliefs, and practices, and may reflect the unique values and traditions of a particular group or society. Examples of culturally variable behaviors may include language, customs, rituals, and social norms.

How does brain plasticity and synaptic pruning relate to language development and the potential resilience of language?

During the critical period of language development in early childhood, the brain is highly plastic, meaning that it is able to rapidly adapt and change in response to linguistic input and experience. This plasticity allows the brain to efficiently and effectively acquire language, and to form the neural connections necessary for language processing. However, this period of plasticity is followed by a period of synaptic pruning, in which unused or weak synapses are eliminated, and strong and frequently used synapses are strengthened. This process plays a critical role in shaping the neural circuits that underlie language processing, and helps to ensure that the brain is able to process language efficiently and accurately. The interaction between brain plasticity and synaptic pruning is thought to be one of the factors that contributes to the potential resilience of language, or the ability of language to recover and adapt in response to changes or disruptions. Because the brain is able to reorganize itself in response to new experiences and stimuli, it is able to compensate for damage or disruption to the neural circuits that underlie language processing

Formalism vs. Functionalism

Formalism, also known as structuralism, emphasizes the formal structure of language, including its phonology, syntax, and semantics. Formalist approaches view language as a system of formal rules that govern the combination of sounds, words, and grammatical structures to produce meaningful expressions. Formalists often focus on the abstract, underlying rules that govern language, and on the relationships between different linguistic units. Functionalism, on the other hand, emphasizes the functional aspects of language, including its use in communication, social interaction, and cultural contexts. Functionalists view language as a tool for achieving social and communicative goals, and as a means for expressing cultural and individual identities. Functionalists often focus on the social and cultural factors that influence language use, and on the ways in which language is adapted to meet the needs of different communicative and social situations.

Generativist

Generativism is a linguistic theory that emphasizes the creative aspect of language use and posits that humans have an innate ability to generate an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences. This theory is associated with Noam Chomsky and his theory of Universal Grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate capacity to acquire and use language.

How does imperative vs. declarative pointing relate to later development? (Camaioni and Perrucchini, 2003)

Imperative pointing is a gesture that infants use to direct the attention of others towards an object or event, and to request that they take action. For example, an infant may point to a toy and look at their caregiver to indicate that they want to play with it. The use of imperative pointing is thought to be related to the development of social and communicative skills, as it requires the ability to understand and respond to the intentions and desires of others. Declarative pointing, on the other hand, is a gesture that infants use to share their interest or excitement about an object or event, and to draw the attention of others to it. For example, an infant may point to a bird outside the window and look at their caregiver, indicating their excitement or interest in the bird. The use of declarative pointing is thought to be related to the development of cognitive and language skills, as it requires the ability to understand and represent the experiences and emotions of oneself and others.

What is infant-directed speech?

Infant-directed speech, also known as motherese, baby talk, or parentese, is a type of speech that is commonly used by adults when speaking to infants and young children. It is characterized by a distinctive pattern of high-pitched, exaggerated intonation, slower tempo, simplified vocabulary and grammar, and a generally warmer and more engaging tone.

Innateness and its relation to genetics

Innateness refers to the idea that certain cognitive abilities or knowledge are biologically determined and present at birth, rather than acquired through learning and experience. According to this view, some aspects of human cognition, including language, are innate, and are the result of specific genetic mechanisms that are programmed into the human brain.

how language might be developmentally resilient

Language can be developmentally resilient in several ways. One important factor in resilience is the quality and quantity of language input that children receive during their early years. Children who receive rich and varied language input from their caregivers and environment are more likely to develop strong language skills and to be resilient to factors that may negatively impact their language development. Another factor in language resilience is the presence of supportive relationships and social environments that foster language development. Children who have positive and supportive relationships with caregivers, peers, and other adults are more likely to have opportunities to practice and develop their language skills, and to receive feedback and support in their language learning.

Language-specific vs. domain-general views

Language-specific vs. domain-general views are theoretical approaches to understanding the nature of language and its relationship to other cognitive processes. The language-specific view emphasizes the idea that language is a unique and specialized mental module that is separate from other cognitive processes, whereas the domain-general view suggests that language is part of a more general cognitive system that is used for a wide range of tasks and functions.

