David Moore Psyc 101 Test 3

What are strengths and limitations of psychoanalytic theory?

1)Offers an in-depth perspective (i.e., transference, countertransference) that emphasizes exploring the origins of psychopathology 2)The focus on developmental considerations 3)Most of the models address sexuality (except self psychology, which sees sexuality as a drive derivative—secondary to narcissistic concerns). 4)Freud brought gender issues to the fore with notion of "penis envy". 5) The notion of "repetition compulsion" transcends theory, often drawn by several models as a central concept. 6)Gabbard—Many people do not respond to medications or brief therapy—Some people want to derive deeper meaning about themselves beyond symptom reduction. 7) The notion of "unconscious" begins to explain behavior that we are unaware of. 8) There is biological research that supports some of Freud's claims ("divided brain" studies). 9)The focus on relationship (particularly by object relations) 10)Self psychology understands psychopathology in terms of "dysregulation states", which has been confirmed through neurobiological literature. 11)The universality of defense mechanisms and their use across theories.

Weaknesses

1)Psychoanalytic jargon serves to confuse rather than clarify concepts. 2)Some of the ideas (penis envy, Oedipus) are outdated in terms of our contemporary world, and it is questioned by some theorists/practitioners whether these concepts are clinically useful. 3) The approach lacks a theory of intervention—not enough focus on technique. 4)The exclusive focus on the past can lead to "analysis paralysis" 5)The theory only provides a piece of the pie—often neglecting biological, cultural, and social considerations 6)Too many patients (perhaps psychotic, borderline) are not considered appropriate for psychoanalysis.

How are psychological disorders defined? (Be familiar with the definitions given in class in particular, and recognize the advantages and disadvantages to any single way of defining abnormality).

A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment. Defining Normal requires context

What is Type A personality, and what is the most toxic component of this personality type for health outcomes?

A temperament characterized by excessive ambition, aggression, competitiveness, drive, impatience, need for control, focus on quantity over quality and unrealistic sense of urgency. It is commonly associated with risk of coronary disease and other stress-related ailments

From handout on psychopathology and class: What does "Multi-Caused, Multi-Maintained" refer to? What are some of the key causal factors of psychopathology? What is the bio-psycho-social model of psychological disorders?

All disorders are Multi- Caused and Multi-Maintained (MCMM). Key Causal factors: 1) Intrapersonal/Intraindividual factors a) physiological/biological factors (genetics; biochemical, metabolic, and neurological factors; organic diseases/infection) b) Personality/Temperament c) Developmental factors 2) Interpersonal/Psychosocial factors a) Family system/family interactions (including the intrapersonal characteristics of parents, nature of parenting behavior--especially discipline, family communication) b) Other significant others (friends, quality of social support, interactions with extended family members, etc.) 3) Sociocultural variables a) SES b) stress/traumatic events (e.g. unemployment, exposure to violence) c) neighborhood climate d) quality of school systems, availability of medical/mental health facilities e) Cultural values, attitudes, and practices (e.g. attitudes of parenting, gender roles, attitudes toward violence, etc.).

Schacter and Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Arousal + Label = Emotion Explanation of emotions: Our experience of emotion depends on two factors: general arousal and a conscious cognitive label They believed an emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal: Our physical reactions and our thoughts (perceptions, memories, and interpretations) together create emotion In their two-factor theory, emotions therefore have two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Arousal and emotion occur simultaneously Explanation of emotions: Emotion-arousing stimuli trigger our bodily responses and simultaneous subjective experience He disagreed with James and Lange Cannon said the body's responses are too similar and they change to slowly to cause the different emotions Philip Bard said that our bodily responses and experienced emotions occur separately but simultaneously Cannon-Bard Theory says that the emotion-triggering stimulus travels to the

From class and Hock reading: What are the factors that help explain the most prevalent causes of death in contemporary society compared to the leading causes of death a century ago?

