Crim 321 Final

How can a "walk-through" of a study community contribute to your research?

-Through this technique, one can derive an emic view of the situation observed. The technique can be particularly useful during the early stages of a study for becoming familiar with the study context and social norms that are evident. -walk through happens with a community member

There are many different things we can observe. One of the authors of your text discusses at length "body language." What three elements do they distinguish between, and what might you learn from each of those three?

1. Facial expression: can show anger, sadness, excitement and surprise (Bus station example: passengers may display sadness at leaving loved ones) 2.Posture: how u position yourself by sitting, standing..etc -can show power relations (standing up to show respect for elders) 3.Gesture: bodily movements to communicate with others. (nodding)

How long would it normally take to transcribe a one‐hour interview?

A one-hour in-depth interview can easily take four-to-five hours to transcribe verbatim A one- hour focus group discussion can take five-to-eight hours to transcribe verbatim owing to the added complexities of transcribing a group of speakers This transcription time increases significantly when you also need to translate data There are service that can reduce the time but they're expensive

What are some of the activities that moderators can use to promote discussion among group members?

Free listing: ask participants to write a list of important components Ranking: self explanatory drawing: draw a sketch pile sorting: sort things into groups

Much qualitative analysis involves coding ‐‐ developing codes ‐‐ as part of identifying repetitive patterns in our data. What are the "methodological and practical" reasons your text outlines for doing coding? What does coding give you?

From a methodological perspective developing codes allows you to identify the issues raised by participants give these issues a name or code and thereby capture the emic perspective on the research issues From a practical perspective developing codes helps you break up data into smaller but meaningful parts for analysis

What two aspects of group composition do the authors of your text say are especially important to consider?

Homogeniety amongst participants: particpants with homogenous socio-demographic characteristics or some degree of shared experience of the discussion topic. Group particpants more likely to share their views and experiences with others who are similar to themselves Familiarity: level of familiarity between participants can influence their contribution to the group discussion.

Why are focus groups typically run by two people? What are their respective roles?

Note taker: write down the key issues discussed during the discussion Moderator: introductory tasks, ethical tasks, group cohesion tasks, facilitating discussion tasks

How do you "anonymize" a transcript?

Removing any identifiers from The transcript to preserve the participant's anonymity It is very important to maintain ethical principles during data analysis Anonymizing a transcript involves removing any information that may reveal the identity of the participant such as names places or other specific information These identifiers may simply be left blank or replaced with a pseudonym

A good interview will see the participant talking way more than you do, but sometimes people give shorter answers, in which case we want to encourage them to elaborate, often by using different kinds of probes. What are some of the different probes you can use?

Simple motivational probes: "AH-HA", Nodding Reflective probe: repeating an interviewees remarks to seek clarification. "So what your saying is... correct?" Expansive probe: used to ask for more info. "Can you tell me more about this?" silence: silence isnt always bad. it can give the interviewee time to think

1. How do the authors distinguish between the questions and interactions involved in a one‐on‐ one interview versus the kinds of questions and interaction researchers have when doing a survey?

Survey = respondent interview = participant

How much text should you include in a code? The answer is, "It depends." But what does it depend on?

The amount of text you code will vary. Some coded segments may comprise a single line of text, while others may span a paragraph, page or several pages of text, depending on the length of discussion on the issue. Remember the purpose of coding is to retrieve segments of text on a specific issue for focused analysis. Consider how much text you need to code to enable a clear understanding of the issue discussed. You may need to code slightly more text or include the question asked to retain the sense of the issue when reading the text segment alone. Coding often involves balancing focus with context - selecting a focused segment of text to code that still retains the context of the issue in the extract. If you code too much text for every issue you will end up having to do a lot of potentially redundant reading during analysis.

participant observation

the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day-to-day or routine activities of participants in the research setting You adhere to the social norms and values of the population and you participate in their lives WHILE MAINTAINING ENOUGH DISTANCE TO OBSERVE THE SITUATION You start with non-participant, then as you establish rapport, you move to participant observation

Why is it important to remain descriptive and avoid inference when observing and recording field notes? Can you give an example of a "right" and "wrong" observation?

When describing people, try to be as specific as possible. For example, instead of writing 'young man in shabby clothes' describe how the man actually looks, such as 'a young man possibly around 20 years old, wearing soiled blue jeans, a grey stained t-shirt and a black jacket tied loosely around his waist, uncombed hair and worn shoes with untied laces'. Bc ur view of shabby might be different from someone elses This is imporang as this provides a much more detailed description without your interpretation of how the man looks (e.g. 'shabby' clothing), because your interpretation of 'shabby' may differ from another person's view.

The authors talk about the four steps in their approach to participatory design on pages 60‐63. How do their steps compare to the ones they attribute to Van Strein?

a) Indentify the societal problem, embued your research problem in society b) Identify and involve participants and relevant societal stake holders c) Co define the social change problem of your research project d) Co define the social change objectives and questions of your project

Your text says, "It is important to distinguish the two processes of code development and coding data." Why?

'Code development' occurs first and is done with only a portion of the data to develop the range of codes, while 'coding data' is a separate process that uses the final codes in your codebook to label the entire data set.