Morphology

Morphology is a subfield of linguistics that deals with the study of the internal structure of words and the ways in which words are formed from smaller meaningful units called morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language, and can be divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

What is special about newborn infants' phonemic sensitivity?

Newborn infants have a remarkable ability to perceive and discriminate between the sounds of different phonemes in language, even before they have had any exposure to language. This ability, known as phonemic sensitivity, is thought to be a critical aspect of early language development, and provides important insights into the mechanisms underlying language acquisition. This ability to perceive and discriminate between phonemes is thought to be based on the innate neurological and perceptual mechanisms that are present at birth. Research has shown that the auditory system of newborns is highly developed and capable of detecting subtle differences in sound, and that infants are able to use this information to form perceptual categories of speech sounds.

Why do we need grammar in language? (Gleitman)

One of the main functions of grammar is to provide a system for organizing and combining words and phrases into meaningful sentences. Grammar allows us to specify the relationships between words and to create complex structures, such as clauses and phrases, that convey a wide range of meanings and functions. For example, grammar allows us to form questions, make statements, express emotions, and convey abstract concepts, such as time, location, and causality. In addition, grammar plays a critical role in facilitating communication and comprehension. By following the rules and patterns of grammar, speakers and listeners are able to establish a shared understanding of the meanings and functions of words and sentences. This allows us to communicate effectively and to convey meaning in a way that is mutually intelligible.

What qualities of it make it useful for learning language?

Overall, the exaggerated intonation, simplified language features, and warm and engaging tone of infant-directed speech make it a highly effective and useful tool for learning language, and may contribute to the development of early language skills and abilities.

How does perspective taking relate to the communication of new information? (O'Neill, 1996)

Overall, the study by O'Neill highlights the importance of perspective taking in effective communication, and suggests that it may be a key factor in overcoming cognitive biases and promoting more accurate and open-minded thinking. By considering the perspectives of others and being open to new information, individuals may be better able to learn, grow, and communicate effectively in a wide range of social and cognitive contexts.

What is perceptual tuning?

Perceptual tuning is a process that occurs during early development in which the perceptual abilities of an individual become more attuned to the specific features of their environment. This process is driven by the ongoing exposure to sensory input, and involves changes in the way that the brain processes and represents information from the environment.

What are phonemes?

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning between words. In other words, phonemes are the basic building blocks of the sound system of a language, and they play a critical role in the way words are pronounced and understood.

Phonology

Phonology is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sound systems of languages. Phonology deals with the organization of sounds within a language, including the ways in which sounds are combined to form words and the rules that govern the distribution and use of different sounds.

Define place of articulation and manner of articulation.

Place of articulation refers to the location in the vocal tract where a sound is produced. This can include the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge (the bony ridge behind the upper front teeth), hard palate (the roof of the mouth), velum (the soft palate at the back of the mouth), and glottis (the space between the vocal cords). Each place of articulation can produce different types of sounds, known as consonants, which are categorized by their place of articulation. Manner of articulation refers to the way in which a sound is produced, or the degree of constriction or closure in the vocal tract. This can include stops (where the air flow is completely blocked), fricatives (where the air flow is partially blocked and produces a hissing or buzzing sound), affricates (which combine features of stops and fricatives), nasals (where the air is allowed to escape through the nose), liquids (which involve a partial closure in the vocal tract), and glides (which involve a movement from one sound to another). Each manner of articulation can produce different types of sounds, which are categorized by their manner of articulation.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that deals with the study of language in context, and the ways in which speakers use language to accomplish a wide range of communicative goals. Pragmatics focuses on the social and cognitive aspects of language use, including the ways in which speakers make inferences, convey meaning indirectly, and use language to manage social relationships and interactions.

What are some early communicative functions?

Requesting: Infants use language to request objects, attention, or help from their caregivers. For example, an infant may say "mama" or "dada" to request their parent's attention, or point to an object and say "more" to request more of it. Commenting: Infants also use language to make comments about their surroundings or to express their thoughts and feelings. For example, an infant may say "pretty" when looking at a colorful object, or "uh-oh" when dropping a toy. Labeling: Infants begin to learn the names of objects and use language to label them. For example, an infant may say "ball" when seeing or holding a ball. Protesting: Infants also use language to protest or express disapproval, such as saying "no" or pushing away unwanted objects. Responding: Infants begin to respond to the speech of others, such as looking at or smiling in response to a caregiver's voice, or imitating the sounds and words of others.

