CPSY 4345 Test 2

What is bound morpheme?

A bound morpheme is a type of morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word and must be attached to another morpheme in order to form a word. This means that a bound morpheme only carries meaning when it is combined with another morpheme. Examples of bound morphemes include prefixes (such as "un-" in "unhappy"), suffixes (such as "-s" in "cats"), and infixes (such as the "-um-" in "abso-bloomin'-lutely"). Bound morphemes are often used to modify the meaning of a word, such as changing its tense, number, or degree. For example, the suffix "-ed" in the word "walked" indicates past tense, while the prefix "re-" in "reheat" indicates repetition or restoration. Bound morphemes can also be used in combination with other morphemes, whether they are free or bound, to form compound words or complex words. For example, the word "unhappily" is a complex word consisting of the bound morphemes "un-", "happy," and "-ly." Understanding the distinction between bound and free morphemes is important in analyzing the structure of words and understanding the rules and patterns of language.

What is free morpheme?

A free morpheme is a type of morpheme that can stand alone as a word and carry meaning on its own. This means that a free morpheme is a complete unit of meaning that does not need to be attached to other morphemes in order to form a word. Examples of free morphemes include "dog," "run," "happy," and "book." Free morphemes can also be used in combination with other free morphemes or bound morphemes to form compound words or complex words. For example, "doghouse" is a compound word consisting of the free morphemes "dog" and "house," while "running" is a complex word consisting of the free morpheme "run" and the bound morpheme "-ing." In contrast to free morphemes, bound morphemes cannot stand alone as words and must be attached to other morphemes in order to form words. Examples of bound morphemes include prefixes (such as "un-" in "unhappy"), suffixes (such as "-s" in "cats"), and infixes (such as the "-um-" in "abso-bloomin'-lutely"). Understanding the distinction between free and bound morphemes is important in analyzing the structure of words and understanding the rules and patterns of language.

Linear arrangements vs. hierarchical structure

A linear arrangement is a structure where all components or elements are arranged in a line or sequence. It typically has a start and an end point and is often used to represent a process or workflow. In a linear arrangement, each element or step is equally important and connected to the previous and next elements. On the other hand, a hierarchical structure is a structure where components or elements are arranged in a tree-like structure with a clear hierarchy or order of importance. It typically has a few main branches, with sub-branches and sub-sub-branches that branch out from them. Each level of the hierarchy represents a different level of importance or abstraction, and elements are grouped together based on similarities or relationships.

What is morpheme?

A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language. It is the smallest unit of a word that carries meaning and cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts. For example, in the word "cats," there are two morphemes: "cat," which is the root morpheme, and "-s," which is the inflectional morpheme that indicates plurality. Morphemes can be classified into two main types: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as words, such as "dog," "run," or "happy." Bound morphemes, on the other hand, cannot stand alone and must be attached to other morphemes to form words. For example, the suffix "-ness" in the word "happiness" cannot stand alone and must be combined with other morphemes to form a complete word. Morphemes can also be classified based on their grammatical function. For example, prefixes are morphemes that are added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning, such as "un-" in "unhappy." Suffixes are morphemes that are added to the end of a word to change its meaning, such as "-able" in "readable." Infixes are morphemes that are inserted within a word, such as the "-um-" in "abso-bloomin'-lutely." Overall, morphemes play a crucial role in the structure and meaning of language. Understanding the nature and function of morphemes is essential for understanding the rules and structures of language and for analyzing and producing words and sentences.

How does perspective taking relate to the communication of new information? (O'Neill,1996)

According to O'Neill (1996), perspective taking plays an important role in the communication of new information. Perspective taking refers to the ability to understand and take into account the perspective of the listener or reader when communicating new information. It involves considering the listener's background knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes, and adapting the language use and communication style accordingly. O'Neill argues that perspective taking is particularly important when communicating new information, as it helps to ensure that the information is received and understood in the intended way. When communicating new information, it is important to consider the listener's prior knowledge and beliefs, and to present the information in a way that is consistent with their expectations and understanding.

What are the constraints for syntax and morphology acquisition?

Biological constraints: There may be biological factors that constrain the acquisition of syntax and morphology. For example, the human brain may have a limited capacity for processing and storing language information, which could impact the speed and accuracy of language acquisition. Cognitive constraints: Cognitive factors, such as attention, memory, and processing speed, may also impact the acquisition of syntax and morphology. Children with attentional or working memory deficits may have difficulty processing and retaining complex grammatical structures, which could impact their language development. Linguistic input: The linguistic input that children receive can have a significant impact on their acquisition of syntax and morphology. If the language input is impoverished or inconsistent, children may struggle to learn and use complex grammatical structures. Language-specific constraints: Different languages have different rules and structures for syntax and morphology. Children may have difficulty acquiring certain grammatical features or constructions that are rare or absent in their native language. Social constraints: Social factors, such as social class and educational opportunities, may also impact the acquisition of syntax and morphology. Children from disadvantaged backgrounds may have less exposure to complex language input, which could impact their language development.

What is the general order of grammatical morphemes acquisition? (Brown 1973; de Villiers & de Villiers, 1973)

Brown (1973) and de Villiers & de Villiers (1973) proposed a general order of acquisition for English grammatical morphemes based on observations of young children's language development. The order of acquisition is generally as follows: Present progressive -ing (e.g. "running", "eating") Prepositions (e.g. "in," "on," "under") Plural -s (e.g. "cats," "dogs") Irregular past tense (e.g. "ate," "ran") Possessive -s (e.g. "Mommy's book," "dog's tail") Uncontractible copula (e.g. "is," "am," "are") Articles (e.g. "the," "a") Regular past tense -ed (e.g. "walked," "jumped") Third person singular -s (e.g. "he runs," "she eats") Third person irregular (e.g. "has," "does") This order of acquisition is not set in stone and can vary depending on individual children and their exposure to different types of language input. However, the general order of acquisition provides a useful framework for understanding the typical progression of children's acquisition of grammatical morphemes.

