Development Key Terms

household strategies and gender selectivity of migration

" Households are differentiated units in which individuals may have diverse and sometimes competing interests and degrees of power and where gender and generation are often critical factors in the frequently considerable disparities of inputs, benefits and activities among the unit's members. This has led to the conceptualization of households as an arena of 'cooperative conflicts' (Sen, 1990), where members face two different types of problems simultaneously-one involving cooperation, or adding to the unit's total availabilities, and the other conflict, or the ways in which these availabilities are divided among the household's members (Sen, 1990). women are more likely to predominate in rural-urban movement in Latin America and Southeast Asia, they are less likely to do so in Africa and South Asia (Chant, 1998). Although women's access to land in rural areas throughout the Global South tends to be limited in relation to men's − one estimate being that women account for only 15 per cent of landowners worldwide (see UNFPA, 2007, p.19) − where rates of women's participation in agriculture are high, as they are in many African countries at over half the rural labour force), levels of female out-migration are low. This is the reverse in Latin America, where the share of women in agriculture is usually less than 20 per cent"

freedom from violence

" Refers that Supporting the right to freedom from organized violence, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, and torture When a woman is free from violence she can be safe. The right to live free from violence is a basic human right. Gender-based violence has been a high profile issue in advocacy efforts on women's human rights. Groups have campaigned for the recognition as human rights of, for example, the right of women to freedom from rape, from sexual assault as refugees and displaced women, from abuse in custody, and particularly domestic violence. The 1993 Vienna Conference on Human Rights was a watershed as it marked the first international recognition of violence against women as a human rights violation. There is now a UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women with the specific remit to gather facts and report to the UN."

diversity within an elderly population

" Women's longer life expectancy leads to an 'excess' of women in upper age groups. In Mexico, for example, a five to six year differential between male and female life expectancy translates into there being 112 women for every 100 men over the age of 60 (Varley and Blasco, 2000, p.48). In Bolivia, there are 121 women per 100 men aged 60 or over; in Chile, 132; and in Argentina, 135. Among people aged 80 or over, gender imbalances are even greater, at 153 women per 100 men in Bolivia, 188 in Chile, and 199 in ArgentinaMost developed countries already have ageing populations. By contrast, a large number of developing countries are projected to experience high and increasing economic support ratios for years or decades to come, and can therefore benefit significantly from the "demographic dividend," provided that appropriate labour market and other policies allow for a productive absorption of the growing working-age population and for increased investments in the human capital of children and youth. Aging populations are becoming more diverse in terms of color, culture, identity, disability, and socio-economic standing. As a result, the need for culturally competent professionals and businesses that serve and provide products for older adults is increasingly important. Aging populations are becoming more diverse in terms of color, culture, identity, disability, and socio-economic standing. As a result, the need for culturally competent professionals and businesses that serve and provide products for older adults is increasingly important."

Industrialization and modernization

" industrialisation is seen as a process of transition from an agricultural economy to an industrial economy. In the broader sense, industrialisation is the transition from an agricultural (or pre-industrial) society to an industrial society. There are differences between the British and European industrial revolutions of two centuries ago and modern industrialisation, which is combined with computerisation, economic globalisation and the knowledge-based economy. According to current thought, modernisation is a process of transition from traditional ways to advanced knowledge and modernity. In terms of economy, modernisation is explained as a major transition from a traditional society to a modern society, which has been taking place in countries across the world since the 17th century. Some theorists divide the modernisation process into two stages: the first modernisation stage corresponded with the classical industrialisation period, and the second stage corresponded with the intellectualisation period.the examples are as:Economic indicators: GDP per capita by PPP (Purchasing Power Parity); the ratio of agriculture contributing to GDP; the ratio of farmers in the entire workforce; average labour productivity; energy consumption per capita; the ratio of export in GDP; and the international competition index. Social and life quality indicators: Human development index (HDI); the urbanisation rate; the urban and rural gap; and the GINI index 1. Environment indicators: the rate of people having access to safe water; the costs of environmental protection and improvement in GDP; the rate of treated waste; and the country's rate of tree coverage. Indicators of computerisation and knowledge-based economy: the rate of households having PCs and access to the Internet; the rate of research and development (R&D) in GDP; the number of certificates for inventions and improvements per 10,000 people; the ratio of new and high-tech products in industrial and export outputs. These scientifically selected socio-economic indicators will allow us to see where we are on the industrialisation and modernisation road, how far we are from the target, and what aspects we should focus on to soon become an industrialised country, or what can be ""basically"" be considered an industrial country."

