demography test two
Hormonal-based Methods are the next most effective and modern type of contraceptives. The first oral contraceptives marketed in the 1960s were known as
"combined" pills because they contained the two hormones similar to the estrogen and progesterone produced by the ovary and governed by the pituitary gland.
The mini-pill does not include estrogen; therefore, it does not always result in the suppression of ovulation. Thus, many of the menstrual periods of progestin-only pill users are natural. The mini-pill is not as popular as the combined pill; it prevents conception "by
"by interfering with the passage of sperm through the mucus at the entrance to the uterus" (Guillebaud, 2005). The endometrium (the lining of the uterus) is altered; as a result, a fertilized egg is not implanted, even if ovulation does occur.
all couples may be classified as either what is the difference between the two?
"fecund" or "sub-fecund." Fecund couples are capable of giving birth. Sub-fecund couples have impairments of one sort or another and may be subdivided into: definitely sterile, probably sterile, semi-fecund, and fecundity indeterminate
The "typical use is a very elastic concept" in a user's definition of usage (Trussell, 2004). Typical use could be imperfect use and is not a measure of the
"inherent efficacy of a contraceptive method when used perfectly, correctly and consistently" (Kost et al., 2008).
Some of the fertility awareness methods are classified as
"modern" and some as "traditional." The more effective ones use various kinds of symptomatic information about the woman and her menstrual cycle. The traditional and least effective fertility awareness method is the calendar rhythm method, known also as periodic abstinence or continence.
The Two-day Method is based on the idea that vaginal mucus tends to become more moist and cervical secretions more watery as the body prepares for ovulation. By slipping her finger into her vagina on a daily basis and checking on the moistness of the mucus and the consistency of the secretions,
, a woman can detect when ovulation is about to occur and when it has passed. The Two-Day method has a slightly higher failure rate (4%) than the Ovulation method (3%) based on theoretical effectiveness.
Davis and Blake expanded on the three intermediate variables in the following way:
1) the amount of intercourse is affected by the proportion of persons who marry, how long these persons are married, and their frequency of sexual intercourse while married. 2) the probability of conception is affected by contraception and voluntary or involuntary infecundity (i.e., the inability to conceive). 3) the probability of a birth resulting from a given conception depends on whether it is involuntarily or voluntarily aborted. Each intermediate variable can operate to increase as well as to decrease fertility. The observed level of fertility in a population depends on the net balance of all the intermediate variables.
When pregnancies occur even after taking ECPs, they mainly result from the following reasons:
1. Failure of an already established implantation; 2. An excessive lapse of time between the unprotected intercourse and taking the ECP, 3. Inadequate dosages, 4. Regurgitation of the pill, or 5. Failure of the drug itself.
Fertility Terms
Fertility terms
Caldwell (1976) revised the DTT with his theory of wealth flows.
If the flow of wealth runs from children to their parents, it is rational to want large families. In modern societies where the flow is from parents to children, it is rational to want small families
Methods of Contraception
Methods of Contraception
Coitus reservatus, also known as amplexus reservatus, shows a similar end result as coitus interruptus. It differs from coitus interruptus in that ejaculation does not occur or is delayed indefinitely.
The male enters his partner, does not ejaculate, and endeavors to remain at the plateau phase of sexual intercourse and excitement, thus prolonging and sometimes intensifying pleasure.
An important indicator of women's status
Usually indicates postponement of education
Poston and Bouvier argue that
males should be considered in analyses of fertility.
Biological studies have shown the importance
of men in fertility and related behaviors.
A high fertility rate was an important component of the
rapid population increases in the U.S. between 1790 and 1860 which resulted from the fact that more than one-half of the population was fecund. When agriculture was dominant, people tended to have more children in order to have more laborers. TFR (for whites) dropped to 4.6 in 1870 and to 3.6 in 1900. By 1920, just after World War I, the white TFR total fertility rate had dropped to 3.2
Sexuality
sexuality
Intercourse, conception, and gestation/parturition should be considered as "intermediate" to the many other: These latter variables can only be related to fertility by:
social, economic, cultural and environmental factors that influence fertility. working through one or more of the intermediate variables.
Current Patterns of Fertility Control Worldwide and in the United States
that is what the following are about
The Ovulation Method estimated the time of ovulation which could be calculated by use of a basal body temperature (BBT) chart. It is based on the principle that
that ovulation produces a rise in the basic metabolic rate, causing a corresponding increase in body temperature of between 0.3 and 0.9 degrees Centigrade. This technique greatly reduces the length of abstinence as required in the calendar rhythm method. But changes in body temperature can be easily misinterpreted, because an increase in temperature at the time of ovulation may not necessarily apply to all women.
The most popular method for U.S. women is
the pill (17.1%) with female sterilization close behind (16.5%).
There are several different hormonal methods, and they differ according to the
type of hormone(s) in the contraceptive, the amount of the hormone(s) in the contraceptive, the way the woman receives the hormone(s), and whether the exposure to the hormone(s) is continuous or periodic. These hormonal methods may be received by the woman orally or via a patch, injected under her skin, implanted into a tissue, or placed into her vagina.
ECPs are regarded as a very effective means of preventing an accidental pregnancy, particularly suitable for use among women who had
unexpected and unprotected sexual contact as well as in situations of rape.
These rates are ranked from the highest failure rate to the lowest failure rate according to
use effectiveness data.
Couples were surveyed about their use of specific family planning methods for specific periods of time, usually a year. The percentage of couples "typically" using a
using a specific method and experiencing accidental pregnancies over the course of a year is the failure rate for that method according to use effectiveness data.
A woman may also receive the contraceptive hormones by inserting into her vagina a
vaginal ring (brand name Nuva Ring®); it was approved by the FDA in 2001. It is a thin, transparent, flexible ring and is similar to the combined pill; it contains both estrogen and progestin, which are released on a continuous basis into the woman's body.
vaginal spermicides
vaginal spermicides
Intrauterine devices (IUDs) were first developed in Germany in the 1920s. IUD research was not possible in the United States until
•much later, owing to legal and other types of restrictions
Between 1995 and 2008, the abortion rates in the major regions
•of the world either declined or remained pretty much the same.
The fertility control survey data are available for the European countries of
•progress, partly because of the lack of a cheap source of steroid and also because contraceptive research was not academically acceptable" (Potts: 2003: 96).
The physiological principles behind oral contraceptives were developed in the 1920s, "but the method made no
•progress, partly because of the lack of a cheap source of steroid and also because contraceptive research was not academically acceptable" (Potts: 2003: 96).