Gaining access to the desired research site can be a challenge. What are some of the reasons that are cited when researchers are denied access? What do these imply to you in terms of how you might address each of those concerns when approaching a site for permission?

- 1) lack of trust from the community about the intentions of the researcher 2) discomfort of the community in having an outsider observe them; 3) Concern about the potential risk to the community or group -gender also matters; easier for women to observe childeren

1. In-depth interview have been described as a "conversation with a purpose." But according to your text, how apt is that notion of it being a conversation?

- can feel like a convo but not a two way dialogue -only the interviewee shares their story -interviewer's role is to elicit the story -"special kind" of knowledge producing conversation.

The text emphasizes the idea that any interview should have a logical flow to it, and that you should be able to move smoothly from question to question and topic to topic. But whose understanding and way of thinking about the topic should the interview reflect - the researcher's or the interviewee's? What are some ways you can accomplish that? The text gives some hints, but can you think of others?

- should follow a logical flow for the interviewee rather than the researcher -if an interviewee is confused it can reduce the quality of the data that is collected -

the text suggests that focus groups actually benefit most from "non‐directive interviewing." What do they mean by that? And what are the advantages of approaching it in that way?

-to move away from interviewer-dominated data collection -promote spontaneous discussion between participants

What is a stakeholder map, and how might it be useful?

-A mapping of relevant stakeholders can help to determine stakeholders' interests and their power/influence in relation to the participants. A stakeholder map offers insight into the positions (determined by the expected level of influence on the issue at stake) of participants and stakeholders, and can help to provide direction and indications as to whether social change can realistically be achieved -your research will thus enhance the societal relevance as well as the quality of your findings. In other words, the project is even more grounded in reality. Outcomes of the study will be recognized by the stakeholders as they are bound to their world

1. What is the defining objective of participatory research? And how (in general terms) do participatory approaches envision that will be accomplished?

-A research approach aiming at both theory development and social change, that requires involving study participants and other societal stakeholders in the research process from the study design onwards. -Conducted with ppl rather than on ppl, that is, the research is participatory, to improve and understand the world by changing it

How might your appearance facilitate or impede the building of rapport when you enter a community?

-Before beginning an observation, it is essential to evaluate your look and how it may affect the outcome. Keep in mind that while you are monitoring others, they will also be observing you. Consider what others in the area you desire to observe may be wearing or doing, so you may alter your attire and appearance to blend in as much as possible. Although you cannot alter your fundamental appearance, there are a few things you may change, such as your dress, makeup, and jewellery. -by adopting a certain local wardrobe, you can hasten the rapport building process

What is "positionality"? How is it defined in the glossary at the back of the book?

-Each participant and stakeholder reflects their subjective views of their own social world, while you as researcher bring your own subjective influence and positionality to the participatory research process -"The way researchers portray themselves during data collection, which can influence data generated." -The interpretive paradigm underlying qualitative research acknowledges that the researcher's background, position and/or emotions are an integral part of the process. Therefore, reflexivity is important - you as researcher should consciously self-reflect to make your potential influence on the research process implicit

Although it's the next chapter that will talk about focus groups in greater detail, the authors offer a few tidbits about differences they see in the strengths and central focus of one‐on‐one interviews versus focus groups. What are those and what do they tell you about when each would be most useful? Given what you've seen of both thus far, does it seem like both of them might be used - perhaps to complement one another ‐‐ in one multi‐method study? Explain.

-In-depth interviews can be used to identify narratives about ppl's lives -focus groups don't collect narratives or personal stories of participants but collect info on a range of opinions from participants

. How do the authors define who "stakeholders" are and what are some of the different ways they can be engaged in your research?

-Stakeholders are all relations and institutions that will be affected by or will affect the social outcome of the study -The involvement of stakeholders encourages not only the co-creation of the project design as sketched in this chapter, but also the co-design of interventions as outlined in Chapter 12. The relationship between researchers and participants implies a high level of reflexivity of the researcher within the research process

The authors of your text distinguish their approach to participatory research from others when they state that they believe both academic and societal interests can be combined and addressed in research. How do they envision the relationship between those two?

-They aim at understanding and verstehen to produce academic evidence and then use this research evidence to contribute to social change. -The emic/insiders' perspectives represent the voices of the participants and are therefore an essential part and starting point for subsequent efforts to define and develop social change interventions -Active involvement and collaboration with participants and stakeholders takes place in specific stages of the participatory research process.

What are some considerations to keep in mind when figuring out where to have your focus group discussions?

-any location as long as it's quiet, private, comfortable, free of distractions and easy for participants to locate

The authors talk about using a "funnel" structure when developing your focus group discussion guide. What exactly is that, and how is it useful to do it in the order they suggest?

-at the top of the funnel is the introduction statement followed by opening questions -as the tunnel narrows more specific questions are included -the last part is the closing questions which provide closure to the discussion -there can also be a post interview stage where u answer questions

After you part, what do the authors of your text encourage you to start doing right away? Why?