changing labour market opportunities for women and declining birth rates

" the labour market participation rates of married women have increased and fertility rates have declined in most developed countries. The growth of women's participation in the labour market carries with it some positive and negative implications for the ability of countries and the European Union itself to meet a variety of social and economic targets. On one hand, the increased number of workers helps to pay pension obligations to current retirees, while on the other the declining population levels make it less likely that the current form of European pension systems can be sustained"

how far/how fast demographic aging is occurring

"""The world is in the midst of a unique and irreversible process of demographic transition that will result in older populations everywhere'Aging of population is a summary term for shifts in the age distribution of a population toward older ages"". Population aging is progressing rapidly in many industrialized countries, but those developing countries whose fertility declines began relatively early also are experiencing rapid increases in their proportion of elderly people. This pattern is expected to continue over the next few decades, eventually affecting the entire world. Population aging has many important socio-economic and health consequences, including the increase in the old-age dependency ratio. It presents challenges for public health as well as for economic development. For the entirety of recorded human history, the world has never seen as aged a population as currently exists globally.[3] The UN predicts the rate of population ageing in the 21st century will exceed that of the previous century.[3] For the reason that life expectancy is rising, the number of people aged 60 years and above have tripled from its number in 1950 to 600 million in 2000, in 2006 it has surpassed to 700 million, and is projected that the population will reach around the 2 billion by 2050.

How far is achievement of MDGs possible

""2015 is a milestone year. We will complete the Millennium Development Goals. We are forging a bold vision for sustainable development, including a set of sustainable development goals. And we are aiming for a new, universal climate agreement." —UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Achieving full set goal is a task that can be complete in future only if all countries work togather to reduce poverty. Thirty country-level assessments and extensive consultations with stakeholders were undertaken to discern the factors which influence MDG progress in a country, and to understand what has worked, what has not, and why. The report found that there are generally four key areas which shape MDG achievement at the country level: policy choices and their coherence; governance and capacity deficits; fiscal constraints; and political will"

Cairo Platform for Action (CPA)

"1994, objective: Establish and strengthen institutional and legislative environment with incentives and support for the implementation of effective policies and strategies to enhance women's entrepreneurship development and generate decent employment and sustainable incomes. Integrate women's entrepreneurship development into regional policies and strategies for Africa. Mobilize the donor community (bilateral and multilateral), UN agencies and international finance institutions to integrate women's entrepreneurship development in their programmes and policies of technical cooperation and support women-specific development initiatives. Strengthen organizational and managerial capacities of women entrepreneurs and their representative associations to effectively lobby and advocate for the needs of their members and advocate for equality between women and men"

contribution to government activities

"Although there has been nothing like the discussion on ageing to rival that on fertility in international policy arenas, 1982 saw the launch of the Vienna Plan of Action on Ageing which established specific targets for the inclusion of older people in social and economic development (Beales, 2000, p.15). More recently, the Beijing Declaration of 1995 stressed the need for approaches to development that were explicitly inclusive of women of all ages. The Copenhagen Declaration of the same year also called for generations to 'invest in one another and recognise diversity and generational interdependence guided by the twin principles of reciprocity and equity' (ibid.). The year 1999 was designated as the International Year for the Older Person by the United Nations, which has also established a series of 'Principles for Older Persons' emphasising independence, dignity, self-fulfilment, care and participation. International NGO networks such as HelpAge International,over 100 affiliated organisations in 65 countries (in 2013), are currently trying to get these principles adopted as a legally binding charter of rights. Elderly people can help the government in motivating people, providing advocacy services and training to new generation because these activities does not require physical labor or hardwork and they can utilize their experience for betterment. The ageing population also makes positive contributions to the community through their services.Voluntary services are a measure of social capital and an indication of a healthy civil society.since older people are less inclined to commit crimes. The Australian Institute of Criminology (2002) has projected that crime rates will drop by approximately 16% by 2050, when the proportion of the aging population in Australia increases."