Among married women and formerly married women who are contracepting, the second most popular method is the oral contraceptive. But for cohabiting women, the second most popular method is
•sterilization, and for single women the second most popular method is the male condom.
there are three fertility concepts: what are the child bearing years for women
1. Fertility is the actual production of male and female births; fertility refers to actual behavior. 2. Reproduction is also actual production, but refers to the production of only female births (there is no demographic term referring to the production of only male births). 3. Fecundity refers to the potential or the biological possibility of producing births. Women age 15-49; these are the main ages when women are able to give birth
The notion of birth prevention appeared early in human history. The best five books providing comprehensive accounts of contraception are:
1. Medical History of Contraception by Norman Himes 2. Contraception: A History of Its Treatment by the Catholic Theologians and Canonists by John T. Noonan 3. Contraception: A History by Robert Jutte 4. History of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present Day written by McLaren 5. Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West written by West
The countries with low fertility fall roughly into three groups:
1. Northern and western Europe as well as Argentina, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the U.S. Declining fertility rates in the twentieth century until the 1930s and then their fertility either leveled off or declined, except for some countries like the U.S. where baby booms occurred. 2. Southern and eastern Europe Fairly consistent fertility declines in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s 3. South Korea, China, Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore Relatively high fertility rates until the end of World War II and into the 1960s, but sharp declines thereafter
Three types of ECPs are now available for use in the U.S.:
1. Plan B One-Step®, a single 1,500 mcg levonorgestrel (a progestin hormone) white pill, approved by the FDA in 2009; 2. Ella®, a single 30 mg ulipristal (an antiprogestin) white pill approved in 2010; and 3. Next Choice®, a generic version of Plan B, taken as two peach-colored pills, approved in 2009.
there are three dimensions of sexuality
1. Self-identification: self-identification of sexuality 2. Sexual preference: sexual desire 3. Sexual behavior: the actual sexual behavior All of the dimensions do not necessarily agree with each other.
four types of family partnering
1. Two persons living together as a married male and female 2. A cohabiting male and female 3. A married or cohabiting male and male 4. A married or cohabiting female and female
There are several ways to categorize contraceptives, and they are listed as follows:
1. Whether or not the contraceptive serves as a barrier to keep the man's sperm from entering the woman. 2. Whether the contraceptive contains hormones. 3. Whether the contraceptive requires continuous input (e.g., the pill or the condom) or whether it is long-lasting (e.g., IUDs and implants). 4. Whether to rank the contraceptive on the basis of its efficacy and failure in preventing pregnancy.
Who is a nonuser of contraception? There are six categories of nonusers. Here are the categories:
1. women who are surgically sterile via a hysterectomy 2. women who themselves or their male partners are nonsurgically sterile 3. women who are pregnant or postpartum 4. women who are trying to become pregnant 5. women who have never had intercourse or have not had intercourse in the past three months 6. women who have had intercourse in the last three months before the survey interview
the five books explained: 1. Medical History of Contraception by Norman Himes
1.first published in 1936, with a paperback edition in 1970; this is the classic. It is an exhaustive survey of contraception covering many cultures worldwide over three thousand years
The condom is another barrier method. The male condom is a mechanical barrier that fits snugly over the penis and prevents the ejaculated sperm from entering the vagina. The condum was first mentioned as far back as
1564 by the Italian anatomist Gabriele Falloppio as a prophylactic against venereal disease; it became popularized after the late nineteenth century.
Statistics to Poston and Changs analysis
179 women of the 7,356 women gave a "homosexual" response to at least one of the three dimensions. Less than 20% of the female homosexual sample reported self-identifying as homosexual, and having only same-sex sex behavior in their lifetimes, and being only or mostly attracted to females. For males it was 28.7% Just over 2.4% of the females and almost 2.9% of the males reported having same-sex sex in their lifetimes, and/or desiring or being attracted to same-sex persons, and/or self-identifying as homosexuals.
62 percent of U.S. women were using contraception in the
2006-10 period, and, thus, 38 percent were not
For parous women (women who have previously given birth) the failure rate based on use effectiveness is
24 percent. For nulliparous women (women who have not previously given birth), the failure rate is half as high.
63 percent of all legal abortions were to women in the first eight weeks of their pregnancies, and
26 percent to women in the ninth through the twelfth weeks of their pregnancies
Poston & Chang (2013)'s analysis of 2010 census
366 metropolitan areas in the U.S. Prevalence indexes for each of the 4 types of partnering, developed by Gates and Ost (2004) and extended by Poston and Chang (2013). Measurement of over- or underrepresentation of each type of partnering The ratio of the proportion of each type living in a metropolitan area to the proportion of all households that are located in a metropolitan area.
the five books explained: 4. History of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present Day written by McLaren in 1992 and book 5. Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West written by West
4. a major historical treatment. 5. West in 1999. This book is also an historical account, and it also focuses on the use of plants and herbal products to regulate fertility.
Contraceptive Behavior by Marital or Cohabiting Status
6.4 presents method-specific data for all women according to their current marital status: married, cohabiting, formerly married ( & not now cohabiting), and never married (& not now cohabiting). The data in this table do not apply to all women, but only to women who are contracepting. Among all contracepting women 15 to 44 years of age, the two most popular contraceptive methods are the oral contraceptive at 27.5 percent and female sterilization at 26.6 percent.
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
A cross-sectional measure. It is a "crude" measure because its denominator includes people who are not at the risk of childbearing (women under 15 yrs and women over 50, and men).
Poston's and Chang's analysis of the NSFG data 7 possible outcomes as follows:
A homosexual (or a heterosexual) response (1) only to identification, (2) only to desire, (3) only to behavior, (4) to both identification and desire, (5) to both identification and behavior, (6) to both desire and behavior, and (7) to identification, desire, and behavior.
Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR)
A standardized rate similar to the TFR, except that it is based on the sum of age-specific rates that include only female births in the numerators. Sometimes the number of female births is not available, so the proportion of all births that is female is employed as a constant and is multiplied against the given TFR
Abortions in the United States
Abortions became legal in the United States in 1973 when the Supreme Court in the Roe v. Wade decision declared that "women, in consultation with their physician, have a constitutionally protected right to have an abortion in the early stages of pregnancy, that is, before the fetus is viable, free from government interference"
marriage and the family today in the U.S.
Age at first marriage Males at 26 and females at 22 at the end of 19th century. Males at 22.8 and females at 20.3 in about the year of 1960, along with the growth of well-paid jobs under industrialization. Males at 29 and females at 27 in 2014. Increase in age at first marriage since 1960. The number of people getting married In 1950, 66% of women of age 15+ were married and 20% were never married. In 2014, nearly 50% of women were married and 39% were never married. In 1980, 5% of women of aged 45-54 were never married. In 2010, 14% of women aged 45-54 were never married.
But among cohabiting women and among single (never married) women who are not cohabiting, the most popular method is the pill.
Almost 47 percent of single women who are contracepting are using the oral contraceptive.
The General Fertility Rate
Another cross-sectional measure of fertility. The GFR is superior to the CBR because it restricts its denominator to women of childbearing ages. Denominator is sometimes further restricted to women aged 15-44 because of the very low fertility among women over 44 years
Major impacts will likely be felt through population ageing.
As fertility declines, birth cohorts become progressively smaller, which coupled with increases in life expectancy, lead to an increasingly larger proportion of the population that is over age 65, and a smaller proportion of the population in the working ages.
The IUD remains important in ______ and ________ and the pill has the widest _________________ _____________________ of any method".
Asia and Europe geographic distribution
Demographers have shown that the more years of education a woman has, the fewer will be her number of children. Why?
Because of the postponement of marriage and childbearing So, the education variable has an influence on fertility through the so-called proximate or intermediate variables
The age-specific fertility rate (asfr)
Births to women according to their age. ASFRs are usually calculated for women in each of the seven 5-year age groups of 15-19,...45-49. Sometimes 35 single year age groups are used.
For a few countries, population decline is expected to occur even though their fertility is greater than the replacement levels. These countries:
Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, are being significantly impacted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, leading to a net loss in population
the family historical review about the 18th century
By the end of 18th century in Western Europe, the "love match" became normative, with the husband providing for the family and the wife focusing on the family life (the "Ozzie and Harriet" type family).
conceptualizing sexuality part one
Essentialism Based in biology. Dimorphism: an "essential" biological or psychological characteristic common to all persons and distinguishes them as either of one sexuality or not. A fundamental drive for one's inclusion into, or not into, heterosexual or homosexual.
