crju 3170- exam #2
subcultural strain (Cohen)
(1) Argued that "status frustration" caused by failure to achieve middle-class success leads to creation of subcultures and gangs •Because lower-class males could not achieve middle-class success via traditional routes, they rebelled and created their own goals and means-And, also attempted to explain female and middle-class delinquency via: •Gender double standards and masculinity exhibition
Master Status & Deviance/Labeling (Becker)
According to Becker (1963), when the label of outsider is success-fully applied, an individual may start to be seen as a deviant. He claims that this may propel an individual along the criminal path if the label has, first, been applied to an individual and, second, accepted by that individual.
differential opportunity (Cloward & Ohlin)
Argued that everyone aspires to the same goals, but poorer individuals have limited means of achieving them, so subcultural adaptations emerge: •Criminal subcultures -engage in instrumental crimes to acquire material wealth •Conflict subcultures -engage in expressive crimes to relieve strain •Retreatist subcultures -engage in vice crimes toe scrapes train
Role and importance of the Chicago School
Argued that the growth & development of cities could explain changes in social structure & culture.
Social Strain (Merton)
Argued that two elements are necessary to create strain: 1.Culturally defined goals 2.Socially approved means •Those who are able achieve culturally defined goals through socially approved means conform and therefore do not feel strain -And subsequently have no need or desire to commit crime •Strain occurs when culturally defined goals cannot be achieved through socially approved means, which then leads to anomie -Which is especially likely in capitalist societies which emphasize material wealth and economic success
Relative Depravation (Blau & Blau)
Argued that two forms of deprivation could lead to crime •Absolute deprivation -being economically disadvantaged in objective comparison to pretty much everyone else •Relative deprivation-being economically disadvantaged in subjective comparison only to certain other people you know •Subsequently, the theory can also explain middle-and upper-class crime •Middle-and upper-class members want what the top 10% have and become strained because they cannot achieve it.
Role and importance of Durkheim & Anomie
Emile Durkheim coined the term anomie in 1897. It describes a state of normalness within societies and institutions. It's hard to know what you can and cannot do. Durkheim argued that anomie typically results from the rapid shifting of moral values and standards and usually occurs during a depression, war, political upheaval, and technological modernization.Crime rates go up when societies are anomic because people are unsure what is acceptable.
Legal Realism (Chambliss & Seidman)
First, they suggest that as society becomes increasingly complex, it becomes more and more repressive. Growing complexity also causes more social stratification, and the elite eventually gain control over other, less powerful groups. Consequently, the elites determine which norms are formalized and made into law More simply, wealthy and powerful interest groups manipulate government bureaucracies as a means for maintaining their power. In general, various struggles take place within society among groups with opposite interests. The state and the law are central to perpetuating certain forms of social ordering, and this tends to result in the domination by the ruling class for its own benefit. This inevitably leads to social inequality and social conflict.
Institutional Strain/Anomie (Messner & Rosenfeld)
Greater emphasis on the role of the American Dream •And tried to explain why the US had higher rates of crime than other capitalist societies •Argued that the US over-emphasizes economic success at the expense of other institutions-So that non-economic institutions no longer hold sufficient power to control behavior-This then leads to anomie and crime.
criticisms for labeling and social reaction theories
Like Social Learning Theories, Labeling Theories cannot explain initial deviance/criminal behavior •Unless one erroneously receives and internalizes a "criminal" label •The theories also tend to ignore the underlying motivation for criminal behavior •Remember, they assume that people are inherently good or altruistic •So, why would anyone engage in criminal behavior without a label first? •And suggest that people play only a passive role in their labeling •They get labeled, but do not fight back to reject the label •Don't explain how/why some people internalize while others do not
Role and importance of Marx (& Engles) and the Communist Manifesto
Marx believed that societies progress through different modes of production. Capitalism is based on the exploitation and alienation of less powerful groups in society.
Gendered Theories (Pollak)
Pollak identified a number of principles that remain relevant today. He viewed male and female as equally criminal, each with a tendency to engage in different types of crime. He also suggested women were more likely to play an instigator role rather than a direct role in a crime. Finally, he suggested the justice system was likely to treat women more leniently based on their perceived weakness (or the chivalrous nature of men)
Chambliss' Saints vs. Roughnecks (CRR5)
Saints •Middle-class families, good students, officers in student government, considered leaders of the youth community with bright futures •Observed engaging in: truancy, drinking, reckless driving, theft, and vandalism •Roughnecks •Lower-class families, problem students, constant trouble with police, considered to be a gang, expected to end up in jail •Observed engaging in: theft, drinking, fighting •Both groups offended at about the same rate •All the Roughnecks had records •But, none of the Saints were ever arrested.
