Critical Thinking

figurative definitions

"advertising means legal lying" Express clearly the conventional meaning of a word, language that communicates ideas beyond the ordinary, literal meanings of words

emotive word test

1) whether the writer or speaker appears to be using words unfairly to generate predictable feelings in an audience or 2)to manipulate the audience into either agreeing with the argument or overlooking its flaws. How do you decide if it is fair or unfair use of emotive words? Ask yourself: does the use of these words need to be defended? If so, it is unfair use of the emotive words. Ask yourself: could the words be replaced with neutral words and phrases with no damage to the info being conveyed? If not, it is unfair use of the emotive words. Is the term actually an accurate and precise way to describe an event, idea, person, etc.? Does the writer appear to be manipulating the readers reactions or attempting to move the reader toward feelings of rage, fear, joy, desire, etc.? Should the writer be expected to defend the term? Example: an politician who calls his opponent a "socialist" should be prepared to define the term (accurately) and show how his opponent fits that term. Is there a more neutral way to make the same point? How important to the argument, information or explanation is the suspected emotive language?

Vagueness

A word is vague when its meaning is fuzzy and inexact. Examples: Rich- what exactly is rich? Middle-aged- what are the upper and lower limits? Love Happiness Peace Excessive Fresh Poor Young Normal Conservative Polluted crisis

emotive language

Deliberate use of language by a writer to instill a feeling or visual. Feminism is a militant movement originated by a group of deviant women for the purpose of undermining the natural distinction between the sexes. Use of the word "harvest" when talking about logging, obtaining organs, or taking tissues from unborn fetuses. "harvest" makes people think of honest, hardworking farmers who are rewarded for their labor by a bountiful crop. Military use of the word "soft target" to mean people. Nobody wants to think of individual people as being military targets, so we should call them something else, something less negative. Concentration camps are called "pacification centers"- this sounds much better, right? Torture doesn't sound nice, so we will use "enhanced interrogation techniques".

Both Vague and Overgeneral

Example: a large black bag Large = vague- how big is "Large" Bag = ambiguous - what type of "bag" The whole statement is overgeneral

Too narrow definitions

Not enough information, The definition does not include all the items which should be included.

Too broad definitions

Too much information

Ambiguity

Words are ambiguous when they have 2 or more distinct meanings and context does not make clear which meaning is intended. This can destroy the effectiveness of an argument Example: Joe went to the bank. BB&T? The river bank? A sperm bank?

overgenerality

Words are overgeneral when the information they give is too broad and unspecific in a given context. They are statements that are too broad to be valid or contain "all or nothing" language Examples: What were you drinking at the party? - A beverage. "In times of crisis, all Americans support their president" "All birds can fly" "The early bird gets the worm"

circular definitions

a person would need to know what the defined word means in order to understand the word or words used to define it. Example: "Fornicator" means someone who fornicates Well, what does "fornicate" mean? , using the concept to define itself, dog is hungry because she is eating, she is not hungry because she didnt eat

Lexical definitions

a word is defined in the way it is standardly used in the language. States the conventional dictionary meaning of a word Examples: Harsh means ungentle and unpleasant in action or effect These are your standard definitions that most people from a particular culture that speaks a particular language, can agree upon.

definition by subclass and difference

assigns a meaning to a word by identifying a general class (genus) to which things named by the word belong, and then specifying a differentiating quality (difference). Examples: An automobile is a passenger vehicle that usually has four wheels and an internal combustion engine. This specifically excludes motorcycles (which have 2 wheels), golf carts (which do not have internal combustion engines) and 18-wheelers (which are not for passengers). These are useful because they provide very precise information. However, these definitions may miss the essence of the thing. Example: A human being is an animal that walks on two legs and has no feathers.- Plato But this misses some of the essential parts of being human

Definitions by Subclass

assigns a meaning to a word by listing subclasses of the general class to which the word refers. Dog means Bassett hound, boxers, Boston terriers, and so forth. Bird means cardinal, blue jay, swallow, and hummingbird, etc. Problems: These are helpful only if someone is familiar with all these subclasses. If you don't know what a Bassett Hound, Boxer or Boston Terrier is, the definition doesn't help you at all. These could cause confusions Someone may think all birds are small based on our listed birds. What about ostriches and emus?