Poston's and Chang's analysis of the NSFG data (Cont'd) about sexuallity/homosexuality/heterosexuals
Essentialist approach working well for male and female heterosexuals. 75% of females and 83% of males are heterosexual on all three questions. Essentialist approach not working so well for homosexuals: Homosexuality is much more fluid than heterosexuality. Using a social constructionist orientation in an analysis of sexuality provides a much more encompassing understanding of sexuality. Prevalence rates of heterosexuality and homosexuality in 2006-08 Heterosexuality Females: 95.4% of U.S. woman aged 15-44 gave a heterosexual answer to at least one dimension; 72% gave the heterosexual response to all three questions. Males: The corresponding percentages were 96% and 79%. Homosexuality Females: 1.9% of U.S. woman aged 15-44 gave a homosexual answer to at least one dimension; 0.3% gave the homosexual response to all three questions. Males: The corresponding percentages were 2.2% and 0.6%. An essentialist interpretation places the percentage levels of homosexuality much lower.
fertility awareness methods
Fertility awareness methods refer to so-called natural family planning methods that employ an awareness of information about the woman's menstrual cycle to predict the time of the month when the probabilities are high that she will become pregnant.
Poston and Changs observations about maximum and minimum values
Gay males: 2.78 for the San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont, CA metropolitan area; 0.26 for the Grand Forks, ND-MN metro area Lesbians: 2.97 for the Ithaca, NY metropolitan area; 0.32 for the Wausau, WI metro area. Opposite-sex couples are just about as likely to reside in any of the areas. Gay male couples are much more likely to be in some areas than others. Partnered lesbians tended to be more in metropolitan areas than men and not to prefer particular areas to the extent of gay men.
marriage and family today babies born out of wedlock
In 2013, almost 41% of all babies were born to unmarried mothers. In the late 1950s, only 5% were born to unmarried mothers; 14% in the mid-1970s; 30% in the mid-1980s. Homes for unwed mothers reduced in number. The legalization of abortion Contraception widely available and effective Increased percentages of single mothers Changing societal attitudes toward single parenthood Percentages of births to unmarried mothers by race and Hispanic origin NH-white women: 10% in 1980; 30% in 2013 NH-black women: 57% in 1980; 72% in 2013 Hispanic women: about 25% in 1980; 53% in 2013
The Diaphragm and the Cervical Cap
In combination with a contraceptive jelly or cream, they were the two methods most often recommended during the 1930s and 1940s by physicians in private practice and by birth control clinics throughout the United States and Europe. The vaginal diaphragm is a device that erects a barrier between the sperm and the ova.
We have these data for the United States.
In the U.S. 62 percent of all women aged 15-44 are using family planning methods; thus, 38 percent of them are not using contraceptive methods. Of this 38 percent, only 8 percent who are not using contraceptive methods are sexually active, and thus at the risk of an unintended pregnancy.
the family historical review continued United States
In the U.S. during the colonial era, there were no sharply divided roles of the husband and the wife. The husband, wife, and children all worked together. Societal and structural changes in Europe and America Industrialization, urbanization, productivity, market economy, and individualization. Control and decision making moved from extended families to nuclear families
The importance of male fertility is also seen in the determinants of fertility:
In the U.S., men's fertility is more likely to be influenced by their marital and employment status compared to women's. Men also have different cohabitation and marriage patterns compared to women
the net reproductive rate (NRR)
Is a more accurate measure of the replacement of daughters by mothers because it takes into account that some mothers may die before they complete their childbearing years. The number of daughters who will be born to a hypothetical cohort of 1,000 mothers, taking into account the mortality of the mothers from the time of their birth, it subjects the 1,000 mothers not only to a schedule of age-specific reproduction rates, but also to the risk of mortality up to the age of 49
The political economy of fertility is an "analytic perspective" for the study of fertility
It is a "multileveled" approach, combining macro and micro-level explanations of fertility patterns occurring in a given locale. Determinants are considered and measured at every level, such as the global, international, and national forces; the political, structural, and legal shifts; the community factors; and the characteristics of the individual couple. Fertility outcomes filter through these composite levels and progression tends to be slow
vaginal ring is
It is inserted by the woman into her vagina usually during the first five days of her menstrual period and remains in place for three weeks. She then withdraws it, throws it away, and does not use a ring for a week, during which time menstruation occurs. A new ring is reinserted after seven days. The vaginal ring has the same effectiveness numbers as the pill and the patch.
The first of the calendar methods was developed independently in 1920 by a Japanese scientist,
Kyusaka Ogino, and by an Austrian scientist, Hermann Knaus. The idea was that a woman can avoid pregnancy if she refrains from intercourse around the time of ovulation, when the egg is produced.
demographic changes in america
Life expectancy at birth increased from 74 in the 19th century to around 83 as of 2012. The age when a woman would have her last child does not greatly impact her any more like it did in the 19th century. Marriage and childbearing are no longer defining events and activities.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Like the ASFR it takes into account the fact that fertility varies by age, but the TFR provides a single fertility value The TFR. It is calculated by summing the ASFRs, after multiplying each by the width of the age interval it is a standardized rate—it is not influenced by the differences in the numbers of women in each age
male fertility; an important limitation of the fertility theories and measures discussed thus far is that they are all derived from calculations and analyses of female fertility because There are several reasons why males have been excluded from fertility studies:
Males are a neglected minority in fertility studies. 1. Fecundity is not narrowly defined (15-79 years). 2. Spacing and number of children are varied. 3. Lack of data. 4. Sociological reasons.
Demographic studies have also shown different male fertility and related behavior:
Males' age-specific fertility starts later, stops much later, and is typically higher than that of females In most industrialized countries, male TFRs are higher than female TFRs
The two countries with the highest percentages of married women using any family planning method are
Norway at 88 percent and Portugal at 87 percent.
Since the method was defined as "natural" and not "artificial," it was deemed to be acceptable by the
Roman Catholic Church, and hence sometimes came to be called "Vatican roulette" or "calendar love."
conceptualizing sexuality part two
Social constructionism Against the notion of binary categories: varying degrees of sexuality Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues moved sexuality research away from essentialism. The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States by Laumann et al. is the best book on this topic The fluidity of sexual orientation
Proximate Determinants of Fertility some examples of contributing behavior:
Social demographers are interested in how and why various social, economic, cultural and environmental factors influence both the likelihood of a woman having a baby, and the number of babies she has in her lifetime. Social class, economic status, religious beliefs, psychological disposition, attitudes about children
babies born out of wedlock for different races
Some reasons why black percentages are so much higher than white percentages. Out of the 72% of the births to unmarried black women, one-third are cohabiting. The availability of black men is low; 1.5 million of the 8 million black men in the ages 25-54 are not available for the black women, due to incarceration and high mortality.
Contraceptive Behavior of U.S. Women
Table 6.3 and Figure 6.2 present data on the use and nonuse of contraception by U.S. women aged 15-44, for the 2006-2010 period of time. These data were gathered via the National Survey of Family Growth.
The NSFG sexuality data
The 2006-08 NSFG data Behavioral dimension Heterosexual: having only opposite-sex partners and no same-sex partners. Homosexual: having only same-sex partners and no opposite-sex partners. Self-identification dimension Desire dimension. Heterosexual: those who are only attracted or who are mostly attracted to the opposite sex. Homosexual: those who are only attracted or who are mostly attracted to the same sex.
other fertility awareness methods
The Ovulation Method (sometimes known as the Billings Ovulation Method) and Two-day Method are based on the presence or absence of cervical secretions or changes in basal body temperature, and follow the research undertaken by John Billings, Evelyn Billings, and others starting in the 1950s.
human ecological theory
The _______________ ___________ __________ of fertility is a macro-level explanation and argues that the level of sustenance organization complexity of a society is negatively related with fertility
population reference bureau cont. about the data
The data portray a contemporary empirical picture of the reproductive revolution that has occurred in the world since the 1950s, using various family planning methods.