As we've cured diseases/ cancer/ and reduced famine, we see many health problems arising from stress and mental health leading to physiological damage.

What is the relationship between attitudes and behavior? (Do our attitudes guide our actions? What is cognitive dissonance theory, and how does it explain the relationship between attitudes and actions?)

Attitude is a feeling, belief, or opinion of approval or disapproval towards something. Behavior is an action or reaction that occurs in response to an event or internal stimuli Some attitudes are more likely to be based on beliefs, some are more likely to be based on feelings, and some are more likely to be based on behaviors. Strong attitudes are important in the sense that we hold them with confidence, we do not change them very much, and we use them frequently to guide our actions. Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance.

What are the "Big 5" traits? What are strengths and limitations of the Big 5 theory?

Big 5 Conscientiousness (vs. Impulsiveness) degree to which people are responsible, persevering, steadfast, tidy, and self-disciplined (vs. irresponsible, quick to give up & careless) Agreeableness (vs. Antagonism) extent to which people are good-natured, gentile, cooperative, and secure (vs. Irresponsible, quick to give up, & careless) Neuroticism (vs. Emotional Stability) Extent to which people are emotionally unstable, anxious, impulsive, unrealistic, and negative (angry, guilty, resentful) Openness to experience (vs. Resistance to new experience) Extraversion (vs. Introversion)

What are some examples of biomedical treatments of psychological disorders? What is ECT, how does it work, and when/why is it used?

Biomedical therapies are physiological interventions that focus on the reduction of symptoms associated with psychological disorders. Three procedures used are drug therapies, electroconvulsive (shock) treatment, and psychosurgery. Electroconvulsive therapy. In electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), a therapeutic procedure developed in the 1930s before many of today's psychopharmacological drugs had been developed, an electric shock is given to lightly anesthetized patients to produce a brief cortical seizure. The shock is administered to one side or sometimes to both sides of the brain through electrodes placed over the temporal lobes. The electric current produces a brief convulsive seizure during which the patient becomes unconscious. ECT was widely used in the 1940s and 1950s; its use has declined, but not entirely stopped, as treatment with new drugs has grown in favor. While favorable results with ECT have been reported for some cases, marked controversy still exists concerning whether it is effective and whether it produces permanent intellectual impairment.

What is conformity? What was Asch's classic experiment on conformity and what did it reveal about conformity?

Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group. We conform to avoid disapproval and because we want to be right. (also, unanimity of group, prior commitment to idea of an action, personality, group personality, cultural values) Asch's participants (1955) were working with other participants (who were actually confederates working with the researcher) and they were asked to select the line that was the same length as the original line. "Which line is equal to the standard line" When all the confederates selected the wrong line, the subject would conform and also choose a clearly incorrect line. More than a third of all participants gave the wrong answer.

Prejudice - the whole section is important.

Definition Prejudice: an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. Stereotype: a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people stereotypes can bias behavior. To believe fat people are dumb or to feel a dislike towards fat people is to be prejudiced. Prejudice is a negative attitude. Discrimination: unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members Implicit associations (rather than explicit) lay under our conscious awareness Implicit racial association Unconscious patronization Race-influenced perceptions Reflexive bodily responses Roots of prejudice Just-world phenomenon: We teach children that good is rewarded and evil is punished (makes us believe it works vice-versa: if someone is punished they must be bad) Us and Them: ingroup and outgroup Us: people with a common identity. We have an ingroup bias Those perceived as apart from the ingroup Scapegoat theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame Other-race effect: The tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias Aggression: any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

What is the role of physiological arousal in emotion, and what physiological states accompany different emotions?

Each theory proposes a different way that arousal connects to emotion. James-Lange: Arousal solely triggers emotion Cannon-Bard: Arousal and Emotion occur simultaneously Schacter-singer: Arousal and a cognitive label trigger emotion Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity." Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes. Ex: changes in heart rate, dilated pupils, increased respiration rate, sweating(body temperature), increased muscle tone(tensing your body, clenching your jaw).