Criminalization Process (Turk)
The central argument is that laws represent deeply held social and cultural norms of powerful interest groups. Also suggested that social and cultural norms vary with age, gender, and race/ethnicity and that these key characteristics determine whether or not one will come into conflict with the law. In addition, less sophisticated subjects will have a higher likelihood of coming into conflict with the law than sophisticated subjects who can more easily manipulate and circumvent legal norms. Finally, more conflict will be generated when laws are violated that embody the deeply held norms of those in power.
Maximizer ( Murphy & Robinson)
The maximizer utilizes both legitimate and illegiti-mate means to achieve the cultural goal of the American Dream. Therefore, this adaptation can be viewed as a combination of the conformist and the innovator. Murphy and Robinson also claim that this adaptation is quite common in American society. Further, maximizers are usually not viewed as criminal because they are pursuing the American Dream in a partially legitimate context.
Dramatization of Evil (Tennenbaum)
The process of making the criminal, therefore, is a process of tagging, defining, identifying, segregating, describing, emphasizing, making conscious and self-conscious; it becomes a way of stimulating, suggesting, emphasizing, and evoking the very traits that are complained of. If the theory of relation of response to stimulus has any meaning, the entire process of dealing with the young delinquent is mischievous in so far as it identifies him to himself or the environment as a delinquent person. The person becomes the thing they are accused of being.
Social Behaviorism
The self emerges through social interaction and creates meaning, based influence future behavior.
Capitalism/Democracy
a political, economic, and social system and ideology based on a tripartite arrangement of a market-based economy based predominantly on a democratic policy, economic incentives through free markets, fiscal responsibility and a liberal moral-cultural system which encourages pluralism
Broken Windows (Wilson & Kelling)
argued that neighborhood deterioration and disorder would lead to informal social control and eventually crime
Concentric Zone Model (park, burgess, and Mckenzie)
argued that the growth & development of cities could explain changes in social structure & culture. 1. Central business district 2. Transitional zone (abandoned buildings, immigrant groups) 3. Working class zone 4. Residential zone 5. Commuter zone
Feminist Model of Female Delinquency (CRR4): Chesney-lind
argues that American society is still patriarchal, women have less power, so they are more likely to be victimized and experience trauma. This leads to criminal coping mechanism and harsher punishments.
Behavior of Law (Black): (1976)
argues that there are five key dimensions to social life: stratification, morphology, culture, organization, and social control. Stratification is a vertical dimension to social life and refers to how important resources are distributed among people. morphology examines the degree of integration and interaction among people and the division of labor that has emerged in society. Culture refers to symbolic aspects of social life and encompasses social notions of what is good, what is true, and what is beautiful. Dimensions of culture include religion, science, and art. The capacity for collective action in society is called organization. Social control is "the normative aspect of social life, or the definition of deviant and the response to it, such as prohibitions, accusations, punishments, and compensations.
Modern Social Disorganization Theories
assume hedonism and can be used to explain all types of criminal groups and crime rates.
Social Disorganization (Shaw & McKay):
assumed tabula rasa, argued that crime was not caused at the individual level, instead they argue that crime simply a normal response by normal people to abnormal conditions.
Criticism for strain and anomie theories
assumes both altruism and hedonism can be true at same time, other capitalist societies do not have crime rates anywhere near ours, primarily focused on lower-class criminals, "street crimes" and males, differential opportunity theory specifically was criticized for being to narrowly focused with gang typologies.
criticisms for conflict theories
cannot explain the majority of people who don't commit crime, don't provide good practical solutions for addressing crime, theories are too conspiratorial, cannot explain for the majority who do not commit crime
community control (bursik & grasmick)
clarified the meaning of control and described the importance of institutional and personal networks in regulating behavior. In order to do this, they identified several additional levels of community social control and introduced several new organizational concepts. 1. private control, 2. parochial control, 3. public control
criticisms for social disorganization theories
early focus on lower-classes and "street" crime, many empirical tests analyze the wrong concepts, some theorists do not agree with Kornhauser and modern SD theorist, ecological fallacy
Socialism & Communism
emphasis on creating a equal society and removal of class privilege. Differences is socialism is compatible with democracy and communism involves authoritarianism. (Denies basic liberties)
Gender theory (Adler)
explored the rise in officially recorded crimes by women and demonstrated how traditional notions of masculinity and femininity were changing as a result of larger social forces, particularly the women's liberation movement. By challenging female "passivity," Adler suggested that the increasing formal equality between men and women would create more opportunities for crime.
