CS Associates Degree Test WIP

Operators b. &&, ||, !

&&: Logical AND operator returns true if both operands are true. ||: Logical OR operator returns true if either of the operands is true. !: Logical NOT operator negates the truth value of an operand.

Operators a. +, -. *, /, %, =, operation with assignment, pre/post increment/decrement, and ?:

+: Addition operator for numeric values. -: Subtraction operator for numeric values. *: Multiplication operator for numeric values. /: Division operator for numeric values. %: Modulus operator returns the remainder of a division operation. =: Assignment operator to assign a value to a variable. Operation with assignment: Compound assignment operators combine an arithmetic operation with assignment, such as +=, -=, *=, /=, and %=. Pre-increment/decrement: Increase or decrease the value of a variable by 1 before its use in an expression. (++variable or --variable) Post-increment/decrement: Increase or decrease the value of a variable by 1 after its use in an expression. (variable++ or variable--) ?: Short-hand notation for an if-else statement in Java. variable = (condition) ? expression1 : expression2; If the condition is true, expression1 is evaluated and assigned to the variable. If the condition is false, expression2 is evaluated and assigned to the variable.

Flow of control statements: e. block-structure

A block is a set of statements enclosed in curly braces and is used to group statements together. Blocks help define the scope of variables and enable the execution of multiple statements where a single statement is expected.

Database:

A database is an organized collection of structured data stored electronically. Key terms include indexes (improve query performance), primary keys (unique identifier for a record), foreign keys (establish relationships between tables), rows (records), columns (fields), and tables (entities).

Functions and Integers Invertible:

A function is invertible if it is both one-to-one and onto. In other words, there exists an inverse function that can reverse the mapping of the original function. A function is invertible if its inverse is also a function

Functions and Integers One-to-One:

A function is one-to-one (or injective) if each element in its codomain can be reached by at most one element in its domain. In other words, no two different elements in the domain map to the same element in the codomain.

Functions and Integers Onto:

A function is onto if every element in its codomain can be reached by mapping from elements in its domain. In other words, the range of the function covers the entire codomain.

Functions and Integers Everywhere Defined:

A function is said to be everywhere defined if every element in its domain is used and mapped to exactly one element in its codomain. In other words, for every input, the function produces a valid output.

Modems:

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone or cable lines, and vice versa. Modems enable computer communication over networks, such as dial-up, DSL, cable, or fiber optic.

Flow of control statements: d. null-statement

A null statement is an empty statement represented by a semicolon (;). It is useful in situations where a statement is syntactically required but no action is needed.

Sequences:

A sequence is a list or arrangement of elements in a specific order. The order of elements in a sequence matters. Sequences can be classified as finite or infinite based on whether they have a specific start and end point. Finite sequences have a definite number of elements and can be counted. Infinite sequences continue indefinitely and do not have an end point.

Sequences String Sequences and Regular Expressions:

A string is a sequence of characters, typically used to represent text. A string can be seen as a sequence where the order of characters matters. Regular expressions are powerful tools for defining patterns or sets of strings. They provide a concise and flexible way to define a set of strings based on specific rules, such as matching certain characters, sequences, or patterns.

Sets Subsets:

A subset is a set that contains only elements that are also present in another set. If every element of set A is also an element of set B, then A is considered a subset of B. This relationship is denoted as A ⊆ B.

Matrices Matrix Operations:

Addition of matrices is only possible when the matrices have the exact same dimensions (same number of rows and columns). Addition is performed by adding corresponding elements. The logical AND operation (∧) is performed element-wise on Boolean matrices. The result is true (1) only if both corresponding elements are true. The logical OR operation (∨) is performed element-wise on Boolean matrices. The result is true (1) if at least one of the corresponding elements is true.

Operating Systems:

An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software resources, provides services to applications, and enables user interaction. Examples include Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, and Android. OS functions include process management, memory management, file system management, device management, and user interface.

Arrays and Array Function Arguments:

Arrays are ordered collections of elements of the same type. They allow storing multiple values under a single variable name. Array function arguments enable passing arrays to functions, allowing the functions to operate on the array elements. In Java, arrays are passed by reference, meaning changes made to the array within a function will affect the original array outside the function.

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System):

BIOS is firmware stored on a computer's motherboard that initializes the system hardware during the boot process. It performs hardware checks, identifies and loads the operating system, and provides low-level control for input/output devices.