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Explanation of emotions: Emotions arise from our awareness of our specific bodily responses to emotion-arousing stimuli First comes conscious awareness, then the feeling William James believed this to be backwards: "We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble" (460) Feeling of fear follows body's response

What does cross-cultural research suggest about emotion and facial expression of emotion? What aspects are universal? What aspects are culture-specific? Be able to discuss Ekman's work on cross-cultural aspects of emotion (from text and class).

Facial expressions do convey some nonverbal accents that provide clues to one's culture Signs of emotions generally cross cultures So we can say that facial muscles speak a universal language Although we share a universal facial language, it has been adaptive for us to interpret faces in a particular contexts Although cultures share a universal facial language for some basic emotions, they differ in how much emotion they express

What is the role of facial expressions in detecting and expressing emotions?

Facial expressions transmit signals about the expresser's emotion, intentions and environment and as such are proposed to play a key role in successful social interaction There are seven universal microexpressions: disgust, anger, fear, sadness, happiness, surprise and contempt. They often occur as fast as 1/15 to 1/25 of a second. The face is the best indicator of a person's emotions.

What are some of the primary causes and maintaining factors of schizophrenia?

Having a family history of schizophrenia Increased immune system activation, such as from inflammation or autoimmune diseases Older age of the father Some pregnancy and birth complications, such as malnutrition or exposure to toxins or viruses that may impact brain development Taking mind-altering (psychoactive or psychotropic) drugs during teen years and young adulthood

What is health psychology? What is behavioral medicine? (p. 492 in book)

Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare. It is concerned with understanding how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. Behavioral medicine is concerned with the integration of knowledge in the biological, behavioral, psychological, and social sciences relevant to health and illness. (I.E. a behavior is undesirable, so behavioral medicine cures it. It can be drugs or therapy or any combination)

What issues did Kitty Genovese's murder raise for social psychology? What determines whether bystanders will intervene in a given circumstance? What is the bystander effect? Diffusion of responsibility? Why do people help others - what explanations can be offered to understand this?

Kitty was murdered and nobody called the police. She called for help but because nobody was doing anything, nobody thought they should do anything (bystander affect) Diffusion of responsibility is a psychological phenomenon in which people are less likely to take action when in the presence of a large group of people. Notices incident? -> Interprets incidents as emergency? -> Assumes responsibility? -> Attempts to help (lots of steps where one can choose not to help) Helping others is not only good for them and a good thing to do, it also makes us happier and healthier too. Giving also connects us to others, creating stronger communities and helping to build a happier society for everyone. And it's not all about money - we can also give our time, ideas and energy.Reasons for Helping Others Some social psychologists use the social exchange theory to explain why people help others. They argue that people help each other because they want to gain as much as possible while losing as little as possible. The social responsibility norm also explains helping behavior. The theory of social exchange proposes that individuals will make decisions based on certain outcomes. For example, they will expect the most profit, rewards, positive outcomes and long-term benefits.

What are common stereotypes and misconceptions of people labeled as "mentally ill"? How & why do these stereotypes develop? Why do myths about mental illness persist?

Label someone as "mentally ill" and people may fear them as potentially violent Such negative reactions may fade as people better understand that many psychological disorders involve diseases of the brain, not failure of character Beware of the pitfalls of diagnosis/labeling. Remember to "see" the person behind the diagnosis. Focus on strengths. Recognize that diagnoses are imperfect & can be inaccurate. Avoid the Fundamental Attribution Error. Beware of "Abnormal Psychology Student's Disease" Beware of "Labeling Madness" Being able to diagnose someone's pain does nothing to "cure" or alleviate it. Need for much humility in the field.

What brain areas are particularly important for different emotions?

Limbic system heavily implicated in emotion. (Hypothalmus, Amydala, Thalmus, Hippocampus) Much of this takes place within the temporal lobes.