-begin transcribing the interview and review the issues raised -make inductive inferences to include in the next interview -

. What exactly does "participatory" mean in this context? Who is participating? What does their participation involve? And when do you get them engaged in the project?

-being participatory means acknowledging the existence of different knowledge systems (for example local knowledge, indigenous knowledge, scientific and biomedical knowledge) -we similarly refer to the concepts of Verstehen (understanding the world from the other's perspective) and the possible differences between the emic (insider's) and etic (outsider's) perspective, as the basis of our qualitative research -aimed at social change, begins with people -outside researcher and inside participants can be referred to as partners -acknoledges the value of co-learning -involves people from different knowledge systems

1. After some preliminary contextualizing and explaining, you are ready to start moving more directly into whatever your topic is. What are you trying to accomplish in the transition that happens with those "opening questions"?

-build rapport -usually broadly related to the key topics of the interview guide

Your text suggests (on p.180) that "complete participation" is also known as "going native." Your professor will suggest they are incorrect in doing so. So, according to your professor, what does "going native" actually mean?

-complete participation: total involvement; often live on site (for many years or months of living in a particular community and becoming part of it): not "going native" -Complete invisibility will never be achieved bc the researcher is always going to present in the social situation observe

Completing a good interview is hard work, in part because you need to be doing and thinking about so many things at the same time. One of the first things you need to do is to establish rapport with your participant. What do researchers mean when they talk about "rapport" and what are some things you can do to help establish it?

-dont rush into asking questions -make small talk to make the interviewee more comfortable -understanding the local language helps (even using a few words of that culture can help) -basically just suck off the buddies culture -sit at a 90 degree angle -

What are some of the research objectives for which observational research is suitable?

-explore new topic of research -provide context to a study thru observation of the social setting -describe a specific place or social setting -understand how ppl utilize spaces -understand or explain ppl's actions in context -discover silent social norms

An important choice concerns where the interview will be located. What are some of the considerations you should keep in mind when deciding where to hold an interview?

-find a place where the interviewee feels at ease to talk more freely -keep distractions to a minimum as the presence of other ppl will influence the info that an interviewee is willing to share

What are some of the objectives that focus groups discussions are particularly appropriate for? Are there any where they are less appropriate?

-focus group discussion can uncover unique perspectives due to the group environment in which data is collected -group context allows identify range of issues -interaction generates different type of data -group members challenge each other

I've heard focus groups described as "basically the same as doing multiple interviews." Would your text agree? Explain.

-focus group is not an in-depth interview with multiple participants but an interactive discussion between participants

The title of the chapter contains three words: focus, group and discussion. Explain how each of these three words characterizes well the method that is the subject of that chapter

-focus on specific issues -predetermined group of ppl -conducting an interactive discussion

. When we were discussing sampling in qualitative research, the authors of your text and your professor were always emphasizing the value of having a diverse sample. Is the same true in research using focus groups? Explain. Would the same principle apply within a given focus group as well as across multiple focus groups for a given research question?

-ideal focus groups have 6-8 participants but can range from 5-9 -if you have fewer than 6 it is difficult to gain a diversity of perspectives -if you have more than 8 there is a limited opportunity for each participant to actively participate and it becomes difficult for the moderator to manage the discussion

Instead of placing cameras in a particular setting to record activity, some research has been done in which the participants in your research are given cameras and asked to go and record any activity that is meaningful to them. How are the images then used?

-images are used to motivate the interviewees to speak about their memories associated with the object in the picture -images are often symbolic of what the study participants want to convey and bring out other stories than what is depicted in the photographs

1. The authors of your text start talking their way through the interview process by breaking it down into parts. Step One ("Introduction") is where you start to set the context for the interview and break the ice with your participant. What sorts of information are important to include in that introduction to your project?

-introduce themselves -explain the purpose of the research -what the data will be used for -address ethical issues such as confidentiality and anonymity -informed consent -build rapport

What is "pilot testing" and what does it help accomplish? With whom should you do that?

-it can be hard to predict how interviewees will interpret your questions so you pilot test them with someone who shares the same characteristics -if the interviewee speaks another language the interview guide is translated prior to pilot testing -during pilot testing you might look out for : Did the interviewees understand the questions immediately? -Were concepts, sentences and words adapted to the context of the interviewee? -Do some questions need to be rephrased?

Why is it advisable to pilot test your discussion guide? And with whom should you do so?

-it can be hard to predict how participants will respond to some questions in the discussion -ask questions to a group of ppl with similar characteristics to the study population -

17. What are some signs you would look for that you would take as an indication that you are indeed establishing rapport with your participant?

-leaning forwards and eye contact -feel a connection or a click -experienced interviews will know when they have rapport

If there's a central message to the "Asking and motivational probing" section of this chapter, for me it's that it's not about you - the researcher - but about your participant ... making them feel comfortable, . What are some of the things that you should keep in mind when asking questions to ensure that is the case? How about if the people you are interviewing are people who have done nasty things or are espousing views you disagree with?