Functions and Integers Base Conversion:

Base conversion refers to converting a number from one numeral system (base) to another. It can be done by repeatedly dividing the number by the new base and keeping track of the remainders (which represent the digits in the new base).

Numbering System Conversions:

Binary (base 2): To convert a binary number to decimal, you multiply each digit by the corresponding power of 2 and sum them up. For example, the binary number 1101 can be converted to decimal as follows: (1 * 2^3) + (1 * 2^2) + (0 * 2^1) + (1 * 2^0) = 13 Decimal (base 10): To convert a decimal number to binary, you repeatedly divide the decimal number by 2 and record the remainders from right to left. For example, to convert the decimal number 25 to binary:Divide 25 by 2: Quotient = 12, Remainder = 1Divide 12 by 2: Quotient = 6, Remainder = 0Divide 6 by 2: Quotient = 3, Remainder = 0Divide 3 by 2: Quotient = 1, Remainder = 1Divide 1 by 2: Quotient = 0, Remainder = 1The binary representation is 11001. Hexadecimal (base 16): Hexadecimal is a base-16 numbering system that uses digits 0 to 9 and letters A to F (representing values 10 to 15). Converting between hexadecimal and binary is similar to octal. Each hexadecimal digit can be replaced with its 4-bit binary representation. For example, the hexadecimal number 2F can be converted to binary as follows:2 = 0010 (in binary)F = 1111 (in binary)The binary representation is 00101111

Class relationships c. implementation in C++

C++ supports the implementation of class relationships through inheritance(uses :), composition (by embedding objects as member variables), aggregation (by using pointers or references as member variables), and associations (by using pointers or references as member variables).

Counting and Probability Combination:

Combination refers to the selection of objects from a set without regard to the order in which they are arranged, where order doesn't matter. The number of combinations of selecting r objects from a set of n objects is denoted as C(n, r) and can be calculated as n! / (r! * (n - r)!).

Counting and Probability Combination with Repeats:

Combination with repeats occurs when there are duplicates among the objects being selected without regard to order. The number of combinations with repeats of selecting r objects from a set of n objects can be calculated by transforming it into a regular combination using C(n + r - 1, r).

Compilers vs. Interpreters:

Compilers and interpreters are software tools used to translate and execute programming code. Compilers convert the entire source code into machine code before execution. The resulting compiled code can be run independently. Interpreters execute code line by line, translating and executing it at runtime. Interpreted code does not produce standalone executable files.

Concatenation:

Concatenation is the process of combining strings together. In Java, string concatenation is performed using the + operator or the concat() method.

Classes and objects a. constructors (general, default, copy, conversion)

Constructors are special member functions used to initialize objects of a class. They can be general constructors, default constructors, copy constructors, or conversion constructors.

Sequences Countable and Uncountable Sets:

Countable sets can be arranged in a list, meaning their elements can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the positive integers. Examples of countable sets include the set of natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) and the set of integers (..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...). Uncountable sets, on the other hand, cannot be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the positive integers. One example of an uncountable set is the set of all real numbers between 0 and 1.

Flow of control statements: b. dangling else

Dangling else refers to the ambiguity that arises when an else statement is associated with multiple if statements. Proper indentation and the use of curly braces can help resolve the ambiguity.

Data Structure Types:

Data structures organize and store data in a computer's memory for efficient access and manipulation. Common types include arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, graphs, and hash tables. Each data structure has specific properties, operations, and use cases.

Functions and function arguments and return values b. default arguments

Default arguments allow a function to be called without providing values for all parameters. Default values are specified in the function declaration, and if no value is provided, the default value is used.

Classes and objects b. destructors

Destructors are special member functions used to clean up resources allocated by an object when it goes out of scope or is explicitly destroyed.

Dynamic Memory (new and delete):

Dynamic memory allocation allows programs to allocate memory dynamically during runtime. The new operator is used to allocate memory for objects or arrays on the heap, and the delete operator is used to deallocate the dynamically allocated memory when it is no longer needed.

Functions and Integers Euclid's Algorithm:

Euclid's algorithm is used to find the greatest common divisor of two integers a and b. It involves repeatedly dividing the larger number by the smaller number until the remainder becomes zero, and the last non-zero remainder is the GCD.