How do children determine the speech act? Grice's Maxims

Children determine the speech act by using their knowledge of Grice's Maxims, which are a set of principles that describe how language users cooperate in conversation to convey meaning effectively. Grice's Maxims include: The maxim of quantity: speakers should provide enough information to be informative, but not more than is necessary. The maxim of quality: speakers should be truthful and provide accurate information. The maxim of relevance: speakers should provide information that is relevant to the conversation. The maxim of manner: speakers should be clear, concise, and avoid ambiguity and obscurity.

Communicative competence

Communicative competence refers to a person's ability to use language effectively in communication, taking into account the social and cultural context of the interaction. It includes not only the ability to use language accurately, but also the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in a given situation. This includes understanding the social norms and conventions of communication, as well as the ability to use nonverbal cues and gestures to convey meaning.

What are the constructivist approaches?

Constructivist approaches to learning and development are based on the idea that individuals actively construct their own knowledge and understanding of the world through their experiences, interactions, and interpretations. These approaches emphasize the importance of learners' prior knowledge and experiences, and their active engagement in the learning process.

Constructivist approaches

Constructivist approaches to learning and development suggest that individuals actively construct their own knowledge and understanding of the world through their experiences, interactions, and interpretations. These approaches emphasize the importance of learners' prior knowledge and experiences, and their active engagement in the learning process. Constructivist approaches reject the idea that knowledge is simply transmitted from the teacher to the learner, or that learning is simply a matter of memorization and recall. Instead, they suggest that learners actively engage with their environment, and use their existing knowledge and experiences to make sense of new information and experiences.

Derivational morphemes

Derivational morphemes are a type of bound morpheme that are used to create new words or to change the meaning of existing words. Unlike inflectional morphemes, which indicate grammatical information, derivational morphemes change the semantic or syntactic meaning of a word. Examples of derivational morphemes in English include: "-er" and "-ist" used to create agent nouns (e.g., "teacher," "scientist") "-able" and "-ful" used to create adjectives (e.g., "comfortable," "useful") "-ize" and "-ify" used to create verbs (e.g., "computerize," "simplify") "-ment" and "-ness" used to create nouns (e.g., "enjoyment," "kindness") "re-" and "un-" used to create words with opposite meanings (e.g., "redo," "unhappy") Derivational morphemes can change the meaning of a word in various ways, including making it a different part of speech (e.g., changing a noun to a verb), changing its meaning (e.g., adding the derivational morpheme "-ful" to the word "beauty" to create "beautiful"), or creating a completely new word (e.g., adding the derivational morpheme "-ize" to the word "analyze" to create "analyze"). Overall, derivational morphemes are important in language because they allow us to create new words and to change the meanings of existing words, providing greater flexibility and expressiveness in communication.

Discourse knowledge

Discourse knowledge refers to a person's ability to understand and use language in larger units of communication, beyond the level of the sentence. It involves the ability to structure and organize language in a coherent and meaningful way, and to understand the different ways in which language is used to convey information, ideas, and perspectives.

What makes grammar easy or difficult to learn?

Grammar can be easy or difficult to learn depending on several factors, including the learner's age, first language, motivation, learning style, and exposure to the language. Age is an important factor in language learning, as younger learners tend to have an easier time acquiring new languages and learning grammar rules. This is because the brain is more adaptable and flexible during childhood, making it easier to learn new things. As learners get older, the brain becomes less flexible, and language learning may become more challenging. The learner's first language can also influence how easy or difficult it is to learn grammar. For example, learners whose first language has a similar grammar structure to the target language may find it easier to learn the grammar rules. On the other hand, learners whose first language has a very different grammar structure may find it more challenging to learn the new grammar rules. Motivation and learning style can also affect how easy or difficult it is to learn grammar. Learners who are motivated and interested in the language are more likely to put in the effort and time needed to learn grammar rules. Additionally, learners who have a learning style that is compatible with the teaching style (e.g., visual learners with visual teaching methods) may find it easier to learn grammar. Finally, exposure to the language is a critical factor in learning grammar. Learners who have frequent opportunities to use and practice the language are more likely to master the grammar rules. On the other hand, learners who have limited exposure to the language may struggle to internalize the grammar rules and apply them correctly. In summary, grammar can be easy or difficult to learn depending on several factors, including age, first language, motivation, learning style, and exposure to the language. While some learners may find grammar more challenging than others, with sufficient effort and practice, anyone can improve their grammar skills over time.

When analogy is not enough, what else might we need for syntactic acquisition?

In addition to analogy, some other mechanisms that may be necessary for syntactic acquisition include: Explicit instruction: This involves direct teaching of the syntax rules, either through explicit explanations or examples. Exposure to input: Consistent exposure to a wide range of input, such as reading or listening to a variety of language materials, can help learners develop a more comprehensive understanding of syntax. Error correction: Providing feedback and correcting errors in language production can help learners identify and correct syntactic errors. Practice: Consistent practice and repetition of syntactic structures in different contexts can help learners internalize the structures and use them effectively. Working memory capacity: Syntactic acquisition often requires the use of working memory to hold multiple pieces of information in mind at once. Individuals with limited working memory capacity may struggle to acquire complex syntactic structures.