rented housing from the state/private landlords in the South

"Although there is some indication that rental households have been declining relative to owneroccupiers,absolute numbers have increased. While it is important to acknowledge that some people choose to rent because they only intend to stay temporarily in towns, or prefer to invest what income they have in a business, it is more usually the case that financial constraints, combined with rising land scarcity, force them into the rental sector. This would appear to be particularly applicable to female-headed households. For example, a study by Faranak Miraftab (2001), drawing on a UN Gender and Habitat programme in 16 low-income communities in Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Sri Lanka, Colombia and Costa Rica, found that increasingly high costs of housing relative to people's incomes (owing inter alia to rising competition for urban land, downward raiding by impoverished middle classes and so on) is making home ownership particularly inaccessible to women"

poor quality services and shelters

"Any attempt to measure what constitutes poor-quality services and shelter across the globe is very complex. Of course it is possible to establish minimum housing standards - a tap in every house providing potable water; access to a system to remove the waste; walls and roofs that are safe and keep out the elements; some degree of tenure security; and some kind of neighbourhood authority that will reduce crime and insecurity and provide decent emergency services. But providing reliable data on those indicators on a regular basis is beyond most governments in the world, let alone the poorest.Amid unprecedented urban growth,this Policy positions USAID to support programs that will expand the local capacity required to effectively respond to the demand for basic services in cities.Responding to calls from both the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR) and the Presidential Policy Directive on Development (PPD) to build local capacity,this Policy aims to assist USAID Missions to achieve sustainable development outcomes in cities and countries. The provision of accessible and affordable services in urban areas contributes to the overarching mission of USAID,the Millennium Development Goals, and countless government programs in developing countries.

commercialization of agriculture and modernization

"By commercialisation of agriculture we mean production of agricultural crops for sale in the market, rather than for family consumption. For marketization of agricultural products thus 'surplus' of production over consumption is required.But agriculture at that time was merely of the subsistence type. It had not been a consequence of conscious response of peasants to the market forces.Thus, the concept of surplus was partly irrelevant. It was the social organisation but not entrepreneurial role of the peasants that determined the marketed surplus. The decision to cultivate commercial crops was usually determined by the requirements of subsistence farming of peasants. Thus, commercial agriculture in India had not been the product of an "allocative efficiency of peasants."

limited availability of state welfare/child maintenance payments in the South

"Current global orthodoxy surrounding female headed households (FHHs) in the Third World country context suggests that they are poor, isolated, marginalised, disempowered and lacking in agency.' These assumptions rest on the fact that women's earnings are less than those of men, that female heads are time- and resource-constrained by their triple burdens of employment, housework and childcare, and because in most countries in the South female heads receive little transfer income through state welfare or child maintenance payments from absent fathers"

Dependency theory and Marxim/neo-Marxism

"Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a ""periphery"" of poor and underdeveloped states to a ""core"" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the ""world system"".Dependency emerged from a convergence of two major intellectual trends: Marxism and neo-Marxism (meaning new Marxism) together with Latin American structuralism. As far as the former is concerned, dependency theory drew on radical rather than bourgeois-liberal commentators with the primary inspiration coming from the work of 19th-century thinkers"

female's larger percentage of earnings on household consumptions

"Detailed empirical studies at the micro-level have also found a tendency for expenditure within female-headed households to be dedicated to the basic needs of children and less skewed towards personal consumption by adult earners. Katherine Brickell and Sylvia Chant (2010, p.154) refer to this as 'economic altruism' - women's devotion of the bulk (if not all) of their earnings to household expenditure, often with positive effects on other members. While in male-headed units, men may spend significant amounts of income on 'non-merit' items such as tobacco and alcohol, in female-headed households, more resources are usually allocated to food, health and education, particularly that of daughters"

Healthcare and death rates

"Early recording of mortality rate in European cities proved highly useful in controlling the plague and other major epidemics.[14] Public health in industrialised countries was transformed when mortality rate as a function of age, sex and socioeconomic status emerged in the late 19th and 20th centuries. This track record has led to the argument that inexpensive recording of vital statistics in developing countries maybecome the most effective means to improve global health. Since 1990, the maternal mortality ratio has been cut nearly in half, and most of the reduction has occurred since 2000. More than 71 per cent of births were assisted by skilled health personnel globally in 2014, an increase from 59 per cent in 1990. In the developing regions, only 56 per cent of births in rural areas are attended by skilled health personnel, compared with 87 per cent in urban areas. "

