Cross-Cultural Psychology: WEEK 1 EXAM 1

How factors related to culture such as environment, population density, affluence, technology, and climate may have an impact on human behavior

AFFLUENCE -Greater affluence= Individualism TECHNOLOGY -More widespread and sophisticated= Independent CLIMATE -Hotter climates= May organize activities according to temperature ENVIRONMENT Fewer natural resources = teamwork,interdependence POPULATION DENSITY Higher population density= hierarchy, in-groupness

culture-specific behavior

Behavior that is found to be true for some cultures. Culturally relative; Culturally bound. Ex.:) Gestures can be seen as culturally particular. 1. Romantic love 2. Types of parenting Emotions 4. Symptoms of depression

Committee Approach

Bilingual informants translate research protocol to try to come up with an agreement of the best translation. Bilingual informants translate research protocol Strive for consensus

Explain two methods discussed in the text and lecture that are used to obtain linguistic equivalence.

COMMITTEE APPROACH & BACKTRANSLATION Language and translation issues may arise in the interpretations of terms Back translation: Translate into one language and go back to the original. The point of this is to make it as equivalent as possible. Committee Approach: Bilingual informants translate research protocol to try to come up with an agreement of the best translation.

Proximal causes

Causes that have direct and immediate relations with their effects; causes of behavior that focus on immediate, local, psychological, and sociological determinants. Direct and immediate relations with their affects. Ex.:) Spanish defeated and conquered Incans due to organization, ships, horses, and steel armor/guns.

psychic unity

Central Processing Mechanism/Unit. An abstract and transcendent universal property that enables people to think , feel, and act. What allows us to communicate with others. Sadness can be expressed and taken on by those who perceive us. Used as a metaphor to understand human that conduct in different ways.

Three basic psychological processes.

Cognition, perception and culture

Field Dependence

Cognitive style in which patterns are perceived as whole. Tendency to judge an entity in its context, attending to background influences. In social situations this person conforms. (collectivist societies) - More dependent on the field to find the object. - Focus on field in which object is located - Use relationships between object and field [Field-Oriented]

Four options that researchers have with nonequivalent data

1) Don't make comparison 2) Reduce nonequivalence with equivalent items 3) Interpret nonequivalence 4) Ignore nonequivalence

Similarities and differences in categorization.

People categorize in similarities: • Shapes • Facial expressions: Basic Emotions • Colors: Primary & Secondary Hues

fundamental attribution error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Reliance on dispostional factors to blame a persons behavior Tendency to see other people's behavior as the result of dispositions corresponding to the apparent nature of the behavior.

ethnocentrism

The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. View from one cultural perspective. Judge behavior from specific perspective. Believe that own culture is better. Involves judging people from the same perspective and viewing others through your own cultural perspective, belief. ◦ View from one cultural perspective ◦ Judge behavior from specific perspective ◦ Believe that own culture is better · Try to understand others by ignoring biases and adopt a flexible ethnocentric view

global cultural homogeneity

The ways in which things are similar, or becoming so, all across the world. For example, Nikes and Adidas are shoes that people all-over the globe wear. They are brands, like fast food, that we commonly identify with. Think of all the kinds of material culture that is much the same across the world. The same, too, for linguistic culture (e.g. the global predominance of English and French in professional contexts across the world). We have growth universally in companies such as IKEA and McDonalds trended as the same.

Limitations of the fundamental attribution error.

cultural and gender--> situational

Universal Behavior

Behavior that is found to be true for all cultures. 1. Facial expressions 2. Aggression 3. Language use 4. Schizophrenia

emulative learning

(primates) More focus on the environment, not so much on the behavioral strategies. One focuses on events in a setting or environment when learning occurs, not the goals and behavioral strategies. The learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved- how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment- reproduce a behavior without knowing goals.

dialectical response

- Address the issues from both sides and attempt to reconcile the conflicts by compromising. Tends to understand both sides and come up with a compromise. Ex.) Chinese Participants agreed that argument A was more plausible but when presented with both arguments, they had a very difficult time choosing one over the other (dialectical, engaged in compromising from both side).

non-dialectical response

- Find exclusive fault with one side or the other Tends to side with only one side of the argument. Ex.) American Students People tended to only slightly believe argument A more plausible than argument B, although the difference wasn't that great when both arguments are presented. (Non-dialectical, try to decide from one or the other).