Semantics

Semantics is a subfield of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning in language, including the relationships between words, phrases, and sentences, and the ways in which meaning is conveyed through the use of language.

What is shared intentionality? (Tomasello)

Shared intentionality is a concept in developmental psychology that refers to the ability to collaborate and cooperate with others through shared goals, beliefs, and intentions. It is a key aspect of human social cognition, and is thought to play a critical role in the development of language and culture. According to developmental psychologist Michael Tomasello, shared intentionality emerges in early childhood as children begin to engage in joint attention, cooperative problem solving, and communication with others. Children learn to coordinate their actions with others, to anticipate others' actions and intentions, and to share information and resources to achieve common goals.

Social Interactionist

Social Interactionist theory is a psychological and linguistic approach to language development that emphasizes the role of social interaction in the acquisition of language. According to this theory, language development is influenced by social and cultural factors, such as the interactions between children and their caregivers, and the cultural context in which language is used.

What cues are available for children to exploit in the word-learning process?

Social cues: Children also use social cues, such as eye gaze and facial expressions, to help them to identify and understand the meaning of words. For example, when a parent looks at an object and then says its name, the child is able to infer that the word is referring to the object that the parent is looking at. Phonetic cues: Phonetics refers to the specific sounds and features of language, and children can use phonetic cues to help them to distinguish between different words and to identify their meaning. For example, children may use phonetic cues to distinguish between similar-sounding words, such as "cat" and "bat." Syntactic cues: Syntax refers to the rules and patterns of language that govern the order and structure of words and phrases. Children can use syntactic cues to help them to understand the meaning of new words and to infer their grammatical function. For example, children may use syntactic cues to understand that a word is a verb or a noun, based on its position in a sentence. Semantic cues: Semantic refers to the meaning and concepts associated with words. Children can use semantic cues to help them to understand the meaning of new words and to link them to their referents. For example, children may use semantic cues to understand that a word is associated with a specific category, such as "fruit" or "animal."

Synaptic pruning

Synaptic pruning is a process that occurs during brain development in which weak or unused synapses, or connections between neurons, are eliminated, while strong and frequently used synapses are strengthened. This process is driven by a variety of cellular and molecular mechanisms, including the activity-dependent modification of synaptic strength, the activation of glial cells, and the expression of specific genes.

Syntax

Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that deals with the study of the structure of sentences and the rules that govern the ways in which words and phrases are combined to form grammatically correct sentences. Syntax examines the principles and patterns that underlie the organization of words into larger structures, such as phrases and sentences.

What is the Language Acquisition Device?

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a theoretical construct proposed by Noam Chomsky as a central component of his Innateness Theory of language acquisition. According to Chomsky, the LAD is a biologically innate cognitive mechanism or module that is present in the human brain, which enables children to learn and acquire language. The LAD is seen as a kind of "mental organ" that is dedicated to language learning and processing.

Describe the Behaviorist approach to language development and what was lacking in

The behaviorist approach to language development posits that language acquisition is primarily a result of environmental factors, such as reinforcement, imitation, and conditioning. the behaviorist approach has been criticized for overlooking the important role of innate factors in language acquisition, such as the ability to form complex grammatical structures that cannot be entirely explained by reinforcement and conditioning. Additionally, the behaviorist approach has been criticized for underestimating the active role that children play in their own language acquisition, and for overlooking the social and communicative functions of language.

Declarative function

The declarative function is a communicative function that is used to convey information or share experiences with others. It is a type of language that is used to describe or represent the world, rather than to influence the behavior of others.

Imperative function

The imperative function is a communicative function that is used to give commands or make requests. It is a type of language that is used to influence the behavior of others and to get them to do something. Earliest form of communication that infants use

How does infants' use of gaze relate to their later development? (Morales, Mundy,& Rojas, 1998)

The results of the study showed that infants who showed greater use of gaze during the social interaction task at 4 and 6 months of age had better language and social skills at 12 and 24 months of age, compared to infants who showed less gaze behavior. Specifically, infants who showed more gaze behavior were more likely to initiate social interactions, to respond to others' social bids, and to use more advanced language and social skills. Overall, the study by Morales, Mundy, and Rojas highlights the importance of early social interactions and gaze behavior in the development of language and social skills in infants. By paying attention to infants' use of gaze and other early social communication behaviors, parents and caregivers can help support the development of these important skills in early childhood.