regional differences in patterns of economic globalization/trade

"Economic globalization is the increasing economic integration and interdependence of national, regional, and local economies across the world through an intensification of cross-border movement of goods, services, technologies and capital.Behind the push for freer trade is the notion that industrialisation is the main way through which to achieve economic growth globally, in 2010 the industrial sector represented only 24.4 per cent of total global employment (compared with 44.9 per cent for services and 30.4 per cent for agriculture). This proportion has risen over 10 years: in 2000 just 21.6 per cent of global employment was in the industrial sector. There are also some important regional variations, with Sub-Saharan Africa having the smallest industrial sector, representing only 8.6 per cent of the total employment in 2013 (a slight decline from 8.8 per cent in 2006). Beyond Eastern and Central Europe, the highest sectoral share for industry was in East Asia and the Pacific where it represented 26.4 per cent in 2010 (an increase from 22.0 per cent in 2000), followed by 25.8 per cent in the Middle East and North Africa, 22.4 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 22.4 per cent in South Asia

empowerment in development

"Empowerment refers to measures designed to increase the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities in order to enable them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. Empowerment refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognise and eventually to use their resources and chances. The term empowerment in development originates from American community psychology and is associated with the social scientist Julian Rappaport (1981). i.gIn social work, empowerment forms a practical approach of resource oriented intervention. In the field of citizenship education and democratic education, empowerment is seen as a tool to increase the responsibility of the citizen. Empowerment is a key concept in the discourse on promoting civic engagement. Empowerment as a concept, which is characterized by a move away from a deficit-oriented towards a more strength-oriented perception, can increasingly be found in management concepts, as well as in the areas of continuing education and self-help."

inequality between ethnic groups

"Ethnic inequality - the political and economic disadvantages felt by racial minority groups - persists across the globe. Not only is such discrimination unfair, it is a drag on global economic growth, and will not go away by itself. Inequality affects two main groups of ethnic minority populations. Long-term settled communities, which often pre-date the boundaries of nation states by many centuries, are more commonly found in Asia and Africa. One example is the Dalits in India - though Roma populations in eastern Europe and Scottish people in the UK are other examples. More recent minority populations, which have mainly arrived through migration in the past century, are usually found in Europe: Bangladeshi people in Britain, for example."

positive elements of fair trade and ethical trade

"Fair trade practices are designed not just to promote profit, but also to encourage better standards for an improved quality of life, specifically in developing countries. Fair trade practices address issues of wages, the environment, respect for existing cultures, and corporate accountability. Coffee serves as an example of the problems with our current Free Trade system and allow us to see the potential of Fair Trade. the fair trade system has become more formalised with the Fairtrade Labelling Organisations International (FLO), established in 1997. By 2013, the global Fairtrade system had become an association of three producer networks, 25 Fairtrade organisations and the independent certification system that awards the Fairtrade Certification Mark. These standards aim to provide a campaign function in terms of educating people about what free trade actually means, as well as promoting consumer confidence and demand. They also ensure that producers in the Global South receive fair terms of trade and prices, as well as being linked with initiatives that focus on the establishment of cooperatives and a range of social projects. Although the fair trade consumer market is still small in global terms, it has grown considerably, especially in Europe since 2000. For example, the value of UK sales of Fairtrade certified produce increased from £92.3 million in 2003 to £1530.2 million in 2012"

country sustainable urbanization

"Forecasts based on the best available scientific evidence indicate that in the coming decades, climate change may render hundreds of millions of urban residents increasingly vulnerable to floods, landslides, extreme weather and other natural disasters. Increasingly, the poorest and most marginalized are disproportionately affected and yet they have the least capacity to mitigate against these impacts and protect themselves. For example, research in UN-Habitat's* most recent State of African Cities Report suggests that as many as 200 million Africans could be displaced by the effects of climate change by the year 2050, putting a huge strain on the capacity and resources of cities. Asia is also far from immune to the effects of climate change. For example, in the 2011 floods in Bangkok, Thailand, more than 500 people lost their lives and exponentially more suffered significant losses to their livelihoods. While all coastal cities face such threats, the impact on those with populations of over 10 million inhabitants will be substantial. It is estimated that, without extensive adaptation efforts, a 1-metre sea level rise in New York could not only inundate coastal areas, but have a devastating impact on the subway system, sanitation facilities, power plants and factories, thereby affecting the economy of the city.The urban ecological footprint in both developing and developed countries is on the rise with the increasing use of fossil fuels for transportation and construction, large-scale industrial pollution, deforestation, and land use changes, among others.The green economy presents new opportunities for shared prosperity. It will not only contribute to achieving the Millennium Development Goals such as poverty eradication, food security, sound water management and sustainable cities, but it can also provide stimulus for employment and development. Communities, businesses, and local authorities must be recognized as essential players in developing and implementing national and city-level climate change strategies and socio-economic development Without appropriate planning, design, and investment in the development of sustainable cities, a growing number of people will continue to face unprecedented negative impacts, not only of climate change but also of reduced economic growth, quality of life, and increased social instability"

define gender

"Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between and from masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female or intersex), sex-based social structures (including gender roles and other social roles), or gender identity.