Three shifts in psychology that led to greater research on culture and human behavior

1)Demographics 2)Globalization 3)Cultural diversity Global cultural homogeneity: Refers to certain cultural aspects that become homogeneity exported to different countries (ex. McDonald's, Sony, IKEA etc.) Local cultural heterogeneity: Greater diversity in smaller towns However, as places are behind more diverse, tension rises due to misunderstanding. There is a need for greater awareness in competency to infuse acceptance and decrease issues. [Ex. Workshops, Curriculum] Sacramento is the most racially intergraded Highest rates in inter-racial marriages and integrated & diverse neighborhoods There's a need for greater awareness of different cultures.

Three elements necessary for ideas to serve as successful replicators

1. Longevity - Long lasting entities. Genes last the life-time of a cell. When organisms reproduce, genes are copied to their offspring. 2. Fecundity - The ability to self-replicate which makes them more susceptible to be more common in the future. 3. Fidelity - The replication must be error-free and the same each time.

Three possible explanations why humans have bigger brains vs. primate species of similar size

1. Social Brain Hypothesis - Those primates who were most successful at navigating the intricate and elaborate webs of social relationships to function well in a highly social community one must be able to outmaneuver others within it which requires attending to a highly complex series of relations. We have a need to interact and integrate with other people. This explains the complexity of primates social worlds. 2. Our reliance of fruit. Primates eat a lot of fruit that is nutrient rich, full of vitamins, carbohydrates. and calories. The challenge of these food s however is locating the trees. Perhaps the selection for big brains in primates was driven by the need for cognitive abilities that would help them keep a mental map of the short lived and patchily distributed fruit that was around them. 3. Abstract fruit. A number of primate species rely on food sources that require a fair bit of ingenuity to access them. For example, some primate food sources include nuts and seeds encased in hard shells that to be cracked open. These "extractive" food sources are often worth pursuing as they tend to be rich in protein and energy. Perhaps the cognitive skills needed to allow primates to extract these valuable foods served as the selective force for larger brains.

Cross-cultural research has shown differences in the way people understand other people's behaviors, how they understand and tolerate contradiction, and how they problem solve. Explain what accounts for these variations in the three aforementioned areas and how these differences may be related to the intellectual traditions of different cultures (e.g., analytic vs. holistic approaches).

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Extremity Bias

A category of response bias that results because response styles vary from person to person; some individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions.

Cultural Response Sets

A cultural tendency to respond to a scale in a particular way. Moderacy bias Extremity bias Acquiescence bias Reference-group effect Deprivation effect

Deprivation Effect

A tendency for people to value something more when it is lacking in their culture. Deprivation makes it more important for the moment being.

Acquiescence Bias

A tendency for respondents to agree with all or most questions asked of them in a survey.

Cultural Priming

Activation of cultural ideas within participants. Priming works by making certain ideas more accessible to participants and depending how meaningful these ideas are to a culture, can investigate what happens when people start to think about certain cultural ideas. When cultural ideas are activated that are more common in another culture people start thinking in ways that are more similar to the thinking of people from other cultures.

central processing mechanism

An abstract and transcendent universal property that enables people to think , feel, and act. Ex.) Computers that have a software/hardware that allows them to monitor all programs.

CROSS CULTURAL VALIDATION STUDIES

An effort is made by researchers to validate the measures. Ex.) SAT examinations in the U.S. translated and assessed in Japan Makes sure that surveys, tests and procedures can be valid in another culture--make test externally valid--asses the factor structure of the survey or scale.

cultural competence

An understanding of how a patient's cultural background shapes his beliefs, values, and expectations for therapy. A set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system among professionals that enables work in cross-cultural situations. The belief that people should not only appreciate and recognize other cultural groups but also be able to work effectively with them. • Attitudes/Beliefs • Knowledge • Skills

imitative learning

As humans, we imitate what a model does. Imitative (human beings)- viewing the behavior of the model and internalizing the goal (made possible due to theory of mind). We tend to learn from people who excel and we tend to learn faster than other species.

cross-cultural approach

Compares differences within different cultures. Examines differences and similarities in human thought and behavior across cultures. Examines the ways in which culture interacts with and shapes human thought and behavior. The critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology.