Exception Handling:

Exception handling is a mechanism to handle and respond to exceptional conditions or errors that occur during program execution. It involves the use of try-catch blocks to catch and handle exceptions, allowing the program to gracefully recover from errors and continue execution.

Sequences Explicit Sequences:

Explicit sequences are sequences where each element is determined solely by its position in the sequence and does not depend on previous elements. Like recursive sequences, explicit sequences also have a specific starting point (initial term) and can continue indefinitely based on the explicit rule or formula.

File I/O:

File I/O (Input/Output) involves reading from and writing to files on the computer's storage. It enables programs to interact with external files, such as text files or binary files, to store and retrieve data.

Classes and objects d. friend and inline functions

Friend functions are non-member functions that have access to the private and protected members of a class. Inline functions are functions defined within a class declaration that are expanded at the point of the function call for performance optimization.

Functions and Integers Composition:

Function composition is a way to combine two functions to create a new function. Given two functions f and g, the composition g ○ f represents applying f first and then applying g to the result. Similarly, f ○ g represents applying g first and then applying f to the result. (g ○ f)(a) = g(f(a)) (f ○ g)(a) = f(g(a))

Basic HTML Tags:

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the standard markup language for creating webpages. Basic HTML tags include <html>, <head>, <title>, <body>, <h1>-<h6> (headings), <p> (paragraph), <a> (link), <img> (image), <div> (division), <table>, <ul> (unordered list), <ol> (ordered list), etc.

Hard Disk Organization:

Hard disks store and organize data magnetically using platters and read/write heads. The organization includes tracks (concentric circles on a platter), sectors (subdivisions of tracks), and clusters (allocation units for files). File systems (e.g., FAT32, NTFS) manage how data is stored, accessed, and organized on a hard disk.

IP Addresses:

IP (Internet Protocol) addresses are numerical identifiers assigned to devices connected to a network. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers, typically represented in dot-decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.0.1). IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers, represented in hexadecimal notation (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

Counting and Probability Multiplication Principle:

If an event A can occur in x different ways and another event B can occur in y different ways, then there are x × y ways of occurrence of both the events simultaneously.

.class vs. .java:

In Java, .java files contain the source code written by the programmer. After compiling the .java files using the Java compiler, .class files are generated. They contain the compiled bytecode that can be executed by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM).

Legal Identifiers in Java:

In Java, identifiers are names given to variables, methods, classes, etc. Legal identifiers must start with a letter, underscore, or dollar sign. They can include letters, digits, underscores, or dollar signs. Java is case-sensitive, so identifiers "myVariable" and "myvariable" are considered different.

== vs. .equals() in Java:

In Java, the == operator compares the references of two objects to check if they refer to the same memory location. The .equals() method compares the content or value of objects to check for equality. For comparing strings, it's generally recommended to use the .equals() method.

Propositions:

In logic, a proposition is a statement that can be categorized as either true or false. It is a declarative sentence that is not a question, command, opinion, or any other type of statement. Propositions are often represented using variables, such as p, q, or r, to denote their truth values.

Counting and Probability Event, Sample Space, and Probability:

In probability theory, an event (E) represents a specific outcome or combination of outcomes of interest. The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment or event. Probability (P) is the likelihood of an event occurring and is calculated as the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes (E) to the total number of possible outcomes (S), i.e., P = |E| / |S|.

Class relationships a. inheritance, association, composition, aggregation, and dependancy

Inheritance: Inheritance is a relationship between classes where one class (subclass or derived class) inherits the properties and behaviors of another class (superclass or base class). Association: Association represents a relationship between two classes, where objects of one class are connected to objects of another class. Composition: Composition is a stronger form of association where the lifetime of the contained objects is controlled by the container object. The container object owns the contained objects. Aggregation: Aggregation is a weaker form of composition where the lifetime of the contained objects is independent of the container object. Dependency: Dependency represents a relationship between two classes where one class depends on the other class but doesn't own or control the other class.

Sets Intersection, Union, Null Set:

Intersection: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted as A ∩ B, is a new set that contains only the elements that are common to both sets. Union: The union of two sets A and B, denoted as A ∪ B, is a new set that contains all the elements from both sets, without duplication. Null Set (Empty Set): The null set, denoted as ∅ or {}, is a set that contains no elements.