(a) Does psychotherapy work? (and how do psychotherapy researchers go about answering this question)

Measuring the success of therapy is difficult. We usually determine if therapy is successful based on client perceptions of their experience but sometimes other factors contribute. People often enter therapy in crisis; if the crisis is resolved, that may appear as progress. Clients may believe treatment was effective and experience a placebo effect. Clients want to believe therapy was worth the effort and clients generally speak very kindly about their therapist. Meta-analysis: a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

When is the typical onset of schizophrenia, and what is the incidence of this disorder? (i.e., how many people suffer from this disorder?).

Men tend to get develop schizophrenia slightly earlier than women; whereas most males become ill between 16 and 25 years old, most females develop symptoms several years later, and the incidence in women is noticably higher in women after age 30. The average age of onset is 18 in men and 25 in women. Schizophrenia affects more than 23 million people worldwide but is not as common as many other mental disorders. It is more common among males (12 million), than females (9 million). ... People with schizophrenia are 2-3 times more likely to die early than the general population.

What role does nonverbal behavior play in emotional expression?

Nonverbal behavior is widely recognized as conveying affective and emotional information, although it has other functions as well (such as regulating turn-taking in conversation)

Be able to summarize Milgram's studies on obedience. What do these studies reveal? What lessons can be learned from these studies?

Obedience: Compliance with the demands of an authority. Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments. Participants were asked to punish a stranger with increasingly higher levels of electric shock for wrong answers. (the stranger is working for the researcher) The shocks get bigger until the stranger "dies" and then the participants was interrogated for hurting the participant. Demonstrates that people tend to obey, not that they are evil or sadisitic. Alerts us to a real threat/danger because the majority of people are obedient even to immoral commands

How do psychologists define emotion?

Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences.

What are some different types of schizophrenia (and how do they differ)?

Paranoid schizophrenia: The person's paranoia may be extreme, and they may act on it. "They may show up at the door of the FBI and ask, 'Why are you following me?'" says Dr. Bowers. They may also behave oddly, have inappropriate emotional responses and show little pleasure in life. Catatonic schizophrenia: The person shuts down emotionally, mentally and physically. "People appear to be paralyzed. They have no facial expression and may stand still for long periods of time," she says. There is no drive to eat, drink or urinate. When catatonia lasts for hours, it becomes a medical emergency. Undifferentiated schizophrenia: The person has various vague symptoms. "They may not talk or express themselves much. They can be confused and paranoid," says Dr. Bowers. The person may not bother to change clothes or take a shower. Schizoaffective disorder: The person has delusional thinking and other symptoms of schizophrenia. "But they also present with one or more symptoms of a mood disorder: depression, mania and/or hypomania," says Dr. Bowers.

What are the major symptoms of schizophrenia? What is the difference between positive and negative symptoms and which are associated with positive vs. negative prognosis?

People diagnosed with schizophrenia usually experience a combination of positive (i.e. hallucinations, delusions, racing thoughts), negative (i.e. apathy, lack of emotion, poor or nonexistant social functioning), and cognitive (disorganized thoughts, difficulty concentrating and/or following instructions, difficulty completing tasks, memory problems).

Personality disorders - what are they and what are some examples?

Personality disorders are a group of mental illnesses. They involve long-term patterns of thoughts and behaviors that are unhealthy and inflexible. The behaviors cause serious problems with relationships and work. People with personality disorders have trouble dealing with everyday stresses and problems. Paranoid personality disorder. Schizoid personality disorder. Schizotypal personality disorder. Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) Borderline personality disorder (BPD) Histrionic personality disorder. Narcissistic personality disorder. Avoidant (or anxious) personality disorder.

What does personality refer to? What are the key issues or questions in the study of personality?

Personality refers to a set of relatively enduring, distinctive characteristics that describe how a person reacts and adapts to the environment. Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One is understanding individual differences in particular personality characteristics, such as sociability or irritability.