-not a two way dialgoue. your job is to elicit the story of the interviewee -keep yourself out of the interview -its acceptable to say "this interview is about your thoughts and ideas. I can give you my own thoughts after the interview" -respect the views and stories of the interviewee even if they are clearly wrong or differ from your views -ask questions in a non directive way

Interviewers hate yes/no answers. The decision to go with an interview is ground in the idea that we hope people will go on at length in telling us their stories and explaining their lives. The text gives one example (on p.124) to show how a yes/no question can be turned into an "open" one ‐‐ one that calls for a more elaborate response. What does that example tell you about how to create a more "qualitative" question? Can you generate another example, perhaps related to whatever area of criminology interests you that you might ask in an interview?

-open questions, one invites the interviewee to share their perceptions and tell their story in detail for example: What do you think about having kids? (Probes: desire/no desire? how many? girls/boys? when? why?

The authors mention the principle of "embeddedness." Explain in your own words what they mean by that

-people's perspectives and actions are importantly shaped by the social relations in which they function. Embeddedness helps to describe, explain and interpret how - within relational, institutional and cultural contexts - perspectives are formed -We thus study people in their own context, and not only study what they do but also how they understand the world and relate to others, and how this shapes their practice - the so called double hermeneutic - Involving these stakeholders in our participatory research projects helps us to obtain a better understanding of our participants' perspective and actions. Only by embedding our research and involving participants and stakeholders, can the second aim of our participatory research - social change - be achieved

What are some of the unique skills that are required of researchers who wish to engage participants in a more collaborative way?

-react and adapt to circumstances in an even more flexible way (than for qualitative research) as participants and relevant stakeholders are more involved; -reach out from your academic institution into society, to embed your research; -connect to people outside your academic institution, and collaborate on the project; -communicate with stakeholders whose objectives aren't solely academic; -be aware of power relations between different stakeholders, and between you and the stakeholders; establish rapport; -facilitate stakeholders ability to express themselves;

Interviews can feel incredibly personal and it is amazing what people will share with you when you do this well. It is a real privilege to be entrusted with intimate details from people's lives. But after going into all those details and sharing the emotions associated with them, every interview ends. What are some things you should be attending to when closing down the interview before you go your separate ways?

-repeat the intro and talk about less sensitive topics -fade out

10. Doing research involves going back and forth between the abstract concepts that interest us as researchers in criminology or whatever discipline, and the concrete examples we can pull of those concepts from everyday life. While it is important that the questions we ask reflect the concepts and theories that interest us - we need to ensure we stay on track. What are some of the important considerations the authors of your text think you should keep in mind as you go through that process of question design that will help ensure you have built an appropriate bridge between those two levels (the abstract concept and its concrete manifestations) and give your participants a meaningful way to respond?

-structure the interview guide by subheadings of topics or concepts from the conceptual framework.

. The text mentions the slogan "Start with people themselves" and "Begin with people" on several occasions. What do they mean by that?

-the 'point of departure must always be with men and women in the "here and now", which constitutes the situation in which they are submerged, from which they merge and in which they intervene. Only by starting from this situation - which determines their perception of it - can they begin to move -this is all about the concept of consciousness -and which is the basis for social transformation by people themselves, that 'a deepened consciousness of their situation leads people to apprehend that situation as an historical reality susceptible of transformation'

When designing questions, are the types and wording of questions used in focus groups basically similar to the types of questions you would ask in in‐person interviews?

-there are many similarities but they also differ in some ways -focus group questions are designed to be asked to a group of people and to promote discussion. Unlike a 1 on 1 interview -fewer questions than interviews -clear cut and simple questions

1. Next come what the text refers to as the "key questions" of your interview. How does the text justify waiting until this point in the interview to get to what is really the heart of what you are trying to find out? Wouldn't you want to do that sooner? Explain.

-these questinos are placed in the central part of the interview to allow time for rapport to be established between the interviewer and interviewee to feel free and safe to share info -interviewers usually use probes to gain detailed info

What are "topical probes" and how might they be useful in an interview?

-they are written prompts on an interview guide that allow the interviewer to go deeper into a question -

What is the purpose of the opening question in a focus group discussion? Your professor will add an important caveat to that in lecture. What is it?

-to break the ice -establish rapport

In Case Study 8.1 the authors describe the use of focus groups in Europe by the government of the Netherlands. For what sorts of uses did they find focus groups particularly useful ?

-to explore new topics about which little is known -to evaluate a programme or service -to seek diversity in study issues -to identify norms in the study population -to understand processes

1. Appropriately enough, you finish the interview with "closing questions." What is their purpose?

-to slowly reduce the rapport and create a distance again before leaving the interview -would not be ethical to leave the interviewee in an emotional or vulnerable state -to "fade out" from the interview

When translating questions into foreign languages (and this is as true for interviews and surveys as it is for focus groups), the authors mention that a "back‐translation method" is used to ensure accuracy of translation. What is that?

-translated text is translated back into the original language to check for accuracy.

What is the "deference effect"? Why is it a problem and how can moderators avoid it?

-when participants say what they think the moderator wants to hear rather than voicing their own opinion about an issue. -moderator can stress that individual opinions are valued and can refrain from sharing their own views

The text recommends that you begin the observational process in social settings by doing more in the way of what they call non‐participant observation. Why? What does that accomplish?