demands on pension provision

"Given that much of the rhetoric emphasising the rights of older people has not yet translated into practice, it is no surprise that the elderly have often been forced to act on their own behalf. In Bolivia, for example, male beggars have organised themselves into a Council of Venerable Old Persons (which now includes women) to demand legal documentation. This has spawned other groups such as 'New Dawn' which campaigns for pensions and free healthcare for elderly Bolivians. In Peru social movements have established 'Clubes de Tercer Edad' (Elderly People's Clubs) which provide an opportunity for older people, many of whom are isolated, to mix with one another, and to forge links with other movements in order to gain better access to nutrition"

Factors to service shortfalls in shelter

"Housing is one of a number of direct elements that have an impact on health outcomes. Poor housing conditions such as damp and cold are problematic but are limited and falling.Rising fuel prices may impact further on the problem of poorly insulated and energy inefficient homes causing more serious fuel poverty and related health impacts. Poor quality private renting is a major problem, but so is concentrated poverty in social housing. Overcrowding affects only a small proportion of households, often large families or multiple adult households. It creates high pressures on those families. Well designed and well laid out housing helps.

Social investment funds to mitigate the SAPS (PAMSCAD)

"In Ghana, a Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment (PAMSCAD) was only introduced in 1988, five years into SAP. The PAMSCAD is widely acknowledged to have made no dent on SAP induced hardship. It includes 23 poverty allivation. he overriding purpose of the ERP was to reduce Ghana's debts and to improve its trading position in the global economy. The stated objectives of the program focused on restoring economic productivity at minimum cost to the government and included the following policies: lowering inflation through stringent fiscal, monetary, and trade policies; increasing the flow of foreign exchange into Ghana and directing it to priority sectors; restructuring the country's economic institutions; restoring production incentives; rehabilitating infrastructure to enhance conditions for the production and export of goods."

International agencies (UN) in GAD

"In July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly created UN Women, which is the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. It merges and builds on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system, which focused exclusively on gender equality and women's empowerment: - DAW (Division for the Advancement of Women) - INSTRAW (International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women) - OSAGI (Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women)- UNIFEM (United Nations Development Fund for Women)"

Dependency theory and Karl Marx

"In its extreme form, dependency theory is based on a Marxist view of the world, which sees globalisation in terms of the spread of market capitalism, and the exploitation of cheap labour and resources in return for the obsolete technologies of the West. The dominant view of dependency theorists is that there is a dominant world capitalist system that relies on a division of labour between the rich 'core' countries and poor 'peripheral' countries. Over time, the core countries will exploit their dominance over an increasingly marginalised periphery. Dependency theory advocated an inward looking approach to development and an increased role for the state in terms of imposing barriers to trade, making inward investment difficult and promoting nationalisation of key industries.Linked in with Marxist theories is dependency theory which argues that developed countries, in their pursuit of power, penetrate developing states through political advisors, missionaries, experts and multi-national corporations (MNCs) to integrate them into the capitalist system in order to appropriate natural resources and foster dependence by developing countries on developed countries."

division of labour in rural households

"In rural areas division of labor in household is unequal as women do all work of household without any pay and then they help their male household head in the farming, famale take care of house, children, animals and then do labor work on farms while man do only work on farms. Gender analysis has revealed some evidence of bias against female members of households in the allocation of resources such as income, food, nutrition, health care and education. These patterns are not universal, however, and are also mediated by other factors such as age, and birth order. For example, there is little evidence of nutritional bias against girl children in Sub-Saharan Africa, whereas in South Asia this pattern has been widely noted. It has also been shown that resources controlled by women, for example in female-headed households, are distributed differently to resources controlled by men. There is some evidence that women spend a higher percentage of their generally smaller incomes on family consumption and children's welfare. "