Methods of Family Planning
There are many kinds of family planning methods; some are controlled by females and others by males.
The last fertility awareness method to be discussed is the Symptothermal Method.
There are no known serious side effects associated with any of the fertility awareness methods, except experiencing the event of pregnancies. No special equipment is necessary (except, perhaps, for a calendar, or a thermometer, or a set of beads, or a chart). The various fertility awareness methods have very low use rates among U.S. women.
First Premarital Intercourse
This is an important question because the first premarital intercourse "marks the beginning of exposure to the risk of nonmarital pregnancy and birth and sexually transmitted infections
Differences in Contraceptive Use
Though women in the different regions of the world vary in the principal contraceptive methods they use, the patterns of their use have not changed much between 1990 and 2012. Female sterilization is common in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean and Northern America, and 18 percent of married women worldwide in the reproductive ages have been contraceptively sterilized. The next most popular methods, in order, are the IUD (13 percent), the oral contraceptive and the male condom (both at 8 percent), injectables (5 percent), and male sterilization (3 percent). The IUD remains important in Asia and Europe, and the pill has the widest geographic distribution of any method".
CycleBeads®, a string of color-coded beads to indicate fertile and infertile days, may be used by a woman to keep track of the days in her menstrual cycle (see Figure 6.6 in the file of figures and tables). The red bead on the necklace is used to mark the first day in the woman's menstrual cycle. Six brown beads follow the one red bead, suggesting the time safe to have intercourse. and then...
Twelve white glow-in-the-dark beads follow the brown beads indicate the window not safe to have intercourse. They are followed by brown beads signifying safe days until the menstrual period restarts, at which time the woman begins again by moving the ring to the red bead.
the family historical review about the 17th century
Up to around the 17th century, marriages were used mainly to gain ancestral legitimacy and to establish military and commercial ties. Polygyny was banned around the 12th century, and extended families declined in number.
marriage and family today who cohabit
Very little change between 1995 and 2010 (NSFG cycles) in the percentages of women aged 15-44 not in a union: 28%. Drastic changes in the percentages marrying and cohabiting. Cohabitation: one-third of women in 1995 to one-half of women in 2006-2010. Marriage: 39% in 1995 to 23% in 2006-2010 Of the one-half of women cohabiting, 40% transitioned to marry, 32% remained cohabiting, and 27% dissolved the relationships. Cohabiting without being married is becoming more acceptable.
babies born out of wedlock and their ages
Women under age 15: Virtually all births in this group were to unmarried in 2013. Women aged 15-19: 89% of births were to the unmarried. Women in their 20s and early 30s: Over 65% of births to unmarried who are 20-24 year olds; almost 36% to 25-29 year olds; over 32% to 30-34 year olds. The older the woman, the more likely she has married and the less likely she is not married when she gives birth.
The modern oral contraceptive is either a
a combined oral contraceptive, or a pill containing only progestin, known as the progestin-only pill, or sometimes as the mini-pill.
Although the world is projected to grow in the decades ahead, a slowing of the rate of population growth is already underway, and
a decline in the size of the population of the world could begin as early as 2050. Europe will be most affected, where the reason for depopulation is sustained low fertility This will have significant economic impacts and implications
Between 2005 and 2050 we may well see a The old age dependency ratio is
a doubling of the old-age dependency ratio in developed countries from 22.6 to 44.4 The ratio of the population aged 65 and over to the population aged 15-64, times 100
Both the combined oral contraceptive pill and the mini-pill are very effective. According to use effectiveness data, the combined pill and the progestin-only pill have
a failure rate of 9 percent; and they have a much lower rate of 0.3 percent according to theoretical effectiveness. Over 17 percent of all U.S. women use either the combined pill or the mini-pill. Among contracepting women in the U.S., the pill is the most popular method for cohabiting women and for single women who are not cohabiting; almost 47 percent of contracepting women who are single and not cohabiting are using the pill.
Only 11 percent of contracepting women without a
a high school education use the oral contraceptive, compared with 35 percent of contracepting women who hold at least a four-year college degree.
Finally, although sterilization reversal is a difficult operation and does not have high rates of success, it is sometimes a
a little easier to reverse a male sterilization than a female sterilization.
A cervical cap is a small, thimble-shaped cup by fitting over the cervix. The first modern cervical caps were developed in 1838 by the German gynecologist Friedrich Wilde. Today, caps are made of latex or silicone providing
a more effective mechanical block against sperms than diaphragms. They are much more effective when used by nulliparous women than by parous women. About one-third of American couples who tried to plan their families during the 1940s used diaphragms or cervical caps, but they lost favor "with the advent of non-event-related methods such as the IUD and oral contraceptive" (Shepard, 1980).
Infertility is due to:
a voluntary decision not to have children, or it is caused by biological infecundity.
most societies have about 105 male babies born per 100 female babies— hence we may use the forumla ____ to calculate the GRR
about 51.2% of all births each year being male births; therefore, 48.8 percent of all births will be female births. GRR = TFR*.488
The effectiveness of these methods differs from one another, and each has its
advantages and disadvantages
Condoms now play an important role in protection against
against HIV and venereal disease contractions. Condoms have no medical side effects, and are easy to buy and store. Their use requires no special training.
A synthetic steroid compound with antiprogestational effects, known as RU-486, was discovered in 1982 by the French reproductive physiologist Etienne-Emile Baulieu and other researchers at the Roussel Uclaf Company in France, the eventual designer of the drug (hence, the designation "RU"). It contains
antiprogestational agents; the pill "blocks the action of progesterone, which is necessary to establish and maintain placental attachment" (Paul and Stein, 2011). The generic name of the drug is mifepristone, and it is marketed in the United States under the trade name Mifeprex®.
The global condom market is forecasted to approach a value of US $5.2 billion by 2018. The failure rates for male condoms and female condoms based on use effectiveness are 18 percent and 21 percent, respectively. Male condoms, especially when used with vaginal spermicides, are more
are more effective than most of the other methods. More than 10 percent of all U.S. women in the childbearing ages report that the male condom is their main method of contraception.
Contraceptive failure percentage rates in Table 6.5 are
are reported for use effectiveness and theoretical effectiveness data.
the largest average family size that seems possible ranges from around
around 9 to 13 children, and then only in societies where marriage occurs at an early age and birth prevention is not practiced such as Rural Irish, Hutterites, Cocos Islands
Condoms were available since around
around the seventeenth century.
Another hormonal contraception delivery system is the transdermal contraceptive patch approved by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002. It is a thin, flexible, 20cm2 patch with three layers, each to be
be placed weekly on the buttocks, arm, or stomach. The two hormones are released from the patch at a constant and continuous level each day. After three weeks, no patch is used for one week, to allow menstruation to occur.
Almost 17 percent of all U.S. women have been
been sterilized. It is also the most popular form of family planning worldwide.
Today, most married and unmarried sexually active women and men in the United States and in other developed countries are limiting their family size and/or controlling the timing and spacing of their births through
birth control
fewer people in the developing countries use
birth prevention methods
In many sub-Saharan African countries, traditional methods account for more than half of all methods used. For example, 15 percent of women in Somalia use any family planning method, but
but only one percent use modern methods; 18 percent of women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo use any method, but only 5 percent use a modern method; 23 percent of women in Cameroon use any method, but only 14 percent use a modern method.