-you observe the community from an etic perspective and observations of small actions can be striking -

Interviews can be done through all sorts of media, but the most valued are the ones that are done face‐to‐face. Of course, this creates a social interaction where two humans who most often were previously strangers to one another sit down to talk about what are often very personal and sensitive issues. Even more than that, we are often talking to people in communities we are not a part of about life experiences we may never have had. What can you do as an interviewer to help make that a comfortable interaction ... for example, in the way that you appear, and in the positionality you claim?

-your positionality and charateristics can influence the info being collected -dress appropriately for the socio cultural situation of the research

The text offers an interesting perspective when they point out that you are the instrument through which observation occurs. An implication of that is that there will be certain skills that need to be employed to keep your observations rigorous and valid. The text describes seven different skills on pp.190‐1. What are they and how are each useful? {DAPRAH}

1) Discipline: you need to prepare yourself to observe and maintain the same discipline across different sites 2)Self reflection: this skill enables you to question the production of knowledge and your positionality in the setting 3) Ability to minimize interpretation of observations: which involves differentiating between what you observe and what you interpret about your observations in order to avoid inferring, judging, or assuming 4) Patience: observation can be a long process. If you are not patient there is risk of interpretation and the inability to see the nuances and silent norms that are present in the setting 5) Rapport building: you must have strong social skills to engage with the study population 6) ability to multitask: this skill is related to previous skills on rapport development. Multi tasking becomes important while conducting participant observation 7) having good memory: to recall what has happened in the setting and describing it in the field notes

The authors outline five different approaches to textual data analysis. In general terms, how are all five similar, and on what basis do they differ?

1) Narrative analysis 2)Case study analysis 3)discourse analysis 4)Content analysis 5)grounded theory -They all categorize data into groups is another common task to understand, explain or presenting data -All analyze themes and coding data by these themes. There are different as each analysis has a different framework

The text outlines different roles you can occupy when observing that range from complete non-participation to complete participation; they concentrate on the two extremes although you should keep in mind that there are various mixtures in between. On p.183, for example, four different levels of participation are noted. How are they distinguished? And how might each be seen as a "stage" or "level" in the process of systematically observing some group or setting?

1. Passive participation stage 1 (PAMC): when you do not interact or participate in the activities but observe and record your observations from a nearby vantage point 2.Moderate participation stage 2: where you can conduct some participation with observation, thus you are both an insider and an outsider 3.Active participation stage 3: when you seek to participate in many activtities of those you observe, doing what others do, to learn the cultural rules and values 4. Complete participation level 1: Where you become completely involved in the social setting you are observing, perhaps by living in the study location for an extended period of time. Dont have much time left for self reflection

When we observe, we are typically focussing on some behaviour or aspect of behaviour, but your text also suggests that there is also lots to be gained by observing the place or social setting in which the behaviour occurs. Like what?

1. by focusing on a place you can observe how ppl make use of a space, social setting or institution 2.study the location to see how it makes people behave- for example, a researcher may observe the layout of an educational institution to identify how this influences access for ppl with disabilities 3.Observing the physical setting is important to begin to situate any activties that take place in that location

The text (on pp.160‐1) list a number of different types of focus group members who are "problems" from the perspective of a moderator - (1) the quiet participant; (2) the dominant participant; (3) the self‐proclaimed expert; and (4) the rambling participant. Why/how is each of these people a "problem" (i.e., how do they undermine what the moderator is trying to achieve?), and what does your text suggest you can do with each one to get the group back on track.

1. quiet participant: will remain silent during the discussion. Moderator can use gentle probing, open body language and eye contact to welcome their contributions 2.Dominant participant: often monopolize the discussion by being the first to respond to issues or by taking more time than others to contribute their views. A moderator can use body language to signal reduced interest once they have made their point, by reducing eye contact, turning a shoulder towards them. if these fail you can use verbal cues 3.self proclaimed expert: they can quickly create a hierarchy within the group and intimidate other members to feel that their contributions are less valued. Moderator can stress that everyone in the group is an expert. 4.Rambling participant: monopolizes the discussion time by giving overly long accounts of their experiences which may have marginal relevance. Moderator can avoid eye contact, redirect the discussion or by interrupting them to enable other to contribute

On pp.147‐8, the authors list eight different principles that you should keep in mind when designing questions for your focus group. You should understand why each of them is important and a good idea to follow.

1.clear short and simple: easy to understand and respond 2. open: allow responses from any perspective 3.avoid jargon: use colloquial language that participants can easily relate to 4.one dimensional:avoid double baralled questions 5. conversational style: use informal conversational language 6. non-personal: confidentiality purposes 7.promote discussion: use probes 8.few in number: keep it to 12-15 questions

the text lists seven different types of probes you can ask in order to promote further discussion in a focus group. You should know these and how they contribute to group discussion

1.group probe: seek further info from entire group by highlighting an issue raised by one participant 2.group explanation probe:ask the whole group to expain an issue where there is clear agreement or divergence 3.Ranking probe: ask the group to rank issues raised and then ask for a justification for the ranking 4.participant gesture probe: draw a participant into the discussion by noticing their body language 5. probe for diversity: asl for different views to seek diversity in opinons 6.silence probe: remain silent fro about five seconds after a participant has spoken to enable the speaker to expand their point 7.activities as probes: conduct a short group activity to stimulate discussion

What is a field diary? How might it be useful? And how is it different from field notes?