Reference Group Effect

Comparing oneself to a group. The idea that people make implicit social comparisons with others when making ratings on scales. People's ratings will be influenced when there are other people present who could potentially judge the subject. A tendency for people to evaluate themselves by comparing themselves with other from their own culture.

Equivalence

Conceptual and methodological similarity between cultures. Conceptual, methodological, linguistic, analytic must all be equal.

Interpretation issues in cross-cultural comparisons (e.g., cultural filters and nonequivalent data)

Cultural filters must be aware of when analysing. Don't make a comparison. Research bias & values; Non-equivalent data. Cultural filters; Value judgments from a particular cultural perspective

Data analysis issues in cross-cultural comparisons (e.g., cultural response sets)

Cultural response sets: A cultural tendency to respond to a scale in a particular way Moderacy bias Extremity bias Acquiescence bias Reference-group effect Deprivation effect BE AWARE OF ALL OF THESE BIASES

Performance Style

Culturally-relative Behavior ◦ Emic approach The way behavior is carried out and the meaning attached to it. The way behavior is carried out and the meaning attached to it. Ex.) But, the sound or direct of our voice may be different due to the range of elementary psychological functions. Indirect/direct communication styles

Methodological issues in cross-cultural comparisons (e.g., defining culture, sampling, ideal cross cultural research, noncultural demographic equivalence, language and translation issues)

Defining culture: What do we mean by culture and how do you measure it? Is it race? Ethnicity? Which cultures should be studied? For convenience or theoretical background? Sampling: Procedures used to select sample What is a representative sample? Are samples equivalent? Ideal cross-cultural research: 1) Define cultures 2) Recruit representative sample 3) Randomly sample 4) Measure variables and find differences Noncultural demographic equivalence: Other variables (SES, education) Hold these variables constant Language and translation issues: -Back translation= Devise research protocol in one language Translate it to another language Translate it back to original Decenter -Committee Approach= Bilingual informants translate research protocol Strive for consensus *There must be equivalence in SES & Language*

Non-universal

Does not exist in all cultures and can be said to be cultural inventions. The fourth, and lowest, level of universality, which states that a given cognitive tool does not exist in all cultures and can be considered a cultural invention.

culture

Dynamic system of rules, shared attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors. Operates on multiple levels. Cultural transmission. A set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next. ● Descriptive: Shared way of life ● Historical: Different aspects of heritages and passed on. ● Normative: Describes norms and rules that we are socialized with. ● Structural: Where we observe the socio-cultural context Descriptive concept- ◦ Shared way of life; types of activities, behaviors Historical concept- ◦ Heritage and tradition Normative concept- ◦ The rules and norms Structural concept - ◦ Sociocultural context Culture becomes incorporated by life, we learn it through social learning. Group of individuals: Social-cultural context- institutions, cultural practices. FROM BOOK: Information that is passed on acquired form individuals through social learning as well as a group of individuals who share the same ideas, beliefs, values and contexts.

existential universal

Exists in multiple cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problem , nor is it equally accessible across cultures - In all cultures but occurs with differing frequencies across cultures.Varies in function. Exists in many cultures but used in different ways. Ex.) Motivation for success/failure

Cultural Filters

Filters through which each of us interprets ourselves, others, and the world around us

Individualism

Focuses on individual desire; A belief in the importance of the individual and the virtue of self-reliance and personal independence. Individual is noted as separate/unique from the rest (practiced in the U.S. and other places colonized by England). U.S. Australia Canada Italy Sweden South Africa Germany Spain

Collectivism

Focuses on the group desire and being connected with others. Giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. Venezuela Columbia Pakistan Peru Taiwan Thailand Singapore Mexico

The relationship between formal schooling and problem solving, e.g. syllogisms and abstract/concrete responses.

Formal schooling --> ease in solving syllogisms No formal schooling --> difficulty solving syllogisms - Logical reasoning is learned in school settings; Abstract vs. concrete

The relationship between education and problem solving (syllogisms).

Former schooling provides more abstract and successful syllogisms.