Importance of verbs

In the early stages of language development, infants and toddlers typically start by learning simple verbs such as "eat," "drink," "sleep," and "play." As they grow and develop their language skills, they learn more complex verbs and begin to use them in more complex sentence structures. Verbs not only convey action, but also tense, aspect, and mood, which are important components of grammatical structure. For example, using the correct tense of a verb can change the meaning of a sentence. Moreover, verbs are often the focus of conversations and are essential for expressing thoughts, ideas, and emotions. For instance, when telling a story, verbs are used to describe what happened and how it happened.

Inflectional (or grammatical) morphemes

Inflectional morphemes, also known as grammatical morphemes, are a type of bound morpheme that are used to indicate grammatical information, such as tense, aspect, number, gender, and case. Unlike derivational morphemes, which change the meaning of a word or create a new word altogether, inflectional morphemes do not change the basic meaning of a word, but rather indicate its grammatical function. Some common examples of inflectional morphemes in English include: "-s" for plural nouns (e.g., cats) "-ed" for past tense verbs (e.g., walked) "-ing" for progressive verbs (e.g., walking) "-en" for past participle verbs (e.g., eaten) "-s" for third person singular present tense verbs (e.g., eats) "-er" for comparative adjectives (e.g., faster) "-est" for superlative adjectives (e.g., fastest) Inflectional morphemes are important in language because they allow us to convey important grammatical information in a concise and efficient manner. By using inflectional morphemes, we can indicate things like tense, number, and case without having to add additional words or phrases to our sentences.

Innate grammar (Pinker, Chomsky)

Innate grammar, as proposed by linguists Steven Pinker and Noam Chomsky, suggests that humans have an innate ability to learn and use language, which is based on a set of universal grammatical rules or principles that are hardwired in the brain. According to this theory, all human languages share a common set of underlying grammatical principles, which allow individuals to acquire language rapidly and effortlessly, regardless of the specific language being learned. Pinker and Chomsky argue that language acquisition is not simply a matter of learning vocabulary and syntax through exposure to language input. Instead, they propose that the human brain contains a language acquisition device (LAD) that is specifically dedicated to language learning. This LAD is responsible for helping children learn the grammatical rules of their native language, and it does so through a process of hypothesis testing and rule formation. The innate grammar theory proposes that the rules of grammar are innate and hardwired in the brain, and that language acquisition involves the activation of these rules through exposure to language input. This theory has been supported by research in psycholinguistics, which has shown that language acquisition follows a predictable and universal pattern across cultures and languages. However, some linguists and cognitive scientists have criticized the innate grammar theory for oversimplifying the complex process of language acquisition, and for not accounting for the role of social and cultural factors in language learning. Nonetheless, the theory of innate grammar remains a major influence in linguistics and cognitive science, and has generated a great deal of research and debate in the field.

Characteristics of language

Language is a complex and multifaceted system of communication that is used by humans to express thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Here are some of the key characteristics of language: Symbolic: Language is a symbolic system, which means that words and other linguistic elements represent or stand for objects, ideas, and concepts in the world. For example, the word "dog" represents a furry, four-legged animal that barks. Arbitrary: The relationship between words and their meanings is arbitrary, which means that there is no inherent connection between the sound or form of a word and its meaning. For example, there is no inherent reason why the word "dog" must represent the animal it does; it could just as easily represent something else. Structured: Language is structured in various ways, including syntax (the rules governing sentence structure), morphology (the rules governing word formation), and phonology (the sound system of a language). These structures provide a framework for organizing and conveying meaning. Creative: Language is a creative system that allows speakers to generate an infinite number of novel and meaningful utterances. By combining linguistic elements in new and creative ways, speakers can convey complex and abstract ideas. Rule-governed: Language is governed by a set of rules, both explicit and implicit, that dictate how words and other linguistic elements can be combined to form meaningful utterances. These rules include grammatical rules, pronunciation rules, and social rules. Social: Language is a social phenomenon that is used by humans to communicate with others in social contexts. The way we use language is influenced by social factors such as culture, ethnicity, gender, and social class. In summary, language is a complex and multifaceted system of communication that is symbolic, arbitrary, structured, creative, rule-governed, and social. These characteristics enable humans to use language to express a wide range of thoughts, ideas, and emotions, and to engage in complex social interactions.

How is language generative?

Language is considered generative because it allows us to create and convey an infinite number of novel and meaningful utterances or sentences. The generative nature of language means that we can use a finite set of rules and vocabulary to produce an unlimited number of sentences, each with its own unique meaning. Humans have an innate ability to generate language from a set of underlying rules and structures, which allows us to create new sentences on the fly, even if we have never heard them before.

Limited early syntactive understandings

Limited early syntactic understanding is a common characteristic of language development in young children. During the early stages of language acquisition, children often produce and understand simple, telegraphic sentences that consist of a limited number of words and lack grammatical complexity. For example, a young child might say "Me want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie." This type of sentence reflects a limited understanding of syntactic rules and grammatical structures. Children at this stage of development may also struggle with more complex grammatical structures, such as passive voice or complex clauses. However, as children continue to develop their language skills and receive exposure to more complex language input, their understanding of syntactic rules and grammatical structures gradually improves. By the age of five or six, most children are able to produce and understand complex grammatical structures, and their language abilities continue to improve throughout childhood and adolescence. Overall, limited early syntactic understanding is a normal and expected part of language development, and children gradually acquire more advanced language skills over time with exposure to appropriate language input and practice. Parents and caregivers can support children's language development by providing rich and varied language input, engaging in conversation and dialogue, and reading books together.

What are the differences between communicative competence and linguisticcompetence?