A field diary is another approach to document your observations, thoughts, and interpretations. In a field journal, you may record your hunches, ideas, sentiments, personal opinions, and occasionally revulsion and outrage. Thus, you maintain separate records for what you observe (in field notes) and your personal ideas and reactions to what you witness (in a field diary). The content of a field diary are reflective notes where you question what you have observed, keep methodological ideas on what could be improved in the next observation and things you need to check with someone from the local culture.

What are some of the advantages and limitations of approaching your observation as a non-participant?

Advantage: Participation allows you to step back and see the issue from a different perspective. You can observe, listen, and take field notes without participating Limitation: can lead to the Hawthorne effect - people act differently as they know they are being observed. May be hard to gain accurate results as watching from a distance. Impression management. Time-consuming/costly. Sidenote: structured observation is a type of non-participant observation where you have a defined set of criteria you want to observe in the setting

What are some advantages and limitations of using observation as a stand‐alone method, and what do you gain by combining it with a method like interviewing?

Advantages: u can include more of the context in the data collected from other methods, some aspects may not be verbalized in interviews and focus groups so observations add value to the narrative data

Your text indicates that interviews can be transcribed as soon as you finish them or after all the interviews are completed. But what advantages are there to transcribing as you go, i.e., transcribing as soon as possible, even if you have not completed all the interviews yet?

Allows you to identify new issues from the interview that may be further explored in subsequent interviews Information from early transcripts may guide participant recruitment Transcribing interviews as you collect the data enables you to assess whether data have reached saturation, that is, when no more new issues are being raised, and data collection can stop

What is unique about the "grounded theory" approach to data analysis?

An approach to develop theory inductively from textual data Grounded theory is based on symbolic interactionism, which proposes that human behaviour can be understood through the symbols and meanings that people communicate through their social interactions Ground theory is uniquing as it theorizes as you collect, code and analyze data It is an extremely iterative process of building and refining theory throughout the analysis that leads to a rich, dense theoretical account that is completely grounded in empirical data

How does case study analysis differ from narrative analysis? Would the oral history you are doing as a class project be considered a narrative or case study analysis?

Case study analysis allows one to go through in-depth experiences/answers. Seeing the deeper meaning behind each answer, seeing each answer as almost story like Case study uses narrative style Narrative is more about listening to events and Case Study is understanding how those events affected someone

I'm not all that crazy about the authors' discussion of "discourse analysis." We'll talk about it more in class. The term originally comes from Foucault; my understanding of it is that it is essentially a vocabulary that frames an issue or phenomenon in a particular way and reflects a certain way of thinking about it, e.g., whether "drug addiction" is considered a "criminal" or "health" issue.

Discourse analysis is built on the premise that language, expressions and dialogue are profoundly shaped by social understandings, expectations and broader social structures Example:

After reading about content analysis, do you get the sense that it is a more qualitative or quantitative technique? Explain your answer

Content analysis involves counting and quantifying elements in qualitative data It involves selecting data (e.g. texts, images or other data), developing a coding matrix to capture relevant items, and reviewing data to count the presence of those items Statistical analysis is then conducted, which may include presenting frequency counts and percentages Although this analysis still uses many quantitative approaches it is still a qualitative technique Your using quantitative techniques to get to a qualitative answer Example: counting how many times a certain word is used, this means nothing without any sort of qualitative understanding

Outline how you would approach coding in a deductive way. Where would your initial codes come from? How would you proceed with coding in an inductive way? Where would your codes come from? Can you incorporate both approaches in one research project?

Deductive strategies for developing codes do not start with reading data Deductive strategies are often used first before the more intensive process of reading data to develop codes inductively from the data itself These initial codes are effectively derived from issues theories or concepts included in the design cycle at the outset of the study and are therefore defined by the researchers rather than the data Inductive strategies for developing codes involve reading data, identifying issues, reflecting on their meaning and capturing these in codes. Codes derived directly from data are extremely valuable as they reflect the issues of importance to participants themselves, which may be different from those anticipated by the researcher. We believe that you should not only use deductive strategies to develop codes, as this does not allow the data to 'speak for itself' and you risk missing new and unique issues raised by participants, which defeats the core purpose of a qualitative study. Therefore, we recommend using a mix of deductive and inductive strategies for code development

Your text notes that being a complete participant can be highly demanding. One issue that comes up concerns the extent to which you actually participate in the activities of the group. This is an especially relevant issue in a discipline like a criminology, where many of the people we try and understand engage in criminal behaviour. That said, the text offers no definitive answers. So where would you draw the line if, for example, you were observing gang activity, or were studying sex work(ers)?

Draw the line where you might have to commit a crime. These decisions will be primarily guided by your research question or the purpose of your observation, but also by the types of activities that are commonly conducted within your study setting.