Three obstacles that discouraged psychologists from addressing cultural variables in research

General Psychology has the tendency to focus on the individual vs. the group; ignores environmental/ social influences and cultural context It's difficult to conduct research when it comes to sampling (who to elect) and also how to translate the language or meaning of the content Research in general takes a lot of investment. Money, extensive literature familiarity; and reinforcing stereotypes and go beyond them; needs to be extremely familiar with other countries cultures traditions/ norms. This then leads to research to be hesitant and very challenging. 1. Focus on Individual; researchers ignore culture 2. Methodological; time, money, distances 3. Stereotypes

Describe why the U.S. South seems much more violent than the U.S. North, as cited in textbook and lecture.

Higher murder rates, lynchings, sniper attacks Lower crimes of property "stranger" crimes Factors: Hot temperature - get frustrated quicker Greater poverty - see greater violent rates Slavery Culture of Honor- Protecting your reputation through aggression Protecting animals by being mean. Hurt my animals I'll hurt you. (Nisbett & Cohen, 1996) Archival Data - argument- related murders. Survey Data - Violence related to family Physiological Data - testosterone level Took white males Southern males had more testosterone levels when upset vs. The Northern Behavioral Data-

fidelity

Highly accurate. The replication must be error-free and the same each time.

Perception

How we receive information. Eye-sight, what we hear, and experiences. However, exposure over time changes our perception. The environment changes perception. • Physiology • Personal experiences • Familiarity • Environment • Culture Ex.) How we perceive the world can be displayed on the mistakes we neglect or catch on to in certain movie scenes -Changed Blindness= Inability to catch change in different scenes Researchers conducted a study that showed an image to participants of fishes in a sea; Americans attended to mainly just the fish whereas Japanese explained both the fish and the surrounding environment When the background was changed in phase 2, Japanese had difficulty recognizing the fish on its own.

Thick description

In qualitative data collection, the researcher's attempt to capture all the details of a social setting in a highly detailed decription to capture and convey an intimate feel for the setting and the inner lives of people in it (Neuman, 2003, Ch. 13).

The cultural explanation of the Colombian Airliner Avianca, Flight 052, accident on January 25th, 1990

Indirect Vs. Direct - Communication Difference in Style Case Study: Colombian Airline Avianca (linguistic cultural); Flight 052: January 25th, 1990 There was a big storm and airplane circled around JFK and a number of different airports because weather was so bad to land. An hr. and a half later, they ran out of fuel and time and were told to land. The descendent was so bad and crashed being only a 1/2 a mile away from the run-way. *** LOOK AT SCRIPT ON SLIDES ***

Field Independence

Individuals' tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space. (individualistic societies) -Focus on the object and its attributes -Use attributes to categorize [Object‐Oriented]

Ratchet Effect

Information growing in complexity over time while retaining earlier information. - Once built, it only grows one way and not back. Grows in complexity. Ex.) Hammers & technology over-time. The concept that humans continually improve on improvements, that they do not go backward or revert to a pervious state.

Distal causes

Initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time and often through indirect relations. Initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time, and often through indirect relations. Ex.:) Major continental axes. West = Agriculture; East= Domestication → Ultimate cause of resistance of disease derived form domestication and spread to Incans in Settlements.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes. Focuses on the similarities and differences in psychological functioning across cultures and ethnic groups; an approach that tries to determine the extent to which research findings about human psychology hold true across cultures. A unique meaning and information system shared by a group and transmitted across generations. Helps derive success, survival and meaning from life.

Etic Approach

Involves studying behavior from outside the culture and examining similarities and differences across cultures.Behavior is considered to be true. (if you think people act the same or are looking for universal behavior, use this approach). The assumption that behavior is considered to be true across cultures.

Situational Sampling

Involves studying behavior in different locations and under different circumstances and conditions. Asking to participants of different cultures of describing their actions in certain situations then have new participants sample out the responses Ex.) Self-esteem- Under what situations does it increase/decrease? Manipulation technique used to understand how people respond to situations experienced by other cultures 1) participants from two cultures are asked to describe experienced situations in relation to a specific topic 2) new group of participants from two cultures are presented with these situations created by both cultures

Emic Approach

Involves studying behaviors from within the culture. This approach is used to examine variations (if you think people act differently, use this approach). The assumption that behavior is considered to be true for or unique to a culture.