Java Convention:

Java follows coding conventions for consistency and readability. Class names start with an uppercase letter, while variable and method names start with a lowercase letter (camel case). Constants are written in uppercase with underscores separating words. Indentation, comments, and proper spacing are also part of the Java convention.

Increment/Decrement Operators:

Java includes increment (++) and decrement (--) operators to increase or decrease the value of a variable by 1. They can be used as prefix (++i) or postfix (i++) operators, with different effects on the value and expression evaluation.

Java Mathematical Operators:

Java provides standard mathematical operators: addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division (/), and modulus (%). These operators perform arithmetic calculations on numeric data types.

Matrices:

Matrices are rectangular arrays of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged in rows and columns. Boolean matrices contain elements that are either true or false (1 or 0), while regular matrices can contain any type of elements (numbers, variables, etc.). Matrices can be represented as MxN, where M represents the number of rows and N represents the number of columns.

Matrices Matrix Multiplication:

Matrix multiplication is performed between two matrices when the number of columns in the first matrix is equal to the number of rows in the second matrix. The result of multiplying an MxN matrix by a JxK matrix is an MxK matrix. The multiplication of matrices follows a specific algorithm where each element of the resulting matrix is calculated based on the dot product of the corresponding row and column vectors.

Network Topologies:

Network topologies define the physical or logical arrangement of network devices and how they connect. Common topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid. Each topology has advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, scalability, fault tolerance, and performance.

Overloaded operators a. friend vs. member

Overloaded operators can be implemented as member functions or friend functions. Member functions have direct access to the object's data, while friend functions do not.

Class relationships e. overloading and overriding functions

Overloading refers to having multiple functions with the same name but different parameters within a class, allowing different behaviors based on the arguments. Overriding occurs when a derived class provides its own implementation of a function that is already defined in the base class. The function signatures and return types must match.

Functions and function arguments and return values a. pass by value, pass by reference, and pass by pointer

Pass by Value: A copy of the value is passed to the function. Pass by Reference: A direct reference to the programming element is passed, & used in function argument Pass by Pointer: The address of a variable is explicitly passed as an argument to a function, * used in function argument

Counting and Probability Permutation:

Permutation refers to the arrangement of objects in a specific order, where order matters. The number of permutations of selecting r objects from a set of n objects is denoted as P(n, r) and can be calculated as n! / (n - r)!

Counting and Probability Permutation with Repeats:

Permutation with repeats occurs when there are duplicates among the objects being arranged. The number of permutations with repeats of selecting r objects from a set of n objects can be calculated as n^r.

Polymorphism:

Polymorphism refers to the ability of objects to take on different forms or behaviors depending on the context. In object-oriented programming, polymorphism is achieved through inheritance and virtual functions. Polymorphism allows for code reusability and flexibility, as objects of different derived classes can be treated as objects of their common base class.

Variable Types:

Primitive Types: boolean: Represents the boolean values true and false. int: Holds 32-bit signed integer values. long: Holds 64-bit signed integer values. float: Holds single-precision floating-point values. double: Holds double-precision floating-point values. char: Represents a single character using Unicode encoding. Reference Types: Classes: User-defined types that can have attributes (fields) and behaviors (methods). Arrays: Ordered collections of elements, such as int[], String[], or custom types[].

Pseudocode / Flowcharts:

Pseudocode is a simplified, human-readable programming language that helps plan and express algorithms. It uses natural language descriptions combined with programming constructs to outline the logic of a program. Flowcharts are graphical representations of a program's logic, using various shapes and arrows to depict different steps and decision points.

RAM Types:

RAM (Random Access Memory) is a type of computer memory that provides temporary storage for data that the CPU needs to access quickly. Common RAM types include DDR (Double Data Rate), DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5. Each new generation offers increased speed and improved efficiency.

Sequences Recursive Sequences:

Recursive sequences are sequences where each element depends on the previous elements in the sequence, following a specific rule or formula. Recursive sequences may have a specific starting point (initial term) and can continue indefinitely, generating new terms based on the recursive rule.

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC):

SDLC is a process followed to develop software applications, consisting of several phases: requirements gathering, system design, coding, testing, deployment, and maintenance. Different SDLC models include Waterfall, Agile, Spiral, and Iterative. Each phase has specific objectives and activities, ensuring a systematic and organized approach to software development.