Why do the authors of your text believe it is important to check for inter‐coder agreement as part of assessing the consistency with which codes are being implemented? How would you go about assessing it? What are some factors associated with inconsistency?

Inter-coder agreement (ICA) is a measure of the consistency with which two coders can independently code data in the same way using the same coding instructions (i.e. codebook). This is a check on whether each coder is identifying the same issues in data, interpreting data in the same way and selecting the same codes to apply to specific segments of text. Although there are varying opinions on the relevance of ICA for qualitative research, we believe that some consistency checks on coding are valuable to avoid differential coding that can reduce the quality of the analysis.

What does "pre-testing" or "pilot testing" involve and what do you gain by doing it?

It is always useful to do a pilot test of your observation, perhaps in another setting from the actual locations where you intend to conduct your observation. The pre-test is necessary because it helps you to check if you are able to observe and document a situation effectively. It can also make you realize the time needed for observing the context versus the time needed to observe particular activities in the context Conducting a pre-test involves selecting an observation site, and writing down what you saw, heard, the actors who were involved, the smells of the place, and so on

The text gives a bit of an introduction to CAQDAS - computer‐assisted qualitative data analysis software. Can they analyze your data for you? For your information, the CAQDAS software available at SFU is NVivo, which your professor will describe in class. CAQDAS (computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software) is an umbrella term to refer to the range of software programs designed to support qualitative data analysis.

Most importantly, software programs do not do analysis for you; they are a tool to facilitate your analysis of data.

How is a "codebook" a useful item to create and maintain?

Once a core set of codes are developed they are listed in a codebook that is simply a list of all the codes you developed for the analysis. A codebook includes the name of each code and a description of how to apply the code to text, since codes are used as topical markers of text to identify where specific issues are raised. A codebook is essential as it provides a central reference of all codes in the study. Code development is an evolving process, in which new codes may be added, code descriptions refined, and codes combined or divided; therefore a codebook is an essential reference for analysis. A codebook is critical in team-based analysis to maintain consistency across the analytic team in how codes are used in the analysis.

Keeping field notes is an important part of observing. The text suggests a strategy that involves creating concentric circles of observation. What does that involve? What goes in each circle?

One strategy is to structure your field notes into three concentric circles the innermost circle has the primary focus of the observation (e.g. object/person/activity) , the second concentric circle has the context surrounding the main activity (e.g. place/people/context) the third circle focuses on the broader environment that surrounds the activity Start to take notes by focusing on the inner most circle and slowly focus your attention to the details in the outer circles thus capturing different elements in the process.

What is the "Hawthorne effect"?

Researchers are often part of the situation they observe and may influence the situation through their presence or actions. Study participants may modify or improve their behaviour in response to knowing they are being observed

Your text suggests that qualitative data analysis is both science and art. In what sense is it "science" and in what sense is it "art"?

Science: rigour and structure that come from following established procedures, and using well-accepted methods and techniques for analysing textual data developing evidence-based interpretations of data to ensure that study findings are well supported by data Art: Interpretive nature of analysis, whereby researchers need to understand, explain and interpret human experience, which requires uncovering personal, social and cultural meanings that underlie people's behaviour making sense of people's multiple and contrasting perspectives

Given your response to question 2, why then, does it make sense for you as the oral history interviewer to make your presence minimal and not get in the way while the person tells their story?

The more presence one has in a narrative analysis the less subjective one gets

The first approach the authors outline is narrative analysis, which I presume you are paying especially close attention to given that this is what most of your term projects will be all about. But the authors say they are not talking "life history" here. So in what sense is this a life narrative?

The narrative analysis examines the nature of stories to understand how ppl portray their lives and experiences -THe goal is to subjective and social constructions of their lived experience rather than the life history of an individual The goal of analyzing narrative data is more to disclose these constructive processes than to reconstruct factual processes' Focuses on the structure (how the story is told, language) and content (issues raised) of the narrative

What are some of the benefits of using CAQDAS software? What are some limitations?

These programs are useful for managing textual data, coding and systematic retrieval of text segments, adding variables to texts and visualizing data in different formats to identify connections. You can conduct these tasks without software, by cutting documents into segments, sorting segments into groups, adding post-it notes, drawing diagrams of links and so on - therefore using a software package is a choice rather than a requirement. Most importantly, software programs do not do analysis for you; they are a tool to facilitate your analysis of data. Researchers often cite a software package in published articles or reports as though the software conducted the analysis rather than the researcher. Software for qualitative data analysis has a similar function to a word processor which does not write for you but it facilitates your writing; a word processor does not identify topics to write about, structure your writing, or construct an argument for you. Similarly, CAQDAS programs cannot read data therefore they cannot develop codes or code data for you, nor can they identify meaningful connections or interpret data. It is the researcher who does these analytic tasks and who needs to follow an analytic process to interpret data; software can facilitate these tasks but does not replace a trained analyst. Using CAQDAS is no substitute for the skills of an analyst, the quality of analysis still rests largely on the researcher not the software.