Linguistic competence refers to a person's knowledge of the formal rules of a language, including its vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. It is concerned with the ability to use language correctly and fluently, without necessarily taking into account the social and cultural aspects of communication. Linguistic competence is often tested and assessed through standardized language tests and measures of grammatical accuracy. Communicative competence, on the other hand, refers to a person's ability to use language effectively in communication, taking into account the social and cultural context of the interaction. It includes not only the ability to use language accurately, but also the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in a given situation. This includes understanding the social norms and conventions of communication, as well as the ability to use nonverbal cues and gestures to convey meaning.

How do we measure grammatical development?

MLU (Mean Length of Utterance): This method involves counting the number of morphemes in a child's utterance and dividing that number by the number of utterances produced. This provides a measure of the average length of a child's utterances, which can be used to track grammatical development over time. Grammatical morphemes inventory: This method involves analyzing a child's speech to determine which grammatical morphemes they are using correctly and which ones they are not. This can provide insight into the child's grammatical development and help identify areas that may need further support. Standardized language assessments: There are standardized tests that can be used to assess a child's grammatical development, such as the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF) or the Test of Language Development (TOLD). These tests typically involve a range of language tasks that assess different aspects of language development, including grammar. Elicited production tasks: Researchers can use tasks that require children to produce certain grammatical forms, such as regular and irregular past tense verbs, to study their use of morphemes and their developmental progression. Elicited imitation tasks: Researchers can use tasks that require children to repeat grammatically correct sentences, including those with target morphemes, to study their ability to produce and use morphemes in context.

MLU

Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) is a measure of grammatical development that is based on the average length of a child's utterances in morphemes. Here are some rules and practices for counting utterances and morphemes when calculating MLU: Count each utterance as one unit: An utterance is a complete sentence or thought, even if it consists of just one word. For example, "Mommy!" or "More?" would each count as one utterance. Exclude interjections and unintelligible speech: Utterances that consist of interjections or unintelligible speech should be excluded from the count. For example, "um," "uh," or babbling sounds should not be counted. Count all morphemes in an utterance: A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a word, and can be a root word, a prefix, a suffix, or an inflectional ending. For example, "walking" contains two morphemes, "walk" and "-ing." Don't count repeated morphemes: If a morpheme is repeated in an utterance, it should only be counted once. For example, "doggie runned" would be counted as two morphemes, not three. To calculate MLU, you would divide the total number of morphemes by the total number of utterances in a child's language sample. For example, if a child produces 100 utterances and uses a total of 200 morphemes in their speech, their MLU would be 2.0. Calculating MLU can provide useful insights into a child's grammatical development, and can be used to track progress over time. However, it's important to remember that MLU is just one measure of grammatical development, and should be used in combination with other measures and observations to gain a comprehensive understanding of a child's language skills.

What is morphology?

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules for combining morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in language. Morphemes can be classified as either free or bound. Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words and have meaning on their own, such as "dog," "run," or "happy." Bound morphemes, on the other hand, cannot stand alone and must be attached to other morphemes to form words. For example, the suffix "-ness" in the word "happiness" cannot stand alone and must be combined with other morphemes to form a complete word. Morphemes can also be classified based on their function in a word. For example, prefixes are morphemes that are added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning, such as "un-" in "unhappy." Suffixes are morphemes that are added to the end of a word to change its meaning, such as "-able" in "readable." Infixes are morphemes that are inserted within a word, such as the "-um-" in "abso-bloomin'-lutely." Morphology is important in language because it allows us to create and understand new words and to modify the meanings of existing words. The study of morphology is also useful in understanding the underlying rules and structures of language, and can provide insights into the processes of language acquisition and language change over time.

What is a big debate in interpreting syntactic and morphological development?

One of the big debates in interpreting syntactic and morphological development is the nature vs. nurture debate, which asks whether language acquisition is primarily influenced by innate biological factors (nature) or by environmental factors such as language input and socialization (nurture). The nature side of the debate suggests that humans are born with a set of innate language acquisition abilities, often referred to as Universal Grammar (UG). According to this view, UG provides children with a set of abstract linguistic principles and structures that allow them to learn the grammatical rules of their native language. Proponents of the nature side argue that children's rapid and successful language acquisition cannot be solely attributed to exposure to language input, and that there must be innate biological factors at play. The nurture side of the debate, on the other hand, argues that language acquisition is primarily influenced by socialization and environmental factors such as language input and interaction with caregivers. According to this view, children learn the grammatical rules of their native language through exposure to language input and through social interactions that provide opportunities to practice and refine their language skills. Proponents of the nurture side argue that children's language development is highly influenced by their social and linguistic environments, and that there is little evidence to suggest that there is a universal innate grammar that underlies all language acquisition. Overall, the debate between nature and nurture in language acquisition is ongoing and complex, and there is likely some truth to both perspectives. Many researchers believe that language acquisition is a combination of both innate and environmental factors, and that a full understanding of language development requires an interdisciplinary approach that considers both biological and social factors.

How do adults and children perform on the referential communication tasks? How does that relate to the common ground and egocentrism? Two worms study Nadig & Sedivy (2002)

Overall, the ability to perform well on referential communication tasks involves the ability to establish common ground with the listener, and to adjust language use to the listener's needs and understanding. Adults generally perform better than children on these tasks, due to their greater ability to take into account the listener's perspective and to adjust their language use accordingly. Egocentrism can make it difficult for children to perform well on referential communication tasks, as they may struggle to understand the listener's perspective and to adjust their language use accordingly. The "Two worms study" by Nadig and Sedivy (2002) investigated how adults and children perform on a referential communication task. In the study, participants were shown two toy worms with different colors and sizes, and were asked to use language to refer to one of the worms, while the listener tried to identify which worm was being referred to. The study found that adults were more successful than children in establishing a shared understanding of the reference and in using language effectively to convey information to the listener.