Sets Set Builder Notation:

Set builder notation is a concise way to describe a set by specifying its elements or properties. It uses braces { } along with a variable and a condition or property that defines the elements of the set. For example: {x | x is an even number}

Sets:

Sets are collections of distinct elements without any specific order. They can contain elements of any data type. Elements within a set are unique, meaning there are no duplicate values. Sets can be represented using curly braces { } or using set builder notation.

Sets Sets Containing Other Sets:

Sets can contain elements of any type, including other sets. These sets are called sets of sets or nested sets.

String Methods:

Strings are objects in Java, and the String class provides various methods for manipulating and working with strings. Common string methods include length(), substring(), equals(), compareTo(), toUpperCase(), toLowerCase(), and concat().

Structures:

Structures in programming languages like C and C++ allow you to define a composite data type that can hold multiple members or fields of different data types. Members/Fields: These are variables declared within a structure. Dot Operator (.): It is used to access individual members of a structure using the structure variable's name followed by the dot operator and the member name. Arrow Operator (->): It is used to access structure members when working with pointers to structures.

Templates:

Templates in C++ allow for generic programming, enabling the creation of reusable code that can work with different data types. Templates allow you to define generic classes or functions that can be instantiated with different data types, providing flexibility and code reuse.

C++ String Class:

The C++ string class (std::string) provides a convenient way to manipulate and work with strings in C++. It offers various member functions for string operations, including string/number conversions, concatenation, copying, searching, tokenizing, etc. C-Strings: C-style strings are represented as character arrays terminated by a null character ('\0'). C-string functions: These are functions available in C to perform operations on C-strings, such as strlen, strcat, strcpy, strstr, strchr, strtok.

CPU (Central Processing Unit):

The CPU is the "brain" of a computer and executes instructions and performs calculations. It consists of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) for mathematical operations and a control unit that manages instruction execution. CPUs have various specifications, including clock speed, cache size, number of cores, and architecture (e.g., Intel x86, ARM).

Functions and Integers Greatest Common Divisor (GCD):

The GCD of two integers a and b is the largest positive integer that divides both a and b. It can be calculated by taking the minimum power of each prime factor that appears in both a and b.

Functions and Integers Least Common Multiple (LCM):

The LCM of two integers a and b is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a and b. It can be calculated by taking the maximum power of each prime factor that appears in either a or b.

Sets Addition Principle:

The addition principle, also known as the principle of inclusion-exclusion, provides a way to count the total number of elements in a union of sets. According to the principle, the cardinality of the union of three sets A, B, and C can be calculated as: |A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| - |A ∩ B| - |B ∩ C| - |A ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|

Functions and function arguments and return values c. the address of operator

The address of operator (&) is used to obtain the memory address of a variable. It is often used with pointers to store and manipulate memory addresses.

Sets Cardinality:

The cardinality of a set refers to the number of elements in that set. It is denoted by |A|, where A is the set, and represents the count of elements in set A.

Sets Complement of a Set:

The complement of a set A, denoted as A', is the set that contains all the elements that are not in set A but are in the universal set U (the set that encompasses all elements under consideration).

Functions and function arguments and return values d. the dereference/indirection operator

The dereference operator (*) is used to access the value stored at a memory address pointed to by a pointer variable. It is used in conjunction with pointers to manipulate the data they point to.

Classes and objects g. dot and arrow operators

The dot operator (.) is used to access members of an object, while the arrow operator (->) is used to access members of an object through a pointer to the object.

Functions and Integers Floor and Ceiling:

The floor function rounds down a real number to the nearest integer less than or equal to it. The ceiling function rounds up a real number to the nearest integer greater than or equal to it.

Matrices Identity Matrix:

The identity matrix is a square matrix where all elements along the main diagonal (from the top left to the bottom right) are 1, and all other elements are 0. The identity matrix is denoted as I and has the property that when multiplied by any matrix, the result is the original matrix itself.

Matrices Inverse:

The inverse of a matrix is a concept applicable to square matrices. It is a matrix that, when multiplied by the original matrix, produces the identity matrix. Inverse matrices can be computed for 2x2 matrices using a specific formula.