synonymous definitions

assigns a meaning to a word by offering a synonym. Example: Loquacious means talkative Harmful means detrimental Disastrous means catastrophic

political correctness

avoidance of expressions or actions that can be perceived to exclude or marginalize or insult people who are socially disadvantaged or discriminated against extremes to which some people have gone to avoid using language that might insult or offend. Political Correctness uses euphemisms "Urban" is now being used instead of black or African American "economically disadvantaged" instead of poor "Chemically dependent" instead of drug addicted

slanted definitions

biased of emotionally charged definitions

Ostensive Definitions

define something by pointing to or demonstrating the thing being defined. Examples: "Tree" means this (as you point to a tree) "Wave" means this (as you wave at someone) Often useful Can have obvious drawbacks The person must think all "trees" must have pine cones, since the tree you pointed at had pine cones.

Persuasive definitions

defines a term in an effort to make someone to agree Usually contains an emotional appeal and slanted terms Often used with controversial political and social topics Examples: Capital punishment means the state-sanctioned, vengeful murder of helpless prisoners Or Capital punishment means the infliction of appropriate punishment on vicious cowards who have no regard for life. The effort here is to persuade someone that capital punishment is morally wrong or morally appropriate

connotation

images and feelings that are associated with a word: an idea that is implied or suggested Come from many sources, including your own experiences, how a word is used in our culture, how the word is used as a symbol or metaphor in religions, even from the word's sound. Example: Cruise ship names: What are they trying to make you feel? Splendor Allure Enchantment Oasis Freedom Brilliance Radiance Epic Dawn Pearl Spirit

Precising Definitions

intended to make a vague word more precise so that the word's meaning is not left up to interpretation. Example: "middle-aged" means anyone between 40 and 60 "Rich" means anyone who makes more than $500,000 per year Gives comparatively more precise meanings to permit clearer understanding and more accurate assessment

denotation

literal meaning: the most direct or specific meaning of a word or expression

Enumerative Definitions

provide specific examples of what the word refers to. Examples: "River" means the Nile, the Mississippi, the Thames, and the Amazon, etc.. "Southern States" means North Carolina, South, Carolina, Georgia, and so on. Problems: These tend to be incomplete. You can't list every single river on Earth to define the word river, so someone could think you mean that only those listed as rivers are actually rivers.

stipulative definitions

tell people what you mean by a term. Example: "Lottoholic" means someone who is obsessed with playing the lottery The definition is one you have determined Cannot be true or false (but it can be more or less fitting or appropriate) Often used when people give labels to cultural trends, political movements, etc. Also used with new discoveries, inventions and products

Etymological definitions

tells where the word comes from, its ancestry. Example: Ambidextrous comes from the Latin word for both, "ambi" and "dexter", the Latin word for right- handed. Therefore, it means able to use both hands equally well.

Semantic Ambiguity

uncertainty about the meaning of individual words or phrases. Examples: Light Bank Sound Right race

Syntactical ambiguities

uncertainty due to faulty grammar or word order Example: On Monday, Professor Krauss will give a lecture on safer-sex in the college auditorium.

euphenisms

we choose a more gentle, less negative, less offensive word than what we really mean, when we are speaking/writing. Euphemisms= mild, comforting, or evasive words that take the place of harsh, blunt or taboo words. Examples: Enhanced interrogation techniques Restroom Downsizing Collateral damage Mentally challenged Culturally deprived area Full-figured/curvy Pre-owned car Euphemisms are often used to hide reality or avoid facing the truth Example: Downsizing Rightsizing Career transition (GM) Normal payroll adjustment (Wal-Mart) Reshaping (National Semiconductor) Reducing duplication (Tandem Computers) Strengthening global effectiveness (Proctor and Gamble) Smartsizing Excess reduction Workforce optimization These all mean firing!!!

Verbal disputes

when people appear to disagree on an issue but, in actuality, have not resolved the ambiguity or a key term.

Factual disputes

when people disagree over relevant facts.