Other research shows the patterns of contraceptive use and nonuse of U.S. women vary by
by their age groups and education. Among users of contraception, the most popular method for young women is the pill; 49 percent of women aged 15-24 who are contracepting are using the pill. The percentage of pill users drops to 33 percent for contraceptors in their late twenties and to 10 percent for those in their early forties.
Traditional family planning methods include less effective "natural" methods, such as the
calendar rhythm method (i.e., periodic abstinence), coitus interruptus (i.e., withdrawal), long-term abstinence, and prolonged breast-feeding.
chapter five
chapter five
chapter six
chapter six
Of particular interest is the fact that among almost all the countries of the world, one or two contraceptive methods comprise
comprise half or more of "total contraceptive use among the married or in-union women" (UNDESF, 2013: 2). The pill is the dominant method in 20 countries, and traditional methods are dominant in 11 countries.
Vaginal spermicides should be placed high into the vagina several minutes before an intercourse. They are the least effective based on use effectiveness. They are "commonly marketed for use with a diaphragm, but they can also be used alone for contraception" (Cates and Harwood, 2011). Besides creating a physical barrier to the movement of sperm, many spermicides
contain the sperm-killing chemical nonoxynol-9 (N-9), which further reduces the chance of conception by damaging and killing sperm in the vagina.
nearly 38 percent of women were not almost 12 percent of these women have never had
contracepting. Of those 38 percent, over 2 percent of them are sterile (surgically or nonsurgically), and 9 percent are pregnant, just gave birth, or are trying to become pregnant. intercourse. Only 7.7 percent of the women who are nonusers of contraception are sexually active
There are a variety of methods available to women and men to prevent births, and the most popular ones worldwide are
contraception, sterilization, and abortion
The two types of IUDs available in the United States today are both. flexible polyethylene devices shaped like a "T." One has
copper wire twisted about it and is known formally as Copper T 380A, or sometimes as the Copper T. The brand marketed in the United States is the ParaGard® IUD. The ParaGard is does not contain the female hormones used to suppress ovulation, and should be replaced after 10-12 years of use.
Abortions do not occur more frequently in countries where they are legally performed versus in countries
countries where they are not legally performed. The abortion data in Table 6.2 indicate that the rate in 2008 was 29 in Africa where abortion is, for the most part, illegal, but it was 27 in Europe where abortion is mostly legal.
The Total Fertility Rate may be calculated ____________ or the may be calculated for __________ The cohort follows a real group of women through ______ _________ _________ and tabulates their fertility as they pass through these years The cross-sectional may be calculated ___ ___________ ____ ________ across the respective row and multiplying the sum by 5.
cross-sectionally \\ cohorts their childbearing years - a diagonal line by summing the ASFRs - a horizontal line hence the word "across"
we can study fertility _________ or _________
cross-sectionally with period measures, or overtime. also, on a cohort or period basis, or on a micro or macro basis
Surgical sterilization is a contraceptive method that is rarely reversible. Sterilization can be performed on both males and females. Tubal ligation is a female sterilization that involves
cutting, tying, and removing a portion of the oviduct (or the Fallopian tubes); and there are several types of female sterilization.
Male sterilization method is known as vasectomy. It involves
cutting, tying, and removing a portion of the spermatic duct, i.e., the vas deferens.
Between 1973 and 2011, around 53 million legal abortions were performed in the United States. But, the number of legal abortions per year has
decreased over time from 1.3 million in 2000, to 1.2 million in 2008, and just over 1 million in 2011. Abortion is not an uncommon procedure. About one in five pregnancies in the U.S. ends in abortion; thus, abortion is now one of the most common surgical procedures experienced by U.S. women.
Minilaparotomy is a second surgical sterilization procedure performed on a woman a few days after she
delivers a baby. It also requires a general anesthesia during which the woman's abdomen receives a small incision, and a piece of each of the Fallopian tubes is cut and removed.
Lower rates of fertility, coupled with low rates of mortality and migration, are responsible for
depopulation in the majority of countries projected to lose population in the next 50 years
The manual vacuum-aspiration method of abortion was first
described by the gynecologist of Queen Victoria of England
The depopulation of most of the countries in the developed world has significant
economic impacts and implications.
Cohabitiation rates depending on the levels of __________________ the more _________________ a woman has, the less likely she will have ever cohabited..
education and education
Whereas few U.S. women report using the calendar rhythm method (0.6%), there are no acceptable
failure rate data available because "no well-designed prospective studies have been conducted, and no data are available from national surveys" (Jennings and Burke, 2011
family partnering
family partnering
According to data from the various countries gathered between 2002 and 2012, 63 percent of married women worldwide are using
family planning methods: 72 percent of women in the developed countries and 62 percent in the developing countries.
Male sterilization is more effective than
female sterilization. Its failure rates are 0.15 percent and 0.10 percent (use effectiveness, and theoretical effectiveness data, respectively). There are several advantages of male sterilization over female sterilization. It is faster to perform, requires only a local anesthetic, is less expensive, and presents less risk of complications.
This is a different strategy from the aforementioned contraceptives, because the latter ones prevent pregnancy primarily by preventing ovulation. ECPs are licensed for
for up to 72 hours after an unprotected intercourse.
The male sex contributes an equivalent amount of genetic information to the next generation as does the female, but the variance contributed by the male sex to the next generation in many species is considerably:
greater than that of the female sex. Biologists have found there are more childless males than females in many species
most of the 38 percent who are not using contraception are women who are either sterile, pregnant, seeking to become pregnant, postpartum, never had
had intercourse, or not sexually active. Only one in five of the non-users of contraception are sexually active and do not fall into one of the other categories. Only sexually active women are truly at risk of an unintended pregnancy.
Health care and pension programs are not very well equipped to
handle large increases in the numbers of the elderly, who are living longer than their predecessors
Withdrawal has a high
high failure rate according to use effectiveness data, 22 percent. Only a small percentage of all U.S. women (3.2%) report this as their method of contraception.
The other "T" shaped IUD is formally known as Levonorgestrel IUD; the brand marketed in the U.S. is the Mirena IUD. The Mirena is
hormonal, and remains effective for up to 5 years.
Two other prominent fertility paradigms are based on __________ __________ and __________ _____________.
human ecology // political economy.
The contraceptive failure rates based on theoretical effectiveness refer to pregnancies that would be experienced if a particular method was used under ideal, perfect conditions, that is, if
if the method was always used and used exactly according to the instructions and the rules
Sterility or infecundity a fecund woman may choose to remain ______
implies the existence of infertility, but the reverse is not necessarily the case. infertile
statistics for cohabitating
in 2009-10, 74% of women with less than a high school degree have ever cohabited , 57% with with one to three years of college, and 50% with 4 or more years of college
In addition to these five books, there are also the written records of contraceptive remedies and abortion techniques Most fertility control methods that were documented in these treatments here were
in Egyptian papyri (1900-1100 BC), in the Latin works of Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79) and Discorides (AD 40-90), in the Greek writings of Soranus (ca. 100), and in works dealing with Arabic medicine in the tenth century. relatively ineffective, with the exception of induced abortion and withdrawal.
Other modern methods include
include the diaphragm, vaginal contraceptives including various foams and jellies, several kinds of contraceptive implants, the female condom, and "natural" family planning methods, also known as fertility awareness methods, such as the Standard Days Method® and the Billings ovulation Method.
the opposite terms of fertility are
infertility or childlessness. And infecundity or sterility.
The last category is the only nonuser engaging in unprotected intercourse, running the risk of becoming pregnant. In other words, Table 6.1 shows that 37 percent of married women worldwide are contraception nonusers, but it does not provide
information for the various categories of nonusers nor tell how many of these nonusers are truly at the risk of becoming pregnant involuntarily (the sixth category of nonusers, as just described).