Kernel:

The kernel is the core component of an operating system. It manages system resources, provides services to processes, and acts as an intermediary between hardware and software. The kernel handles tasks such as memory management, process scheduling, device drivers, and system calls.

Motherboard/Bus:

The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer that connects various components, including the CPU, RAM, storage devices, and expansion cards. The bus is a communication pathway on the motherboard that allows data transfer between different components. Buses include the front-side bus (FSB), memory bus, expansion bus (e.g., PCI, PCIe), and USB bus.

Counting and Probability Pigeonhole Principle:

The pigeonhole principle states that if there are more pigeons than pigeonholes, then at least one pigeonhole must contain more than one pigeon. In combinatorics, this principle is used to demonstrate that when assigning objects into categories, if there are more objects than categories, at least one category must have more than one object.

Sets Symmetric Difference:

The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted as A △ B or A ⊖ B, is a new set that contains elements that are in either set A or set B, but not in both.

Matrices Matrix Transpose:

The transpose of a matrix involves flipping the matrix over its diagonal. The first row becomes the first column, the second row becomes the second column, and so on. If a matrix A is equal to its transpose (A = A^T), then it is a symmetric matrix.

Classes and objects f. public, private, and protected

These are access specifiers used to control the visibility and accessibility of class members.

Overloaded operators b. overloaded inserter and overloaded extractor

These are commonly used for input/output operations with user-defined objects.

Classes and objects c. member functions

These are functions defined within a class that operate on objects of the class.

Logic Gates:

These are fundamental logical operators used in digital electronics and computer science. AND gate: Outputs true if both input values are true. OR gate: Outputs true if at least one of the input values is true. NOT gate: Inverts the input value, i.e., true becomes false and vice versa. NAND gate: Combines AND gate with a NOT gate. Outputs false if both inputs are true, otherwise true. NOR gate: Combines OR gate with a NOT gate. Outputs true if both inputs are false, otherwise false. XOR gate: Exclusive OR gate. Outputs true if exactly one input is true, otherwise false.

Classes and objects e. data members

These are variables declared within a class that hold data associated with the objects of the class.

UML (diagrams and implementation in C++)

UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standardized visual modeling language used to represent and design software systems. UML diagrams, such as class diagrams, sequence diagrams, and activity diagrams, provide a graphical representation of classes, relationships, interactions, and behavior in a software system. UML diagrams can be implemented in C++ to design and document the structure and behavior of classes and objects.

Class relationships b. identifying from UML diagrams; identifying from code

UML diagrams provide visual representations of class relationships, and you can identify these relationships by examining the associations, dependencies, and composition/aggregation lines between classes. Identifying from Code: Class relationships can also be identified in code by looking for keywords and syntax that indicate inheritance (extends or :), association (member variables of other classes), composition/aggregation (member variables of other classes with ownership semantics), and dependencies (class dependencies through function parameters or method calls).

URLs:

URLs are addresses used to identify and locate resources on the internet. A URL consists of a protocol (e.g., HTTP, HTTPS), domain name, path, and optional parameters.

Class relationships d. up and down casting

Upcasting refers to casting an object of a derived class to a pointer or reference of its base class. Downcasting is the opposite, casting a pointer or reference of a base class to an object of its derived class. These casts are used to access specific functionality of derived classes when working with base class pointers or references.

Flow of control statements: c. for, while, do-while, break, continue, and test at the top versus test at the bottom

for: Executes a block of code repeatedly until a condition is met. while: Repeatedly executes a block of code as long as a condition is true. do-while: Executes a block of code at least once, then repeatedly executes it as long as a condition is true. break: Terminates the execution of a loop. continue: Skips the current iteration and moves to the next iteration. Test at the top versus test at the bottom: Loops can be designed with the condition tested at the beginning or at the end of the loop body.

Flow of control statements: a. if, if-else, if-else ladder, switch, default, and break

if: Executes a block of code if a condition is true. if-else: Executes one block of code if the condition is true and another block if the condition is false. if-else ladder: Multiple if-else statements chained together to handle multiple conditions. switch: Evaluates an expression against multiple cases and executes the corresponding block of code. default: Used with the switch statement in Java. It represents the default case when none of the other case values match the expression being evaluated in the switch. break: Used within flow control statements (switch, for, while, do-while) to exit the loop or switch block prematurely.