PRSPs within broader neoliberal approach

"In the 1960s the conviction that development could be achieved through economic growth and trickle-down effects dominated the policies of the World Bank and the IMF. With Robert McNamara as World Bank President from 1968-1981, the policies of the Bank already appeared to emphasise poverty reduction in the form of a "basic needs" approach. However, in the 1980s the idea of development through economic growth regained importance. The often criticised Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) were introduced during this period. The vision of World Bank and IMF institutions was organised around the so-called Washington consensus, which emphasised the importance of sound macroeconomic policies and free markets. In the 1990s criticism of the SAPs increased considerably, not only externally by NGOs and UN organisations such as UNICEF, but also within the World Bank: an internal report from 1992 (the Wapenhans Report) stated that over one-third of World Bank projects were failures. Furthermore, other Bank reports were showing little or no reduction in poverty in Africa. Beside the mounting criticism of the SAPs, two other aspects may be responsible for the change in the World Bank's policy towards poverty reduction:Firstly, the World Bank conducted a reassessment of its role, and concluded that the Bank's programmes should give greater weight to poverty reduction.Secondly, a vision of development emerged. Starting in the 1990s, a shift occurred in the understanding of this concept within the international development community."

competition over resources

"In the environmentally constrained but more populous world that can be expected over the course of this century, there will be greater scarcity of three key resources: food, water and energy. Demand for all three resources is already beyond that which can be sustained at current levels. Once population growth and the effects of climate change are factored in, it is clear that greater competition for such resources should be expected, both within and between countries, potentially leading in extreme cases to conflict. Recent global food security crises have highlighted the vulnerability of populations in the Global South to resource scarcity and fluctuating prices. Rapidly increasing energy prices as well as periodic geopolitical crises have also highlighted the potential for major conflict.like the competition of America and china,China and India."

policy approaches to achieving sustainable urbanization

"In this brief, STAP offers three potential way forward to pilot GEF work in the urban context, through the Sustainable Cities IAP under GEF-6; namely Refining the objectives, outcomes and results of the GEF-6 Sustainable Cities Integrated Approach using the latest sustainable urban development approaches Applying Sustainable Land Management Approaches to Urban Planning and Development Seeking out Ad Hoc Opportunities for injecting sustainable principles and action into the City Life Cycle. Policy approaches to achieving sustainable urbanization and Support the transformation of the GEF client countries into resource-efficient, green and competitive low-carbon economies; Climate Change (Mitigation) and Chemicals & waste, with the NRM focal areas contributing. The work of the implementation and execution agencies is key here, working closely with private sector interests, and the consumers of the general public.Help safeguard the GEF client countries' citizens from environment-related pressures and risks to health and well-being; NRM areas with Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation primarily. The work of the implementation and execution agencies is key here, working closely with the health sector, private sector interests, and the general public."

regional differences in migrant selectivity

"Internal Migration: Within one country. Crossing domestic jurisdictional boundaries. Movements between states or provinces. Little government control. Factors: Employment-based. Retirement-based. Education-based. Civil conflicts (internally displaced population).Nationa: Between states or provinces; little control; employment opportunities; education; retirement. International: Crossing a boundary; easier to control; regulated; difference in income; 2-3 million per year. region or specific country of origin, reason for migration (e.g. work, study, family, humanitarian"

women's levels of education and training

"Investing in formal and non-formal education and training for girls and women, with its exceptionally high social and economic return, has proved to be one of the best means of achieving sustainable development and economic growth that is both sustained and sustainable. On a regional level, girls and boys have achieved equal access to primary education, except in some parts of Africa, in particular sub-Saharan Africa, and Central Asia, where access to education facilities is still inadequate. Progress has been made in secondary education, where equal access of girls and boys has been achieved in some countries. Enrolment of girls and women in tertiary education has increased considerably. In many countries, private schools have also played an important complementary role in improving access to education at all levels. Yet, more than five years after the World Conference on Education for All adopted the World Declaration on Education for All and the Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs, approximately 100 million children, including at least 60 million girls, are without access to primary schooling and more than two thirds of the world's 960 million illiterate adults are women. The high rate of illiteracy prevailing in most developing countries, in particular in sub-Saharan Africa and some Arab States, remains a severe impediment to the advancement of women and to development. Many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago. The developing regions as a whole have achieved the target to eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary and tertiary education. In Southern Asia, only 74 girls were enrolled in primary school for every 100 boys in 1990. Today, 103 girls are enrolled for every 100 boys."