Differences in the way people make attributions about other people's behavior, e.g., between children and adults in the U.S. and India.

Is the FAE universal? It's mainly in relation to developmental reasons As a adults, American rely to dispositional attributions and Indians rely on situational attributions. At a younger age, the tendencies are not very different, yet as we age, they begin to deviate.

intelligence

One's ability to reason logically and deductively hypothetical and abstract issues.

accessibility universal

No variation. The strongest case for universality can be made when it could be said that a given cognitive tool exists in all cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures and is accessible to the same degree across cultures. Process that occurs in all cultures, solves problems, occurs with the same frequency. Basic processes that emerge early in life. Exists in all cultures. used to solve the same problem. accessible to the same degree. Cognitive tool exists across cultures to solve same problem. The first and highest level of universality, which states that a given cognitive tool exists across cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures, and is accessible to the same degree across cultures

local cultural heterogeneity

Not everything is alike. For example, New York is ethnically heterogenous. Montreal is linguistically heterogenous. Jerusalem is religiously heterogenous.

Past and current views about the relationship between genes and human behavior.

Obesity and visual acuity and diet.

ETHNOGRAPHIES

Observational field work done in the actual context being studied (naturalistic settings), focus on how individuals interrelate in their own environment (and the influence of this environment), phenomenological perspective-from the participant's point of view, difficult to interpret/analyze, time consuming/expensive, can influence subject behavior. Descriptive studies of human behavior, interrelationships, and life ways. Ex.) SAT examinations in the U.S. translated and assessed in Japan Key Issues in Cross-Cultural Comparisons

Three ways cultures have been changing over recent decades.

People have become smarter and more individualistic; Intelligence (Flynn effect), interconnected, individualistic. Increasingly interconnected ◦ Global cultural homogeneity ◦ Local cultural heterogeneity Cultures increasingly more individualistic ◦ Do you bowl alone? More intelligent ◦ Flynn effect -Increase in IQ with each generation

Flexible ethnocentrism

People learn to temporarily put on hold their own perspective and interpret the behaviors of others from their perspective. The ability to gain new knowledge in order to interpret the behavior of others from different perspectives.

fecundity

Power to reproduce. The ability to self-replicate which makes them more susceptible to be more common in the future.

encephalization quotient

Ratio of brain size to body size;Tied to the ammount of energy and size of our brains. The ration of the brain weight of an animal to that predicted for a comparable animal of the same body size. Ratio of brain weight of one animal compared to similar; animal of same body size Humans = 4.6. 16% of metabolism goes to our brain vs. 3% for average mammal. Compares the size of our brain to other species close to us in relation.

Theory of mind

Refers to the awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Allows us to understand other peoples perspectives.

cross-cultural research

Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised. Research samples are done by comparing behaviors. Must be alert about generalizations. Empirical work needs to be implemented.

cross-cultural comparison studies

Research that involves COMPARING TWO or MORE different CULTURES in relation to a particular psychological variable. Researchers focus on the variations of each culture. The emphasis is on finding those differences. Involves a hypothesis; x vs. y. The goal is to identify the differences Often times, in these differences, they are determined to be in relation generally to their culture.

Mainstream Psychology

Researchers do studies in the U.S. and assume findings are universal; assign "customs" or "laws in context" that are not so relevant to every unique individual. Examines human behavior in one culture with the assumption that theory and research can be generalized to all individuals in all cultures. Assumes that the mind functions under a set of universal laws independent of context (Shweder, 1990)

memes

Smallest units of cultural information transmitted from person to person within a culture. Theorized to function as the bases of evolution of culture.Virtually any complex idea or notion can be a meme. Religious beliefs, foods, recipes for preparing foods, the wheel, wearing clothing, technologies and war all qualify. Self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person

race

Socially constructed. A key criterion of identification dependent upon social-cultural-political identification and not one that can be unambiguously determined by genetic classification. A social construction based on easily identifiable physical characteristics. A large group of people distinguished by certain similar and genetically transmitted physical characteristics.

Differences in emphasis on rules vs. family resemblance (intellectual).