Traditional Strain
focus on the disjunction between goals and means within society that leads to anomie.
self-fulfilling prophecy
if we react to that looking-glass self, it may actually perpetuate that other person's true or imagined judgment of us, •Especially if that other person is part of our intimate group • if that judgment is official •And, even if the judgment is inaccurate •Then a self-fulfilling prophecy is set into motion •The person begins to take on those characteristics that significant or official others have already attributed to him or her.
Looking glass self
imagination of our appearance to the other person, the imagination of the other persons judgement of that appearance, some sort of self-feeling, such as pride of mortification.
Pratt & colleagues' meta-analysis (CRR3)
indicate that the strongest and most stable macro-level predictors of crime include racial hetero-genetic (when measured as either the percent nonwhite or the percent black), poverty, and family disruption-factors typically treated as indicators of "concentrated disadvantage".
collective efficacy (Sampson, Raudenbush, Earls)
new concept of collective efficacy= 1. Informal social control 2. Social cohesion- shared goals and values plus mutual trust to engage in informal social control
Secondary Deviation (Lemert)
occurs when deviant acts are repetitive and of high social visibility. These acts elicit a severe societal reaction, and this identification is incorporated into the "me" of the actor. In other words, the self of the person becomes redefined, and that person begins to see himself or herself in a new role, that of the criminal or deviant. In effect, the deviant or criminal role becomes integrated within the person's personality. Secondary deviation is a defensive reaction to negative reaction from society that causes personality and behavioral changes. Lemert (1951) argued that these changes could be seen in styles of dress, speech, bearing, and mannerisms.
Early Social Disorganization Theory
originally assumed tabula rasa and focused primarily on lower class offenders and street crime
Hegemonic Masculinity (Messerschmidt)
society tells men that in order to assert their masculinity they must hold a steady job and bring home a good paycheck. When these traditional means of demonstrating masculinity are stifled or do not exist, criminal behavior and violent behavior are more likely to occur Thus, if a man does poorly in school, at his job, or in his family life, he must seek out alternative "masculine-validating resources". Furthermore, people who have used violence as a way to assert masculinity in the past come to accept violence as an acceptable means to display their manhood. In effect, they become predisposed to using these approaches based on certain situational cues. These norms become regulated and reproduced based on assumptions about gender roles and relationships.
Left Realism (Young)
square of crime, which sought to clarify the interrelationship among the four components of crime: the victim, the offender, the public, and the police. Left realists claim that research concerning the nature of crime must consider all four of these factors and should seek to understand the interactions between them
Social Reality of Crime (Quinney)
stated that authorities define crime and that their definitions often correspond to the interests of groups in authority (e.g., special interest groups and lobbyists). Those who are the least connected to the dominant group(s) are at the greatest risk of having their behavior defined as criminal. Quinney (1970) also makes use of some ideas from Sutherland's differential association theory to clarify how "different segments of society have different normative systems and different patterns of behavior, all of which are learned in their own social and cultural settings. Finally, ideas from social constructionism and labeling theory are also incorporated within this theory. Quinney (1970) claims that criminal roles are formed through a labeling process that may give rise to subsequent criminal behavior, and he also points out that our conceptions of crime are constructed through human communication and interaction.
Gendered theory (Hagan)
suggests women may work but still face the primary responsibilities for childcare. This suggests the home-based concentration of power will continue, and male and female rates of criminality are likely to remain quite different for some time to come. power-control theory suggests that concepts of delinquency and family structure are linked to assumptions about gender equality. By combining elements of class and power, Hagan identified how levels of patriarchy within households impact the differences in delinquency between daughters and sons. The theoretical model ultimately links parental supervision, particularly differential supervision of daughters and sons by mothers, to power differentials between parents.
Symbolic Interactionism
symbolic interaction-ism rests on three premises. The first premise is that humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them. As a consequence of this, we treat people differently when we know things about them because we attach meaning to those things. For example, some people may treat a woman differently if they become aware that she is a mother. This status or role grants moms a measure of respect; some people will act more protectively toward mothers or may assume that mothers are more mature than other single females. The second premise is that associations arise from our social interactions with other people, such as relatives, authority figures, friends, and peers. The third and final premise states that these meanings are modified through an interpretative process used in different ways by different people. All people react to events in their lives, but the meanings of these events will change over time.
General Strain Theory (Agnew)
three major types of strain: events and conditions disliked by individuals. 1. Inability to achieve one's goals. 2. Loss of positive stimuli (loss of money or property, breakup, death of a friend) 3. Types of treatment either reduce or increase crime.
group conflict (Vold)
within society there are constant struggles to maintain and improve the interest of one's own group against other groups that are attempting to do the same thing. Instead of two main competing groups, there are many different competing groups fighting to have their voices heard.