city sustainable urbanization

"It is now widely acknowledged that the impact of urbanisation will continue to bring about major global and local changes well into the current century, as many countries in the developing world are presently in, or about to enter, the high-growth and rapid-transition phase of the urbanisation process. A total net addition of 2.2 billion people to the 2000 world population is forecasted by 2030 and it is expected that most of this additional population will be absorbed by the cities and towns of low-income countries, likely to rise from 1.9 billion in 2000 to 3.9 billion in 2030. By contrast, very small changes are predicted in the urban population of high-income countries, expected to increase from 0.9 billion in 2000 to 1 billion in 2030. The cities of the world's emerging economies are increasingly drivers of global prosperity while the planet's resources are fast depleting. It is, therefore, more critical than ever that Member States and United Nations agencies commit themselves to realize the goal of sustainable urbanization as a key lever for development."

contested nature of poverty

"It is now widely recognised that the concept of poverty is not only complex, but also contested. In basic terms, poverty refers to a shortage of income (White, 2014). However, in the development context, the multidimensionality of poverty is emphasised in such a way that it can also refer to a broad spectrum of deprivation. In turn, definitions depend on the disciplinary viewpoint adopted, as well as who is deciding what poverty means - the poverty 'expert' or the poor themselves. Who is defined as poor in different societies is likely to vary, depending on value systems as well as economic variables. the World Bank also assesses poverty: 'Poverty is hunger. Poverty is lack of shelter. Poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor. Poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time. Poverty is losing a child to illness brought about by unclean water. Poverty is powerlessness, lack of representation and freedom.'s the $1.25-a-day one is that anybody living with less than $1.25 a day is indeed considered poor, but those earning $1.30 or $1.45 per day are not counted as poor. There are millions and millions of them and they are considered safe from precariousness. In that case, the most accurate poverty line ever would still be an inappropriate measure to understand what is poverty. "

LACAAP

"It is the group of countries in the region of Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific countries; and they lack the ability to practice population controls.term is 'LACAAP' (to denote Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific), it is rarely used, leaving 'Global South' (and its counterpart 'Global North') as an increasingly favoured option. This is based on the earlier 'North-South' distinction of the 1980s, but the prefix 'Global' clarifies that this is not a geographical categorisation of the world. Rather, it is one based on economic inequalities, albeit with some spatial resonance in terms of where the countries concerned are situated. In turn, the idea that the world is closely interconnected through a range of global processes is also reflected in this terminology "

Shortcomings of MDG targets and indicators

"Lack of consultations at its conception to build ownership led to the perception of a donor-centric agenda; Excluded some important issues embodied in the Millennium Declaration; Inadequate incorporation of other important issues, such as environmental sustainability, productive employment and decent work, inequality; Limited consideration of the enablers of development; Failure to account for differences in initial conditions.Imprecise quantitative targets were set for some dimensions, such as for reducing the number of slum-dwellers and several targets related to MDG-8; Failure to account for population dynamics;Perception of a top-down exercise (from the international to the national statistical systems);Lack of clarity on how to tailor global targets to national realities and regional dynamics, among others; Lack of attention to disaggregated monitor progress among vulnerable groups, qualitative aspects, and interdependencies across the MDGs.MDGs influenced the setting of rather rigid national policy agendas, following international benchmarks, rather than local conditions and often ignoring the complexities of the development process; Policies and programmes did not consider the synergies between achieving the different goals and targets; The way in which "on-track" and "off-track" progress was measured failed to adequately account for considerable progress made by countries with low initial levels of human development (especially in Africa); In the global debate, the MDGs led to overemphasizing financial resource gaps to the detriment of attention for institutional building and structural transformations

education in migrant selectivity

"May characterize some migrations (having or lacking of). Educational differences: 21% of all legal immigrants have at least 17 years of education. 8% for native-born Americans. 20% of all immigrants do not have 9 years of schooling. Foreign students: Often do not return to their home countries after their education. Often cannot utilize what they have learned. Since 1978 some 130,000 Chinese overseas students have returned while some 250,000 have remained abroad. Most research-oriented graduate institutions have around 40% foreign students. migrants' educational characteristics is to address the issues of credentials recognition or education and occupation mismatch.This continues today, with the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) noting that educated young people are more likely to migrate than people with no or limited schooling. One reason offered for this pattern is that education acts to broaden people's horizons and raise expectations which, in turn, makes migration more desirable. Another crucial factor, however, is that education undoubtedly facilitates people's access to work in urban environments where a certificate of primary education (if not secondary education) is normally required for formal employment"

migrant selectivity

"Migration is essentially selective. Despite some exceptions, for example forced migration or movements to colonization projects, the vast majority of migration contain an element of migrant selectivitytext annotation indicator (also known as differentiation). In general, selectivity occurs because there are distinct differences between the interests of the individuals who belong to various social groups. The most commonly examined personal differences are related to age, gender, level of education, socio-professional status, marital status, and housing situation (owner or renter of property). Consequently, such attitudinal differences are manifested in behavioral differences with respect to staying in or leaving the community (White and Woods 1980). Younger people, for example, are more likely to migrate than older persons.