Sorting items- Color, shape, function vs. color • We tend to emphasize abstract thinking

longevity

Stable and long lasting. Long lasting entities. Genes last the life-time of a cell. When organisms reproduce, genes are copied to their offspring.

UNPACKAGING STUDIES

Studies that try to explain why cultural differences occur, looking at the range of variables that might account for divergence in a particular aspect. The goal is finding and understanding the differences that exist "Why do these differences occur?" Certain societies are more interdependent or independent. Individualistic cultures & Collectivistic cultures

Cultural-Level Measures

Technique that focuses on cultural messages. Performing a study to understand what cultural experiences are like. Technique that focuses on cultural messages. (Ex.: TV program, music, lyrics) Ex.) Music of working class vs. upper-middle class. Researchers asked participants of both upper and middle class about what kind of music they listened to. The rock and country genre music was analyzed in terms of themes of resilience or uniqueness. Higher SES demonstrated a higher interest in rock music wiht themes of uniqueness.

Cultural Priming

The activation of cultural ideas within participants by making certain ideas more accessible (ask someone from chinese culture what makes them different--an independence prime-- and they will respond in the study in more western, american ways). Manipulating the cultural ideals with the participants; Activating certain customs. Manipulation technique that "primes" or activates cultural ideas within participants (e.g., the self) Ex.) The Self HOW DIFFERENT ARE YOU FROM OTHER STUDENTS? HOW SIMILAR ARE YOU TO YOUR FELLOW STUDENTS?

Individualism-Collectivism (IC)

The extent to which a culture emphasizes the needs, desires, and values of an autonomous and unique self vs. group.

Inflexible ethnocentrism

The inability to go beyond one's own cultural filters in interpreting the behavior of others. Inability to interpret the behavior of others form the others' perspective

evoked culture

The notion that all people, regardless of where they are from, have certain biologically encoded behavioral repertories that are potentially accessible to them, and that these repertoires are engaged when the appropriate situational conditions arise. The notion that all people have certain biologically encoded behavioral repertoires that are potentially accessible to them. Ex.) Importance of physical attractiveness in selecting a mate. The notion of health is perceived by more physical attractiveness.

transmitted culture

The notion that people learn about particular culture practices through social learning or by modeling the behavior of others who live near them. Has to do with social learning, from person to person. People come to learn about particular cultural practices through social learning or by modeling others who live near them. Unlike evoked culture, transmitted culture can travel with people when they move to new environments. People can bring their transmitted ideas with them, and cultures can spread past their initial set of geographic conditions.

enculturation

The process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways and manners of their culture. Eventually assimilating to it's practices, customs, and values.

Back Translation

The process of translating material to a foreign language and then back to the original language. Devise research protocol in one language Translate it to another language Translate it back to original Decenter

Flynn Effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations; worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years. People become smarter by decade or generation.

functional universal

The second level of universality, which states that a given cognitive tool exists across cultures, and is used to solve the same problem across cultures, but is more accessible to people from some cultures than others, exists in multiple cultures. Used to solve the same problem. more accessible to people from some cultures than others. Equal in function, purpose and cognitive availability and tool in all cultures but varies in accessibility and occurs with differing frequencies across cultures- It is used to solve the same problem across cultures, yet it is more accessible to people from some cultures than others. This cognitive tool serves the same function everywhere, although it may not be used that much in some cultures.

Theoretical issues in cross-cultural comparisons (e.g., Oedipus Complex)

Theories shaped by a cultural framework The types of research questions we ask How we frame research questions -G.P.A.: Ex.) Kpelle Group (African Tribe) The children were given a math assessment given to elementary kids and did poorly Yet, when demonstrating the understanding of math concepts in financing while selling, they were show equally as smart -Self-esteem -Oedipus Complex/Avuncular societies: Oedipus Complex is taken into consideration in research done in Avuncular societies which released data that suggested antagonism against those who empower us. How we frame research questions must be considerate of cultural framework. *Theories have been developed with a particular cultural onset Oedipus complex. Some societies exhibit hostility towards those who empower us representing a challenge of developmental view of anger towards parent of opposite sex.