What are some advantages of doing virtual focus groups (e.g., conducting a focus group over Zoom)? What are some of their limitations?

advantages: convenient for geographically dispersed groups, anonymity, greater comfort, convenient, less likely to dominate a discussion, cost effective limitations: require participants to have access to technology and the ability to use it, technical failure, lack visual contact

Your text emphasizes the idea that transcripts should be verbatim, but why? The text also suggests that you approach transcription differently depending on whether your research is all about speech and its structure, versus the situation where you are more interested in the content of the speech. What difference would those make in how you would transcribe? Would your professor agree with all of that?

Verbatim transcript includes both the words spoken by the participant(s) and the interviewer A verbatim transcript is essential to capture participants' own words, phrases and expressions; this provides the rich detail that is so valuable in qualitative research and allows researchers to understand the emic perspective on the issues raised This sometimes also includes emotions such as (laughter), (pause), (softly spoken), (hesitation) Structure and Speech: Linguistic and conversation analysis focuses on the nature and structure of dialogue, since the interest is on how people talk. Therefore, the transcript may include the length of pauses, elongated words, diction, word emphasis or overlapping speech Content: The interest in transcription is less on the mechanics of speech, and more on the informational content of the interview and the social or cultural meanings attached to this content focus is on what is said, rather than how it is said Structure and Speech looks deeper than the words, while content is word for word and more about what was said

When a video or photographic equipment is used, the text talks about the need to "normalize" the equipment. What does that involve and why would you do it?

What it involves: letting ppl see and handle the equipment, making a recording and showing people the outcome (video or photograph, carrying the equipment in the commnity or the social setting on a regular basis, so that it becomes a familiar sight WHy: to reduce hawthrone effect

What role do "memos" play as you go through the coding process?

Writing memos during active reading facilitates a deeper exploration of data leading to valuable codes. Memos are simply notes about your data and they provide a place to store your ideas, reflections and thoughts about potential codes. However, the act of writing memos 'provides a space to become actively engaged in your materials' which can facilitate a more critical, analytic reading of text. In your memos you may note issues raised for potential codes, identify subtle nuances of an issue that may help to define separate aspects of that issue into different codes, or notice what a group of seemingly disparate issues have in common to be part of a broader code. There is no right or wrong way to write memos

How would you evaluate Case Study 4.1, which involved research with older people regarding client‐oriented care? Do you think the project lived up to the principles that the authors of the text say are definitive of participatory approaches? How so? Or How not?

Yes it did because it involves using academic evidence in order to make a social change.

. On p.55, your text talks about "the regulative research cycle of Van Strein." What are the five steps in that process?

a) Problem definition (orientation): "This stage involves researchers collaborating with the study population and stakeholders to orient themselves on the societal issue at stake. The (research) problem is thus co-identified and co-defined. b) Diagnosis (analyse): "Only after step 1 is taken can the research process start. The stage of diagnosis involves all research activities of data collection and analysis; in our qualitative research cycle this includes the design, data collection and analytic cycles." c) Planning (design): "This step involves designing an intervention, action or change process, which is co-created with stakeholders. d) Intervention (test): The intervention is implemented, tested and monitored. e) evaluation: the intervention is evaluated

1. What do the authors of your text see as the unique strengths that interviews can bring to the information we gather to try and understand the world? For what types of information are they most useful?

interviews are useful when: -seeking info on individual experiences from ppl about a specific issue or topic -conducted to identify: how ppl make decisions, ppl's own beliefs and perceptions -ppl's feelings and emotions

Pay heed to the strengths and limitations that are generally associated with interviews that are listed in Table 7.1, as these will become important as we learn about other methods with their own strengths and limitations, which we will also need when deciding in any given research situation just which will be most useful in helping us address the research questions we pose.

strengths: gain in depth and personal level data on experiences, life stories, feelings, useful sensitive topics, get contextual info and get personal stories, experiences of ppl Limitations: 1 on 1 interview, no feedback from others, need skills to establish rapport, motivate, listen and react to interviewees, flexibility needed to change topic order in interview guide to follow interviewee's story and transcription of interviews is time consuming

The individual who runs a focus group is usually referred to as the "moderator" rather than as an "interviewer." What are some of the skills that a moderator should have? Explain how each contributes to the success of a focus group.

strong interpersonal skills: to foster a positive group environment that is conducive to discussion -Being empathetic and respectful. remain neutral -effective listening and questioning skills are needed for a moderator to understand participant views -these allow a moderator to build on the natural flow of the discussion and maintain rapport rather than relying too heavily on the discussion guide

Although much observation happens in situ (i.e., out in the field) with us actually present, the text also discusses using visual aids, such as placing recording devices (like video or still cameras) in the setting. In what sorts of situations might they be particularly useful? What advantages and limitations come with using them?

these visual aids are typically done when the presence of the researcher would be intrusive and interfere with the normal behaviour of those observed. Advanages:The use of video can facilitate a detailed observation, particularly because you can stop the video or review certain scenes. useful when you are not able to gain access to a certain situation or location. Disadvantages: Framing of the observation: the framing (angle of the camera) narrows the focus to only one particular activity, and the mobility of the camera and changing the focus is dependent on the ability of the researcher to judge which angle can capture more of the activity. Confidentiality cannot be ensured A larger chance of the hawthorne effect