Which parts of the brain are specialized for language and where are they located?

The two most well-known areas for language processing are Broca's area and Wernicke's area, which are located in the left hemisphere of the brain in most people. Broca's area, located in the posterior frontal lobe, is involved in the production of speech and the planning of language. Damage to Broca's area can result in agrammatism, or difficulty with grammar, as well as non-fluent aphasia, which is characterized by slow, halting speech. Wernicke's area, located in the posterior superior temporal gyrus, is involved in the comprehension of language and the recognition of spoken words. Damage to Wernicke's area can result in fluent aphasia, which is characterized by speech that is fluid but lacks meaning. Other brain regions that are involved in language processing include the superior temporal gyrus, which is involved in the processing of speech sounds, and the angular gyrus, which is involved in reading and the comprehension of written language.

Does a speaker's prior accuracy affect toddlers' valuation of new information?

These findings suggest that toddlers may be sensitive to a speaker's history of accuracy, and may use this information to guide their evaluations of new information. The ability to evaluate and trust information from reliable sources is an important aspect of cognitive development, and may provide a foundation for more advanced reasoning and decision-making skills later in life.

What is the "Gavagi" problem or problem of induction (Quine, 1960) as it relates to word learning?

This problem of ambiguity and underdetermination is a challenge for word learning, as it highlights the difficulty of mapping words onto their referents based solely on observational data. In order to resolve this problem, children must use a variety of cues and heuristics, such as joint attention, social cues, and knowledge of the context in which the word is used. Additionally, the "Gavagai" problem highlights the importance of the role of the learner in the process of word learning. The learner must use their own inductive reasoning and cognitive abilities to make sense of the available data and to form hypotheses about the meaning of words. This process is inherently uncertain and open-ended, and requires ongoing feedback and refinement as the learner's understanding of the language and the world evolves.

What is Universal Grammar?

Universal Grammar (UG) is a theoretical construct proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky that refers to the innate set of linguistic principles and rules that are common to all human languages. According to Chomsky, UG is a biologically based component of the human mind that enables humans to learn and use language. UG is seen as a kind of "mental grammar" or "language faculty" that is part of the broader cognitive system.

How do infants communicate their intent? (Sugarman)

Vocalizations: Infants use a range of vocalizations, such as coos, cries, and babbling, to express their emotions and to capture the attention of their caregivers. For example, an infant may coo or babble in response to a caregiver's voice, or cry to indicate discomfort or a need for attention. Gestures: Infants also use gestures to communicate their intent, such as pointing, reaching, and waving. By using these gestures, infants can direct the attention of others towards an object or event, or indicate a desire for an object or action. Facial expressions: Infants use a range of facial expressions to convey their emotions and to communicate their intent. For example, an infant may smile in response to a caregiver's touch, or frown to indicate discomfort or displeasure. Body movements: Infants also use body movements to communicate their intent, such as kicking, shaking, or waving their arms. By using these movements, infants can indicate a desire for action or attention, or express their emotions and needs. Eye gaze: Infants use eye gaze to establish joint attention with others, and to indicate interest or desire for an object or event. For example, an infant may look at an object and then back at their caregiver to draw attention to it, or follow the gaze of another person to identify an object or event of interest.

Voiced versus voiceless speech sounds?

Voiced sounds are produced by vibration of the vocal cords, which causes a characteristic buzzing or humming sound. Voiceless sounds, on the other hand, are produced without vibration of the vocal cords, and have a more hissing or rushing quality.

Lexicon

the lexicon refers to the entire set of words and phrases that make up a language, including the vocabulary and the rules for combining words into meaningful expressions. The lexicon is a key component of a language, as it allows speakers to produce and comprehend an unlimited number of sentences by combining and recombining the words and phrases in their language.

What can these tell us about language function in the brain?

words and grammar rules in response to their linguistic environment. As children learn language, the synaptic connections between neurons that support language processing are strengthened, while unused or weak connections are eliminated through synaptic pruning. This process of synaptic strengthening and pruning helps to refine the neural circuits that underlie language processing, allowing the brain to process language more efficiently and accurately. As a result, disruptions to this process can have negative effects on language development and function, and can lead to language impairments and disorders.