Three goals of psychology

To create a body of knowledge to describe, train and predict the way people think or feel, and explain human behavior and explain why they behave a certain way, in effort to predict how they act in different situations Also, helps implement counseling to improve peoples lives To apply universal functions within human beings 1. To create a body of knowledge ◦ To describe, explain, and predict the way people think, feel, and act 2. To apply knowledge ◦To improve people's lives 3. To seek laws of human behavior (implicit) ◦ To find universals

dispositional attributions

To explain events in terms of presumed dispositions. Explanations of someone's behavior in terms of factors internal to the person, such as traits or preferences. Behavior is due to internal characteristics, personality traits. Why people behave a certain way due to personality.

situational attributions

To explain events in terms of the situational context in which they occurred. Circumstances shape how people behave. a. Behavior is due to external reasons b. Because of situation. Explanations of someone's behavior in terms of the circumstances rather than aspects of the person. Explanations that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or the actions of other people.

Examples of universal behavior and culturally-specific behavior.

UNIVERSAL: 1. Facial expressions 2. Aggression 3. Language use 4. Schizophrenia CULTURALLY SPECIFIC: 1. Romantic love 2. Types of parenting Emotions 4. Symptoms of depression Ex.) Gestures can be seen as culturally particular.

Performance Capacity

Universal Behavior ◦ Etic approach The act of or behavior style is the same across all cultures. The act of or behavior capability. Ex.) Hearing, seeing, feeling

analytic approach

Used in the U.S., They view the object as independent and free form the background information. Researchers emphasize on the objects and understanding the objects to categorize the objects. Determining the info to place it in a group. Emphasizes on non-dialectical approach to contradiction. Focuses on objects and their attributes to categorize. Views objects as existing independently from their contexts. Derives abstract rules to predict and explain the behavior of objects. Emphasizes a dialectical approach to contradiction.

holistic approach

View the object and environment in relation to it. Emphasizes knowledge through experience. Emphasizes a dialectical approach to contradiction. Focuses on objects and surrounding context. Uses relationships between objects and context to understand behavior. Emphasizes knowledge through experience. Emphasizes a dialectical approach to contradiction.

How being more field independent or field dependent might be related to perception and attention (e.g., recognition/recall of fish with background, attention to objects in pictures, facial expressions).

Visual stimuli. And how people who are more filed dependent will rely on the background to depict the emotions. Eye-sight, what we hear, and experiences However, exposure over time changes our perception The environment changes perception Ex.) How we perceive the world can be displayed on the mistakes we neglect or catch on to in certain movie scenes Changed Blindness- Inability to catch change in different scenes Researchers conducted a study that showed an image to participants of fishes in a sea Americans attended to mainly just the fish whereas Japanese explained both the fish and the surrounding environment When the background was changed in phase 2, Japanese had difficulty recognizing CULTURE & ATTENTION Field Dependent (collectivist societies)- More dependent on the field to find the object Field Independent (individualistic societies)- Focus on the object to use attributes.

The importance of the number 150 in human evolution

We need to keep groups of 150 in human evolution in order for them to function at its best. Clans turn out to be about 150 people big. 150 is the # of living descendants that you would expect an ancestral couple to produce after four generations. If exceeding 150, peer pressure may arise along with the necessity of behavior regulation. Any groups that are too small lose the advantages of large number, and any groups that are larger become harder to manage. Ex.) Gore Tex companies build a new facility when employment numbers reach 150 due to the fact that unruly behavior can be controlled on the basis of personal loyalties and direct man-to-man contacts.

Moderacy Bias

When answering question that require choosing a response from a scale the tendency to choose a response near the midpoint of the scale. People answer very neutrally.

Explain how culture can be defined as: a descriptive concept, a historical concept, a normative concept, a structural concept, and a psychological concept. Furthermore, please explain how cultural learning among humans may be different compared to other primate species.

● Descriptive: Shared way of life ● Historical: Different aspects of heritages and passed on. ● Normative: Describes norms and rules that we are socialized with. ● Structural: Where we observe the socio-cultural context THEORY OF MIND & LANGUAGE. [Imitative Learning] There is evidence of cultural learning in other species, like Emu (Macaque) who began the custom of sweet potato washing. Primates do have evidence of culture but they don't learn as quickly Our language allows us to engage in complex cognition/thinking.