What are some ways to reduce or manage stress? Be able to explain several strategies that may be used to decrease stress and its negative impact on health (relaxation, social support, cognitive strategies, etc.) (p. 500 and 507 in book)

Problem-focused coping is that kind of coping aimed at resolving the stressful situation or event or altering the source of the stress. Emotion focused coping: attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction Learned helplessness: the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Decreasing and Managing Stress Aerobic Exercise Relaxation, Meditation Avoid Stimulants, Get Sleep social support

What are the major approaches to psychotherapy (e.g., psychoanalysis/psychodynamic, humanistic, etc.)? Be able to summarize & contrast these major approaches.

Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapies Unconscious conflicts from childhood experience->reduce anxiety through self insight-> Interpret patients' memories and feelings Client centered Barriers to self-understanding and self acceptance->enable growth via unconditional positive regard,genuineness, acceptance and empathy -> Listen actively and reflect clients' feelings Behavior therapy Dysfunctional behaviors -> Learn adaptive behaviors; extinguish problem ones ->Use classical conditioning(via exposure or aversion therapy) or operant conditioning (as in token economies) Cognitive therapy -> Negative, self-defeating thinking->promote healthier thinking and self-talk -> Train people to dispute negative thoughts and attributions Cognitive Behavioral: Self-harmful thoughts and behaviors-> promote healthier thinking and adaptive behaviors-> Train people to counter self harmful thoughts and to act out their new ways of thinking. Group and Family: Stressful relationships -> Heal relationships-> develop an understanding of family and other social systems, explore roles, and improve communication Humanistic therapy: emphasizes the importance of being your true self in order to lead the most fulfilling life. ... Humanistic therapy also involves a core belief that people are good at heart and capable of making the right choices for themselves. Integrative or holistic therapy: Holistic medicine is a form of healing that considers the whole person -- body, mind, spirit, and emotions -- in the quest for optimal health and wellness. ... A holistic doctor may use all forms of health care, from conventional medication to alternative therapies, to treat a patient.

What does "psychosis" refer to?

Psychosis is a condition that affects the way your brain processes information. It causes you to lose touch with reality. You might see, hear, or believe things that aren't real. Psychosis is a symptom, not an illness. A mental or physical illness, substance abuse, or extreme stress or trauma can cause it.

What are the primary targets of change among different types of psychotherapy? (i.e., affective experiencing, etc.)

Reveal beliefs, test beliefs, change beliefs Change is in behavior

What are some of the treatments for schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia requires lifelong treatment, even when symptoms have subsided. Treatment with medications and psychosocial therapy can help manage the condition. Individual therapy.Social skills training. Family therapy. Vocational rehabilitation and supported employment.

How is social psychology different from sociology?

Social psychology is the study of individuals and how they interact with others. ... While sociology entirely focuses on how social structures affect behaviors of groups and individuals and how interactions between people lead to a change of these structures. Social psychology focuses on individual human behavior. Study of how people think about, relate to, and influence other people. focus on the individual as a social being (vs. Society at large)

Psychoanalytic theory - What is Freud's theory of personality (particular in terms of its primary focus and personality structure - id, ego, and superego)? What is a healthy personality, according to Freud?

The Id is our unconscious mind (way stronger and larger than our conscious mind) The ego is out conscious awareness we remain "in control" of The superego is societal conditioning of what we ought to do the ego can effectively manage influences of ID and superego through healthy and mature defense mechanisms

What is the fundamental attribution error? What are some examples of this phenomenon?

The fundamental attribution error (also known as correspondence bias or overattribution effect) is the tendency for people to over-emphasise dispositional, or personality-based explanations for behaviours observed in others while under-emphasising situational explanations. In other words, people have a cognitive bias to assume that a person's actions depend on what "kind" of person that person is rather than on the social and environmental forces that influence the person. (Self-Serving Bias)- We exaggerate positive beliefs about ourself to protect our self esteem. Blame others for problems we experience.