What is the evidence for children's use of system?

Overgeneralization errors: Children often make overgeneralization errors, in which they apply a grammatical rule too broadly. For example, a child may say "goed" instead of "went" because they have overgeneralized the rule for forming the past tense. These errors suggest that children are attempting to apply rules or patterns to language, even if they do not yet fully understand the correct usage. Order of acquisition: Children tend to acquire certain grammatical structures in a consistent order, regardless of the language they are learning. For example, children tend to acquire basic word order patterns before more complex sentence structures. This suggests that there is a systematic process of language acquisition, in which children are gradually building their understanding of the rules and structures of language. Error patterns: Children's language errors tend to follow consistent patterns, depending on their stage of development. For example, children may have difficulty with irregular verb forms at a certain stage of development, but then master them later on. These error patterns suggest that children are using a system or set of rules to learn language, and that they are gradually refining and updating their understanding of those rules over time. Language universals: Many of the grammatical structures and rules found in languages around the world are remarkably similar, despite the vast differences in individual languages. This suggests that there may be innate or universal rules or structures that underlie language acquisition, and that children are using these rules to learn language.

Parents usually respond to the truth of a statement, not its grammar (Brown & Hanlon).How might this influence grammatical development?

Parents tend to focus more on the content of what their children are saying rather than on the grammatical correctness of their sentences. This means that parents may not always correct grammatical errors that children make, and may instead focus on understanding the meaning of what the child is saying. This could result in children making errors in their grammar, even if they are able to convey the intended meaning of their message. However, this does not mean that parents are not providing any input regarding grammar to their children. In fact, research has shown that parents do provide feedback on grammar, although this feedback tends to be more implicit than explicit. For example, parents may repeat back a sentence using the correct grammar or they may provide a model sentence that the child can imitate.

Characteristics that makes language easy or hard to learn as a child

Phonetics: The ease or difficulty of the sounds and pronunciation of a language can affect how easily a child learns it. For example, a language with a simpler phonetic system, such as Spanish, may be easier to learn than a language with a more complex system, such as Mandarin Chinese. Grammar: The complexity of a language's grammar rules can also make it more difficult to learn. For example, English has irregular verbs that can be difficult for children to master, while languages like Spanish have more regular grammar rules. Vocabulary: The size and complexity of a language's vocabulary can also make it more difficult to learn. For example, Mandarin Chinese has thousands of characters that need to be memorized, which can be challenging for a child. Similarity to other languages: If a child already knows a language that is similar to the one they are learning, it can make it easier to learn. For example, if a child speaks French and is learning Spanish, they may find it easier to learn because the two languages share many similarities. Exposure: The amount of exposure a child has to a language can also affect how easily they learn it. Children who are immersed in a language, such as through living in a country where it is spoken, may find it easier to learn than those who are only exposed to it through language classes or occasional interactions.

Phrase structure grammar

Phrase structure grammar is a type of grammatical analysis that describes the structure of sentences in terms of constituent parts, or phrases. It was first developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and has since become a widely used framework for understanding the syntax of natural languages. In phrase structure grammar, sentences are analyzed as a series of nested phrases, with each phrase containing a head and one or more modifiers. The head is typically a noun, verb, or adjective, while the modifiers can be other words or phrases that provide additional information about the head. The basic structure of phrase structure grammar can be represented using a tree diagram, where the head of each phrase is at the top of the tree and the modifiers are arranged below it in a hierarchical manner. For example, the sentence "The big cat chased the little mouse" can be analyzed as follows: [S] / \ [NP] [VP] / \ / \ Det N V [NP] / | | / the big chased Det N / | the little In this tree diagram, the sentence (S) is broken down into a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). The NP contains a determiner (Det) and a noun (N), while the VP contains a verb (V) and another NP. The second NP contains a determiner and a noun, which serve as modifiers to the head noun in the first NP. Overall, phrase structure grammar provides a systematic way to analyze and understand the structure of sentences in natural languages, helping to identify the constituent parts and how they are organized within the sentence.

Pragmatic knowledge Speech acts Utterances (locutionary acts) Illocutionary force Perlocutionary force

Pragmatic knowledge is the understanding of how language is used in context to convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of words. It involves the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in a given social and cultural context, taking into account factors such as the social status of the participants, the purpose of the communication, and the cultural norms and conventions of the community. Speech acts refer to the different ways in which language is used to perform various functions, such as making a statement, asking a question, giving an order, or making a promise. Speech acts can be classified into three main categories: Locutionary acts: The literal meaning of an utterance, or the words that are used. Illocutionary force: The intended meaning or function of an utterance, such as making a request or giving an order. Perlocutionary force: The effect that an utterance has on the listener, such as influencing their behavior or changing their attitudes. Illocutionary force is particularly important in pragmatic knowledge, as it involves understanding the intended meaning or function of an utterance in a given social and cultural context. Perlocutionary force is also important, as it reflects the impact that language can have on the listener, and the ways in which language can be used to influence or persuade others. Overall, understanding the different aspects of speech acts and their relationship to pragmatic knowledge is essential for effective communication and successful social interaction.

Regularizations, overregularizations

Regularizations occur when children apply a rule correctly to some words or situations but incorrectly to others. For example, a child might correctly say "walked" as the past tense of "walk," but then incorrectly say "goed" instead of "went," by applying the regular past tense rule to an irregular verb. Regularizations are a normal part of language development and show that children are learning and applying the rules of language. Overregularizations occur when children apply a regular rule too broadly, even to irregular words or situations where the rule does not apply. For example, a child might say "goed" instead of "went" because they have overgeneralized the rule for forming the past tense.