The ParaGard has failure rates of 0.8 percent and 0.6 percent, based on use effectiveness data and theoretical effectiveness data, respectively. The Mirena has even lower failure rates, 0.2 percent according to both types of effectiveness. A health-care provider needs to
insert either type of IUD in the uterus. Small strings extend from its end into the vagina, where they may be checked periodically by the woman to make sure that the IUD has not been ejected. In the U.S. today, 3.5 percent of contracepting women use the IUD.
the female condom:The inner ring at the closed end of the female condom is used to
insert it into the vagina; the ring then moves into place behind the pubic bone. The outer ring at the open end of the condom is soft and remains outside the vagina. It does not interrupt the spontaneity of the sex act, nor needs to be removed immediately after ejaculation. Because it lines the vagina loosely, some persons find the female condom more satisfying sexually than the male condom.
About 90 percent of U.S. women in the childbearing ages report having engaged in sexual intercourse
intercourse prior to marriage. Women on average have their first intercourse at age 17, but do not marry until the mid-20s. By age 20, over 70 percent of U.S. women have had sexual intercourse and almost all are not married.
Abortifacients or abortion pills are not ECPs. They are pharmaceutical medications that cause the termination of an early pregnancy by
interfering with the viability of an already implanted zygote (ferilized egg).
Proximate variables of determinants of fertility are
intermediate to the social, economic, cultural, and environmental variables and fertility
The main modern methods of family planning are the
intrauterine device (IUD), contraception injection, the male condom, and both male and female sterilization
First, laparoscopic sterilization is a sterilizing procedure using a laparoscope. It requires general anesthesia during which a small incision is
introduced near the woman's belly button and a laparoscope, i.e., a telescope-like device, is then inserted so that the physician or operator can view the Fallopian tubes. A second incision may be made right above the pubic hairline, where rings or clips are then inserted.
The Female condom, is a female-initiated barrier method, with many advantages and fewer disadvantages over the male condom. The female condom was invented
invented and popularized by the Danish medical doctor Lasse Hessel and launched worldwide in 1991.
Contraception injection is another way for women to receive hormonal contraception. The most commonly used brand in the United States is
is Depo-Provera®, and is administered via an injection by a health professional once every twelve weeks in the arm, buttocks, upper thigh, or abdomen. The economic cost is about the same as the birth control pill. Depo-Provera has a low use-effectiveness failure rate of 6 percent, and a very low theoretical failure rate of 0.2 percent. A woman typically stops having periods altogether after one year of use.
The one brand of birth control patch now on the market is
is Ortho-Evra. A very small percentage of U.S. women use the patch, but it is as effective as the combined pill and mini-pill.
Induced Abortion
is a pregnancy that has been terminated by human intervention with an "intent other than to produce a live birth
Among currently married women and among formerly married women, the most popular method is
is female sterilization; over 30 percent of married women have been contraceptively sterilized, and over 55 percent of formerly married women have been sterilized.
There are two main approaches. The traditional vasectomy is a minor procedure. The surgeon makes one incision in the skin on each of the two sides of the scrotum, and the vas deferens tube of each testicle
is lifted from the scrotum, cut, and tied, or sometimes cauterized. The separated tubes are then returned to the scrotum and a few stitches are used to close the two incisions. After having a vasectomy, the semen no longer contains sperm.
The combined pill is
is monophasic, biphasic, or triphasic. A monophasic pill provides a constant amount of estrogen and progestin every day, while the other two types provide varying amounts. It comes in either twenty-one- or twenty-eight-day packages.
Depopulation
is the decline in the size of the population. Despite attention to the phenomenon of overpopulation, declines in population are expected to occur in around 50 or more countries by the year 2050, and in even more countries thereafter
Frequently, women following these principles became pregnant, and the calendar rhythm method gained a poor reputation. For instance, Knaus held that ovulation would always occur fourteen days prior to the start of the next menstrual cycle, a fact we now know
know not to be true. Others held that the woman was most likely to conceive immediately after her menstrual period ended; thus, the rest of the cycle was considered safe because she was thought to be sterile during that time.
The percentage of married women using modern methods ranges from
lows of 1 percent in South Sudan and Somalia and 2 percent in Chad to highs of 84 percent in the United Kingdom and China.
in Africa, where overall family planning use is very low, one in six married women using a
method uses a traditional method, and in sub-Saharan Africa the number is one in five
Spermicides provide some vaginal lubrication, and have no known adverse side effects except for
mild burning, which can be experienced by both the females and the males. Vaginal spermicides are available in pharmacies and supermarkets in the U.S. without a prescription under such brand names as Advantage-S, Conceptrol, Crinone, Delfen Foam, Emko, Encare, Endometrin, Gynol II, Prochieve
According to both use and theoretical effectiveness data, the failure rate for Implanon® is a miniscule
miniscule 0.05 percent. In other words, only five pregnancies will occur, on average, for every 10,000 users of Implanon®. All of the aforementioned family planning methods are reversible, and can be stopped if a pregnancy is desired.
Contraceptive methods can be divided into
modern and traditional methods
Another fertility awareness method, the Standard Days Method®, also involves "counting the days in the menstrual cycle to identify the fertile days" (Jennings and Burke, 2011). Its failure rate is 5 percent. It is a variant of the calendar rhythm method, and is
more effective (based on theoretical effectiveness data) and easier to use for women with menstrual cycles that last between twenty-six and thirty-two days. This method was developed by researchers at the Institute for Reproductive Health at Georgetown University. The idea is that it is it is safe to engage in intercourse for the first seven days of the cycle, not safe from the eighth through the nineteenth days, and safe again from the twentieth day until the end of the cycle.
The male condom is the third most
most popular method (10.2%), with male sterilization (6.2%) the fourth. Unlike the situation worldwide, for U.S. women the IUD is one of the least favored, not one of the most favored methods.
The intrauterine device (IUD), with or without hormones, is placed in the uterus, and is the most
most widely used reversible contraceptive method in the world. The antecedent of the modern intrauterine device was the stem pessary, developed in the late 1860s. Over time, the intrauterine device has been revised by different scientists.
The failure rate for nonuse is 85 percent (the rate of pregnancy). This means that if 100 sexually active couples were to use
no contraception over the course of a year, 85 percent of the women on average would experience a pregnancy.
Birth rates in some of the countries of the developing world are high but _____ _____ _______ _______ ______ _________. There are documented cases of women having 20 or more births
not as high as biologically possible
Nonmarital Fertility. Includes all women and those who are: Nonmarried status is important because
not married, divorced, or widowed because it is a "marker for the presence or absence of financial, social, and emotional resources." In 2013, 41% of all births were to unmarried women
The progestin-only pill, i.e., the mini-pill, consists of
of a small dose of progestin, which is taken daily, even during menstruation. It reduces the side effects of the combined pill, and also makes available an oral contraceptive for women who breast-feed their children or who should avoid estrogen for health reasons.
Implant has several advantages over other hormonal-based methods. A single visit to a clinic once every three years is substituted for the daily consumption of
of birth control pills, or the weekly employment of a patch, or the triweekly insertion of a vaginal ring, or the monthly or trimonthly birth control shot. It is also the most effective of all contraceptives, including male and female sterilization.
The withdrawal method is also known as coitus interruptus and as the pull-out method, and is one of the oldest known contraceptive practices. It is mentioned in the Old Testament (Genesis 38). The male partner "withdraws his penis from the vagina and away from the external genitalia of the female partner" before ejaculation" (Kowal, 2011). The withdrawal method requires a lot of
of experience of the male, before he can predict with a reasonable amount of certainty that ejaculation is about to occur. An unintended pregnancy will still sometimes occur, if the pre-ejaculate fluid picks up enough sperm in the urethra from a previous ejaculation.