What are the ways/mechanisms that stress can impact health, and the relationship between stress and specific diseases? What are some of the stressors that pose the greatest risk to your health? What is Folkman and Lazarus' theory of coping? What impact does perceived control have on health? (p. 492 in book)

The stress response system: When alerted to a negative, uncontrollable event, our sympathetic nervous system arouses us. Heart rate and respiration increases, Blood is diverted from digestion to the skeletal muscles, and the body releases sugar and fat. All this prepares the body for the fight-or-flight response. Stress tends to reduce our immune system's ability to function properly, so that higher stress generally leads to greater incidence of physical illness. Wounds heal slower, individuals get sick more often, vaccines can be less effective Folkman and Lazarus' theory of coping defined stress as resulting from an imbalance between perceived external or internal demands and the perceived personal and social resources to deal with them.

What is the function of defense mechanisms and what are the major defense mechanisms? (be able to describe and identify examples of these)

These are mechanisms that the ego uses to manage conflict between the id and the superego, according to Freud's theory. The common functions of these strategies is to prevent threatening information (feelings, thoughts, attitudes) from entering conscious awareness. Repression: threatening memory/thought/emotion is blocked from consciousness (master defense mechanism) Rationalization: reinterpret behavior & motives in terms that are acceptable. Displacement: redirecting emotions, especially anger, toward things, animals, or people that are not the real object of one's feelings. Sublimation: replacing unacceptable impulse w/ socially acceptable one (aggressive impulses may be sublimated into competitive sports). Denial: refusing to admit something unpleasant/anxiety-producing (e.g. that they are feeling a prohibited feeling like anger or that they have a problem, like drinking too much) Regression: revert to earlier (infant/childlike) period or behavior (e.g. clinging, thumb-sucking, bed-wetting) Reaction Formation: When a feeling that produces unconscious anxiety is transformed to its opposite in consciousness Projection: One's own threatening feelings & problems are repressed and then attributed to someone else. Identification: This occurs when one models the behavior, attitudes, and mannerisms of another who is experienced as a threat (often this involves identifying with an aggressor).

What are the major theories of personality? (Including mini theories, trait theories, and grand theories.) Be able to compare and contrast psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, trait, humanistic, and social cognitive perspectives in terms of their primary focus, explanation of personality development, and strengths & limitations).

Trait Theories: (p. 586) trait theory) is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion "Big Five" Mini-theory A mini-theory might explain relatively narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of human behavior and growth aggressiveness; shyness; locus of control Grand theory Grand theory is a term coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills in The Sociological Imagination to refer to the form of highly abstract theorizing in which the formal organization and arrangement of concepts takes priority over understanding the social reality. Psychoanalytic (Freud) / Psychodynamic human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, super ego Humanistic Humanistic Theories. ... Humanistic psychologists try to see people's lives as those people would see them. They tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature. They focus on the ability of human beings to think consciously and rationally, to control their biological urges, and to achieve their full potential. Social Cognitive The social-cognitive perspective on personality is a theory that emphasizes cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality. These cognitive processes contribute to learned behaviors that are central to one's personality.

Altruism - the whole section is important.

Unselfish concern for another's welfare other factors Good mood Empathy Seeing others help people Personal investment in the victim victim is perceived as similar to oneself

Do our facial expressions influence our feelings? Explain.

facial feedback effect- shows that our facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings and signal the body to respond accordingly. We also tend to mimic others expression which allows us to empathize Expressions not only communication emotion, they also amplify and regulate it

What are the major modalities of psychotherapy? (from class)

individuals, couples, families, etc.

What is "psychotherapy"? How are psychological therapies different from medical (or biomedical) treatments?

the treatment of mental disorder by psychological rather than medical means.