What are semantic categories? What are syntactic categories?

Semantic categories are based on the meaning of words and refer to the ways in which words are related to each other based on their meaning. Semantic categories can include, for example, categories such as animals, colors, emotions, and actions. Words within the same semantic category share common features or properties that relate to their meaning. Syntactic categories, on the other hand, are based on the grammatical structure of language and refer to the different types of words that are used to form sentences. Syntactic categories can include, for example, categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Words within the same syntactic category share similar grammatical properties and can be used in similar ways to construct sentences.

Creolizations in Nicaragua (Senghas & Coppola, 2001)

Senghas and Coppola (2001) conducted a study on the emergence of a new sign language in Nicaragua, known as Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL). NSL emerged in the 1980s when a group of deaf children were brought together for the first time in a special education program in Managua, Nicaragua. The study examined the early stages of NSL and how it developed through the process of creolization. Creolization is a process in which a new language emerges from the contact between different languages or language varieties. In the case of NSL, creolization occurred as the deaf children created a shared language from their individual home sign systems and the limited signs they learned in the special education program. Senghas and Coppola's study found that NSL exhibited many features of creole languages, including a simplified grammar, a reduced vocabulary, and a high degree of iconicity (the use of signs that resemble their referents). The children who developed NSL also showed evidence of using creative linguistic processes, such as compounding and blending, to form new signs and express complex concepts. The study suggests that the emergence of NSL was a natural and creative process that arose out of the unique social and linguistic situation of the deaf children in Nicaragua. It also highlights the importance of language contact and social interaction in the emergence of new languages and the development of linguistic diversity. Overall, Senghas and Coppola's study provides important insights into the process of creolization and the emergence of a new sign language in Nicaragua. The study highlights the creative and dynamic nature of language development and the ways in which new languages can emerge through the interaction and collaboration of language users.

manner and path in sign language (Senghas, Kita & Ozzyurek, 2004)

Senghas, Kita, and Özyürek (2004) conducted a study on the expression of motion events in American Sign Language (ASL) and Turkish Sign Language (TİD). The study investigated the use of two types of information in sign language: manner and path. Manner refers to the way in which an action or motion is carried out, such as walking, running, crawling, or jumping. Path refers to the trajectory or direction of motion, such as moving up, down, left, or right. The study found that ASL and TİD used different strategies for encoding manner and path information. In ASL, manner was typically expressed through the use of classifiers, which are handshapes that represent different types of actions or motions. Path was often expressed through the use of directional verbs, which indicate the direction of motion, or through the use of locative or directional signs. In TİD, on the other hand, manner and path were often expressed through the same sign. For example, a sign for "climbing up" might involve a handshape that represents the motion of climbing and a movement that indicates the direction of upward motion. Overall, the study suggests that different sign languages may use different strategies for encoding information about motion events, and that these strategies may reflect the cultural and linguistic background of the sign language users. The study also highlights the importance of understanding the nuances of sign language grammar and structure in order to fully appreciate the complexity and richness of sign language communication.

Verb island hypothesis (Tomasello)

The verb island hypothesis, proposed by linguist Michael Tomasello, suggests that children's early language development is primarily driven by the acquisition of verbs and their associated argument structures. According to this theory, children begin by learning basic verbs and gradually build up their vocabulary and syntax from there. Tomasello argues that the acquisition of verbs is a crucial aspect of language development, as verbs provide the basis for constructing meaningful sentences and communicating effectively. He suggests that children begin by learning a small set of basic verbs, such as "eat," "drink," and "run," and gradually expand their knowledge of verbs and their argument structures over time.

Singleton & Newport (1987)

Singleton and Newport (1987) conducted a study on the critical period hypothesis in language acquisition, which suggests that there is a limited period during which language can be acquired in a native-like manner. The study examined the language abilities of native English speakers who learned American Sign Language (ASL) at different ages, in order to investigate whether there is a critical period for the acquisition of sign language. The participants in the study were divided into three groups: those who learned ASL from birth, those who learned ASL between the ages of 6 and 13, and those who learned ASL after the age of 13. The participants completed a series of tests that measured their ability to recognize and produce ASL signs and sentences. The results of the study showed that the participants who learned ASL from birth performed significantly better on the tests than those who learned ASL after the age of 6. Additionally, those who learned ASL between the ages of 6 and 13 performed significantly better than those who learned ASL after the age of 13. These findings support the critical period hypothesis for sign language acquisition and suggest that there is a sensitive period for the acquisition of sign language. The results also suggest that the age at which a person begins learning a language can have a significant impact on their ability to acquire native-like language skills. Overall, Singleton and Newport's study provides evidence for the critical period hypothesis and highlights the importance of early language exposure for the development of native-like language skills.

Sociolinguistic development

Sociolinguistic development refers to the process by which individuals acquire the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in different social and cultural contexts. It involves the acquisition of sociolinguistic knowledge, which includes knowledge of the linguistic and cultural practices that exist within and across different communities.

Sociolinguistic knowledge

Sociolinguistic knowledge refers to a person's understanding of the social and cultural aspects of language use. It includes knowledge of the different linguistic and cultural practices that exist within and across different communities, and the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in different social and cultural contexts.

What is the structure of sentences?