The Subdermal contraceptive implant is a third hormonal contraceptive. The first implant, Norplant®, was developed in the 1980s consisting of
of six small silicone capsule-type rods. Each contains progestin to be placed subdermally in the woman's upper arm, to remain in effect for five years. Nexplanon® is replacing Implanon®, because the insertion is simplified, involving only a single rod implant.
In general, most of these methods are just slightly more effective than spermicides and a little less effective than withdrawal. These methods depend on
on identifying the fertile window; this is a period of time requiring a woman to refrain from having intercourse because the probabilities are high that she will become pregnant.
It is a soft rubber vaginal cup with a metal spring reinforcing the rim. It should be inserted into the vagina at least
one to two hours before sexual activity and should be left in place for six to eight hours after the last ejaculation. The diaphragm does not fit tightly enough to prevent passage of all of the sperm. Thus, diaphragms should be used with a spermicidal cream or jelly.
Cohabit according to Wendy Manning
only 11% of women aged 19-44 reported cohabiting prior to their first marriage in 1965-99, and 66% in 2005-2009
Among U.S. teenage women who had their first intercourse in 1982
only 48 percent used a method. This percentage has risen steadily, reaching 75 percent for women whose first premarital intercourse occurred in 2002, and to 78 percent for those whose first intercourse occurred in the 2006-2010 period. Also, the older the woman at first nonmarital intercourse, the greater the likelihood she used a contraceptive method.
The traditional family planning methods are employed by
only around 6 percent of married women and men in the world.
The adolescent fertility rate for the World for the period of 2005-10 was 48.9
per 1,000 42.1 per 1,000 in the Bulgaria—the highest of all developed countries in the world Adolescent fertility is high among Hispanics and low among whites; black, Asian, and American Indian rates fell between the rates of whites and Hispanics
51 percent of all users 40-44 have been contraceptively sterilized; this percentage drops to 30 percent
percent for contracepting women 30-34 and to 3 percent for contracepting women 20-24. Among contracepting women in the United States, those with less education tend to rely on female sterilization, while those with more education use the pill.
The Population Reference Bureau in 2013 published family planning and fertility control data from surveys conducted during the period
period from 2002 to 2013 by a host of national governments and international agencies.
The effectiveness of sterilization varies according to the technique used by the
physician and the gender of the patient. The failure rates are low, and are usually due to inadequate surgical procedures or the growing back of tubes
The oral contraceptive became extremely popular, and remains today the most
popular among the hormonal-based methods. It is known simply as "the pill." 8 percent of married women (about 104 million) worldwide and 17 percent of women (about 8 million) in the United States use the oral contraceptive.
Plan B One Step and Next Choice are available without
prescription to persons aged 17 and over, but a prescription is required for ella.
When a woman ingests the hormones contained in the pill, her pituitary is "fooled" into thinking that she is already pregnant, thus, conception is
prevented by preventing ovulation. Because ovulation does not occur, the consistency of the cervical mucus is maintained in a state that the sperm cannot easily penetrate. Also, because the full secretory pattern is not reached, the inner lining of the uterus is often not suitable for implantation of the fertilized egg.
Abortions are far safer in countries where they are legally performed than where they are illegally performed. An unsafe abortion is defined by the World Health Organization as a
procedure for terminating a pregnancy that is performed by an individual lacking the necessary skills, or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards, or both
In the late 1950s the TFR In the 1960s the fertility rate In 1972, the TFR Since 1990, the TFR in the United States has
reached its peak at 3.7. started to decline. This was influenced by many factors: Higher living expenses, increases in educational opportunities, and higher female employment. Cheap, easily accessible, and more effective contraceptives, along with abortions. dropped for the first time below the replacement level of 2.1 remained at just above 2, the highest TFR of any developed country in the world
Fertility:
refers to actual production
Fertility
refers to the actual production of children, which is in the strictest sense a biological process.
The failure rate for the nonuse of contraception is based on studies of "populations in which the use of contraception is rare, and on couples who
report that they stopped using contraceptives because they want to conceive" (Trussel, 2011)
The introduction of the Essure mechanism in each tube causes the development of
scar tissues over a three-month period, resulting in both tubes becoming sealed.
These postcoital methods of birth prevention are particularly convenient for women who have
sexual intercourse infrequently, and/or who did not have an opportunity to use contraceptives before intercourse, or who used a contraceptive that failed in the process, for example, a condom that broke open during use.
while fertility is a biological process, the behaviors leading up to the act of sexual intercourse, and later, to giving birth are affected by the...
social, economic, cultural, and psychological characteristics of the woman and the man, and the environment in which they live
Plan B One Step and Next Choice are progestin-only medications taken as either two doses 12 hours apart or as a single dose; the progestin acts to
suppress ovulation and to thicken the cervical mucus so to immobilize the sperms. On the other hand, the ella ECP contains ulipristal which acts to suppress ovulation for up to five days.
Most of the abortions in the world in 2008 occurred in developing countries (38 million) rather than
than in developed countries (6 million). This differential reflects the uneven distribution of the population in the two groups of countries
The undetected expulsion of these devices is the most common cause of pregnancy, a major disadvantage. The major advantages are
that insertion is necessary only once every 10-12 years for the the ParaGard and once every five years for the Mirena. Also, the IUD does not interfere with intercourse in any way.
Hence, a typical use of the condom could include "actually using a condom only occasionally" (Trussell, 2004). Or "a woman could report that
that she is 'using' the pill even though her supplies ran out several months ago" (Trussell and Guthrie, 2011).
The second most popular method worldwide
the IUD. Among U.S. women, however, the IUD is not one of the most favored methods. The IUD is used by only 7 percent of married women, 6 percent of cohabiting women, 4 percent of formerly married women, and 3 percent of single women.
Typically, the adolescent fertility rate is represented by _____ _____ _______ ________ ________ for women aged 15-19.
the age-specific fertility rate
The emergency contraceptive pill (ECP) is also known as the
the morning-after pill. ECPs are contraceptive medications taken after unprotected intercourse and are designed to prevent pregnancy by interfering with the implantation of the fertilized ovum in the uterine lining.
A second approach is the no-scalpel vasectomy (or keyhole vasectomy). It was devised in 1974 by a surgeon in China, Li Shunqiang, and is now employed worldwide. No scalpel is employed, but there is still
the need for a small opening to be made in the scrotum. The doctor applies a local anesthetic (which may be introduced without a needle), and very small set of pointed forceps then works to separate the scrotal tissue and to create a keyhole-type opening in the skin, and thereby lifts, cuts, ties, and cauterizes the vas deferens tubes.Because the scrotal skin opening is so small, it may not need to be closed with sutures.
The first hormonal-based method was the
the oral contraceptive. It was first developed by Gregory Pincus (1903-1967), and John Rock. Their story and collaboration is recounted in The Birth of the Pill: How Four Crusaders Reinvented Sex and Launched a Revolution (2014) written by Jonathan Eig. This is a highly recommended book. The pill was first tested on some of Dr. Rock's patients in Boston, and later the tests were moved to Puerto Rico, and then to Haiti, Mexico, and to Los Angeles. The work of Pincus and Rock led eventually to G. D. Searle and Company marketing the oral contraceptive in the United States in 1960 as Enovid-10
Almost "one-third of women are anticipated to have had an abortion by age 45"; however
the proportion of women expected to have an abortion by age 45 has declined substantially, from 43 percent in 1992 to 30 percent in 2008"
It is noteworthy that even though contraceptive use in the developing countries has now almost reached the level attained in the developed world, the use
the use of family planning methods is quite uneven across the various countries
The effectiveness of family planning methods may be measured in terms of
theoretical effectiveness and in terms of use effectiveness
theoretical effectiveness: effectiveness:
theoretical effectiveness: effectiveness refers to the "efficaciousness" of the method when it is used "consistently according to a specified set of rules" and used all the time effectiveness: measures the effectiveness of the method taking into account the fact that some users do not follow the directions and the rules perfectly and/or may not use the method all the time; use effectiveness data tell us how effective the method is in typical use
Hysteroscopic sterilization, also known as the Essure® procedure, is the
third female sterilization procedure; it uses only a local anesthesia. A tiny coil insert is introduced into each of the Fallopian tubes through the vagina and uterus.
The percentage of all abortions that were unsafe increased during the 1995-2008 period from 44 percent to 49 percent. There is a great disparity between the proportion of unsafe abortions in developed and developing countries. Almost all abortions in countries of the developed world are safe, but
this is not at all true in the countries of the developing world. Abortions are very unsafe in African countries. More than 97 percent of all abortions performed in Africa in 2008 were deemed as unsafe. In Asia, the proportion of abortions that are unsafe varies widely by subregion, from virtually none (very safe) in Eastern Asia to 65 percent in South Central Asia
The greatest abortion rates decline occurred in Europe, from 48 in 1995 to 27 in 2008, primary due to
to "the precipitous drop in Eastern Europe that drove the entire continent's decline" (Cohen, 2007).
Teenagers who do not use a contraceptive method the first time they have sex are
to become pregnant and have a baby compared to teenagers who do use a method the first time they have sex. Shows for four different time periods the percentages of U.S. females in their teens who reported using contraceptives at their first sexual experience.
It is produced in China and has been approved by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration as a drug to terminate an implanted zygote of up to
to forty-nine days' gestation. Mifepristone is administered by a physician, and is followed two days later by a large dose of a prostaglandin, misoprostol, to induce contractions.
There are no known serious physiological side effects for either the diaphragm or cervical cap. However, they must be fitted by
trained personnel; they are ill-suited for use in many developing countries, where there is often a lack of privacy for insertion and removal, as well as a convenient source of clean water for washing the devices after use.
Quinacrine sterilization (QS) is a nonsurgical female sterilization currently being researched and evaluated. It is a method that most women worldwide can afford because each application is manufactured for around US $1.00. The woman receives
two treatments, one month apart, of seven tiny quinacrine pellets. They are placed into the uterus through the vagina using the same kind of inserter employed with IUDs. The pellets dissolve and flow into the openings of the Fallopian tubes where they cause a minor swelling that results in scar tissue, which closes the tubes. Its side effects are not fully known, and research continues with this method.
Female sterilization is very
very effective. It has a failure rate of only 0.5 percent based on both use and theoretical effectiveness data. It frees the woman and her partner from ever again having to worry about an accidental pregnancy.
childlessness refers to women who: Increase to childlessness rate has been happening since the 1970s. Mainly due to the:
voluntarily or involuntarily do not have children. increase to voluntary childlessness
the five books explained; 2. Contraception: A History of Its Treatment by the Catholic Theologians and Canonists by John T. Noonan
was written in 1966. It traces the history of contraception from the pre-Christian era to the 1960s, with an emphasis on the interpretation and reception of contraception in the Catholic Church
Virtually all of the contraceptive methods listed and discussed in this chapter, except for the hormonally based methods, were
were available and used by the end of the nineteenth century.
The most complete data on induced abortions are from countries where
where abortion is legal, but even here the quantity and quality of the data vary considerably
Theoretically, couples who avoid intercourse during the period when the egg and sperm are viable should be able to avoid conception. The trick is finding out the exact time interval during which to
which to avoid intercourse, which is not an easy task. Also, the notion that females cannot conceive during most of the menstrual cycle is very old, but some of the early ideas on which part of the cycle was "safe" or "not safe" were incorrect.
the five books explained: 3. Contraception: A History by Robert Jutte,
written in 2008. The original version was published in German a few years earlier. It extends and updates much of the work of Himes and Noonan (above).
Davis and Blake (1956)
wrote about the behavioral and biological variables that are "intermediate" and thus directly influence fertility which were distinguished from all other variables because all the others influence fertility by operating through those few variables specified by Davis and Blake.
The other modern methods, namely
•, hormonal implants, the diaphragm, and spermicides, comprise a relatively small percentage of total use.
Regarding the religions of women having abortions in the United States in 2011
•37 percent of them were Protestants and 28 percent were Catholics.
In 2008, there were an estimated 44 million induced abortions worldwide, a decline from the approximately
•46 million in 1995 but a slight increase from the 42 million in 2003.
Today Sponge, among several others. Aerosol foams and creams tend to be more effective than jellies and foam tablets.
•Despite their large-scale accessibility and small expense, they are not very effective. The failure rate is 28 percent under typical use, and 18 percent under perfect use. •Only less than one-half of 1 percent of U.S. women use spermicides as their regular contraceptive method
Abortions to U.S. Women by Time Period
•Figure 6.5 (see file of tables and figures) presents data on the time during their pregnancies when U.S. women had abortions in 2010. •Around 89 percent of all abortions performed in the United States in 2010 were to women in the first twelve weeks of their pregnancies, with only one percent performed in the 21st or later week of their pregnancies.
Empirical analyses of sexuality
•Intersectionality between the three dimensions using the NSFG data •The NSFG uses ACASI (audio computer-assisted self-interviewing) for more complete and reliable data.
Poston & Chang (2013)'s analysis of 2010 census data (Cont'd) about family partnering and where they want to live
•Maximum and minimum values •Gay males: 2.78 for the San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont, CA metropolitan area; 0.26 for the Grand Forks, ND-MN metro area •Lesbians: 2.97 for the Ithaca, NY metropolitan area; 0.32 for the Wausau, WI metro area. •Opposite-sex couples are just about as likely to reside in any of the areas. •Gay male couples are much more likely to be in some areas than others. Partnered lesbians tended to be more in metropolitan areas than men and not to prefer particular areas to the extent of gay men.
barrier methods
•The Contraceptive Sponge is a vaginal spermicide designed for a single use. It contains one gram of spermicide. •The woman moistens it with water and inserts it deep into her vagina. It protects for 24 hours "no matter how many times intercourse occurs" (Cates and Harwood, 2011). Its failure rates are different for parous and nulliparous women.
The diaphragm has a relatively high use effective failure rate about
•about 12 percent, even when properly used with a spermicide. Its failures are due to lacking knowledge regarding proper insertion, an improper fit, displacement during intercourse, and defects in the diaphragm itself.
The abortion rate (number of abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44) has
•decreased from 35/1,000 in 1995 to 29 in 2003 to 28 in 2008.
the contraceptive with the lowest failure rate, determined by both theoretical effectiveness data and use effectiveness data, is the
•implant. The popular implant brand of Implanon has a failure rate of 0.05 percent.
abortion rates for U.S. women for years from 1973 to 2011. The rate was at a low of 16.3 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 in 1973, the first year in which abortions were legally permitted. The abortion rate increased to a high of 29.3 in 1981 and has dropped steadily thereafter to its low value of 16.9 in 2011. Of the women having abortions in 2011, more than half of them (57%) were in their 20s;
•this breaks out with women aged 20-24 obtaining 33 percent of all abortions and women aged 25-29, 24 percent.