Subject: The subject is the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. It typically comes at the beginning of a sentence and is usually a noun or pronoun. For example, in the sentence "The cat sat on the mat," "cat" is the subject. Predicate: The predicate is the part of the sentence that contains the verb and provides information about the subject. It usually comes after the subject and can include one or more verbs and other elements such as objects or complements. For example, in the sentence "The cat sat on the mat," "sat on the mat" is the predicate. Object: The object is the person, place, thing, or idea that is affected by the action of the verb. It can be a noun or pronoun and usually comes after the verb in a sentence. For example, in the sentence "She ate the apple," "apple" is the object. Complement: The complement is a word or phrase that provides additional information about the subject or object of the sentence. It can be a noun, adjective, or prepositional phrase, and can be either mandatory or optional. For example, in the sentence "The soup tasted delicious," "delicious" is the complement. Adverbials: Adverbials are words or phrases that provide information about when, where, why, or how the action in the sentence took place. They can be adverbs, prepositional phrases, or clauses, and can come at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. For example, in the sentence "Yesterday, she went to the store to buy milk," "Yesterday" is the adverbial.

Why is syntactic acquisition a case for multiple systems?

Syntactic acquisition is a complex process that involves the acquisition of grammatical rules and structures in language. It is widely believed that syntactic acquisition is a case for multiple systems because it involves the use of multiple cognitive and linguistic mechanisms that work together to facilitate the learning of complex syntactic structures. Some of the multiple systems involved in syntactic acquisition include: Working memory: Syntactic acquisition requires the use of working memory to hold multiple pieces of information in mind at once. This is particularly important for constructing complex sentences with multiple clauses or for understanding the relationships between words in a sentence. Implicit learning mechanisms: Syntactic acquisition involves implicit learning mechanisms that allow learners to unconsciously pick up patterns and regularities in the language input they receive. This can include the ability to generalize grammatical rules from specific examples or to recognize common structures and patterns in sentences. Explicit instruction: In addition to implicit learning mechanisms, explicit instruction and feedback can also play an important role in syntactic acquisition. Explicit instruction can help learners identify and correct errors in their grammar, and can also provide them with a more structured and systematic approach to learning syntax. Social interaction: Social interaction and communicative practice are also important for syntactic acquisition. Interacting with others in social situations provides learners with opportunities to practice using syntax in context, and to receive feedback on their language use.

Why are grammar and morphemes often missing in early speech (Telegraphic speech)of English?

Telegraphic speech refers to the simplified form of language that young children often use when they are first learning to speak. In telegraphic speech, children typically omit certain grammatical markers, such as articles (e.g., "the," "a") and auxiliary verbs (e.g., "is," "are"). They also tend to use shorter, simpler sentences and may only use a few key words to convey their message. One reason why young children use telegraphic speech is that they are still learning the rules of grammar and the proper use of morphemes. In the early stages of language development, children are still figuring out how words are put together to form sentences, and they may not yet have a firm grasp of the complex grammatical rules that govern language. As a result, they often simplify their speech by leaving out some of the more complex grammar and morphemes. Another reason why children may use telegraphic speech is that they are still developing their communication skills. When young children are first learning to speak, their primary goal is to convey their message in the most effective way possible. They may focus more on getting their message across than on using proper grammar and morphemes. Despite the lack of grammar and morphemes in telegraphic speech, it is still an important stage in language development. As children continue to learn and use language, they gradually acquire a more complex understanding of grammar and morphemes, and their speech becomes more sophisticated and nuanced over time.

What are the bootstrapping hypotheses?

The bootstrapping hypotheses, also known as the bootstrapping theories, are a set of cognitive and linguistic theories that explain how children learn language from the input they receive. These hypotheses suggest that children use certain cognitive and linguistic abilities to "bootstrap" their way to language acquisition, gradually building their knowledge of the language through exposure and practice.

Early abstract grammar

The concept of early abstract grammar suggests that young children may have a basic understanding of grammatical rules and structures from a very early age, even before they begin producing fully formed sentences. Research has shown that infants as young as six months of age can distinguish between different grammatical structures, such as word order and sentence structure, indicating that they have some early awareness of syntactic patterns in language. As children continue to develop, they begin to produce increasingly complex and grammatically correct sentences, indicating a growing understanding of the underlying rules and structures of language. The idea of early abstract grammar is based on the notion of Universal Grammar, which suggests that all human languages share a set of underlying grammatical principles and structures that are innate to the human brain. According to this view, children are born with a set of linguistic rules and structures that allow them to acquire the grammar of their native language through exposure to language input. While there is some evidence to support the idea of early abstract grammar, the concept remains somewhat controversial, with some researchers suggesting that early language development is primarily driven by environmental factors such as exposure to language input and social interaction. However, many researchers believe that early abstract grammar plays an important role in language development and that a full understanding of language acquisition requires a consideration of both biological and environmental factors.

Rat-eater vs. rats-eater

The distinction between "rat-eater" and "rats-eater" demonstrates a key aspect of language development: the ability to use and understand plural forms of words. As children develop their language skills, they gradually learn the rules for forming plurals, including adding "-s" or "-es" to the end of words. They also learn irregular plural forms, such as "mice" or "children." The ability to form and use plural forms correctly is an important aspect of language development, as it allows children to communicate effectively about multiple objects or individuals. The distinction between "rat-eater" and "rats-eater" also demonstrates the importance of context in language use. Depending on the context of the sentence, one form or the other may be more appropriate or convey a different meaning. Understanding and using language in context is another key aspect of language development, as it allows children to use language effectively and convey their intended meaning. Overall, the distinction between "rat-eater" and "rats-eater" reflects the complexity and richness of language, as well as the gradual development of language skills in children. As children develop their language skills, they learn to use and understand increasingly complex grammatical structures and to adapt their language use to different contexts.

Elicitation method (e.g. Berko, 1958)

The elicitation method is a research technique used to study language acquisition in children. The method involves presenting children with novel or unfamiliar words and then asking them to produce or repeat the words in order to study their knowledge and use of morphological and phonological rules. One classic example of the elicitation method is the "Wug Test," developed by Jean Berko Gleason in 1958. In this task, children are shown a picture of a fictional creature called a "wug" and then asked to complete sentences using the correct plural form of the word. For example, the child might be shown a picture of one wug and asked "Now there are two of them. There are two...?" The child would then be expected to respond with "wugs," demonstrating their understanding of the plural morpheme "-s." The Wug Test has been widely used to study children's understanding and use of morphological rules, as well as their ability to apply these rules to novel or unfamiliar words. The method has also been used to study phonological development, by presenting children with non-words that follow or violate phonological rules and studying their ability to identify and produce the correct sounds. Overall, the elicitation method is a useful tool for studying language acquisition, as it allows researchers to gain insights into children's knowledge and use of morphological and phonological rules, as well as the processes involved in language learning.

What is the evidence for a generative system?

The evidence for a generative system in language comes from a variety of sources, including linguistic analysis, experimental studies, and neuroscientific research. Linguistic analysis: Generative linguists argue that the complexity and structure of human language can only be explained by assuming that there is a generative system underlying language production and comprehension. The ability to generate and understand novel and complex sentences that have never been heard before, or to manipulate linguistic structures in various ways, suggests that humans have an innate capacity for language that goes beyond simply memorizing and recalling words and phrases. Experimental studies: Psycholinguistic experiments have provided evidence for the generative system by demonstrating that people are able to generate and comprehend sentences in real-time, and that

first cohort vs. second cohort and third cohort

The terms "first cohort," "second cohort," and "third cohort" are often used in studies of language acquisition to refer to groups of participants who learn a language at different stages or under different conditions. The first cohort refers to individuals who learned a language as their first or primary language, usually from birth or early childhood. These individuals are typically considered to be native speakers of the language, and they often have a high level of proficiency and fluency in the language. The second cohort refers to individuals who learned a language as a second language, usually in adolescence or adulthood. These individuals may have had exposure to the language earlier in life, but they did not acquire it as their primary language. Second language learners often have a lower level of proficiency and fluency than native speakers, but they can still achieve a high level of competence with extensive exposure and practice. The third cohort refers to individuals who learned a language under specific conditions, such as in a formal language instruction program or in a naturalistic setting. For example, the third cohort might refer to individuals who learned a second language in a classroom setting, or to immigrants who learned a new language through immersion in a new country. Third language learners may have varying levels of proficiency and fluency depending on their level of exposure and the quality of their language instruction. Overall, the terms first cohort, second cohort, and third cohort are useful for distinguishing between groups of language learners who have acquired a language under different conditions, and for understanding the factors that influence language acquisition and proficiency.

What is the verb island hypothesis? How does Naigles, Hoff, & Veer's study (2009)relate to this hypothesis?

The verb island hypothesis is a theory proposed by Michael Tomasello that suggests that children's early language development is primarily driven by the acquisition of verbs and their associated argument structures. According to this theory, children begin by learning basic verbs and gradually build up their vocabulary and syntax from there. Naigles, Hoff, & Veer's study (2009) relates to the verb island hypothesis by investigating the relationship between verb learning and syntactic development in children. The study looked at whether the learning of verbs is linked to the development of more complex syntactic structures. Overall, the study provides evidence for the importance of verb learning in language development and supports the verb island hypothesis, which suggests that the acquisition of verbs and their associated argument structures is a crucial aspect of language development in young children.

How can you study morphological development?

There are several methods that can be used to study morphological development in children. Some common methods include: Naturalistic observation: Researchers can observe and record children's language use in naturalistic settings, such as at home or in school, to study their use of morphemes and their development over time. Elicited production tasks: Researchers can use tasks that require children to produce certain grammatical forms, such as regular and irregular past tense verbs, to study their use of morphemes and their developmental progression. Elicited imitation tasks: Researchers can use tasks that require children to repeat grammatically correct sentences, including those with target morphemes, to study their ability to produce and use morphemes in context. Grammaticality judgment tasks: Researchers can ask children to judge the grammaticality of sentences that include target morphemes, to study their understanding of morphological rules. Diary studies: Parents or caregivers can keep a diary of the child's language use and the types of morphemes they produce and understand over time. By using one or more of these methods, researchers can gain insights into the patterns and trajectories of morphological development in children, as well as the factors that influence the acquisition of morphological knowledge.

Word order vs. morphemes (prefixes, infixes, suffixes)

Word order refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence, and different languages have different word orders. For example, in English, the subject typically comes before the verb, and the object comes after the verb (e.g., "The dog chased the cat"). In other languages, such as Japanese or Turkish, the word order may be different, and the subject and object can appear in different positions within the sentence. Morphemes, on the other hand, are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Morphemes can be prefixes (e.g., "un-" in "unhappy"), suffixes (e.g., "-s" in "dogs"), or infixes (e.g., "-um-" in "abso-bloomin'-lutely"). Morphemes can change the meaning or grammatical function of a word. For example, the suffix "-ed" in "walked" indicates past tense, while the prefix "un-" in "unhappy" indicates negation. In summary, both word order and morphemes play important roles in language. Word order helps to convey meaning by indicating the grammatical relationships between words in a sentence, while morphemes help to modify the meaning of individual words. The relative importance of word order and morphemes varies across languages and can affect how sentences are constructed and understood.