household strategies and age selectivity of migration

"Migration scholars have introduced the concept of developmental stages of the migration process in part to describe how the characteristics of migrants change over time as migration from a sending area to a destination becomes more common. In general, migration from a place of origin is divided into three periods: first, an initial or pioneer stage, sometimes called the innovator stage; second, a takeoff or early adopter stage; and third, a mature or late adopter stage.The motivation behind migration is largely economic in kind. Accordingly, remittances account for a substantial share of household incomes. Results derived from a probit model estimation indicate that the likelihood of migration is independent from the wealth position of households. Instead, demographic household factors, education-related variables and migrant networks are of central importance. Migration and remittances are obviously more easily accessible than other opportunities of income diversification beyond farming for households across all levels of wealth, including the poorest households.

growth of neoliberal, free trade policies

"Neo-liberalism"" is a set of economic policies that have become widespread during the last 25 years or so. Although the word is rarely heard in the United States, you can clearly see the effects of neo-liberalism here as the rich grow richer and the poor grow poorer. Neoliberalism refers to a political-economic philosophy that de-emphasizes or rejects government intervention in the domestic economy. It focuses on free-market methods, fewer restrictions on business operations, and property rights. In foreign policy, neoliberalism favors the opening of foreign markets by political means, using diplomacy, economic pressure and, for some neoliberals, military might. Opening of markets refers to free trade and an international division of labour. Neoliberalism generally favours multilateral political pressure through international organizations or treaty devices such as the WTO, the World Bank and the African Development Bank. It promotes reducing the role of national governments to a minimum. Neoliberalism favours privatization over direct government intervention and production and measures success in overall economic gain. To improve efficiency and minimize unemployment, it strives to reject or mitigate labour policies such as minimum wage, and collective bargaining rights. It opposes socialism, protectionism, environmentalism, fair trade, and critics say it impedes democratic rule. Likewise, these critics argue that labour rights and social justice should have a priority in international relations and economics.As well as a diversity of policies in institutions and countries adopting a broadly neoliberal approach, there are more overt challenges to prevailing neoliberal norms in the international development field. The rise of the so-called 'pick tide' in Latin America is an excellent example of this (Willis, 2011). The governments of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela and Evo Morales in Bolivia opened up potential national-level spaces for alternative forms of development policy, funded largely through income from oil and gas exploitation"

regional differences in levels of female headship

"On he basis of a weighted average of the overall total of 85 countries for which data are currently available, just over one-fifth of households worldwide appear to be headed by women (Varley, 2014 see also Table9.2). This is particularly the case in urban areas, with several Latin American countries witnessing a substantial rise in female headship in recent decades. variations in levels and rates of increase in femaleheaded households in different countries in the South. The incidence of female headship is often highest where there is a weak tradition or weakening societal emphasis on formal marriage, together with growing tolerance of marital dissolution. Such patterns have long applied in the Caribbean and, more recently, have occurred in parts of Latin America. Where legal marriage continues to be a dominant practice, alternatively, such as in South Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, levels of female headship remain low. Here the majority of female heads are widows, although rising proportions of abandoned women are noted in places such as southern India and Bangladesh where men have increasingly engaged in international labour migration. Migration is also a key factor in Sub- Saharan Africa, along with war, civil conflict and environmental disasters which have led to the fragmentation of households through population displacement and death.Africa: 23.8 (wiegted average),Asia & Oceania:13.4, Latin America & the Caribbean 23.9."

moral elements of housing provision

"One is that local and national governments - in their role as 'facilitators' of productive partnerships among different stakeholders − may actually find it very difficult to influence private entrepreneurs and mortgage companies to lend to the poor, let alone at subsidised interest rates. Another factor is that efforts made by the urban poor can potentially let governments off the hook. Even if there is evidence to suggest that governments and the poor can work creatively together (D'Cruz and Satterthwaite, 2005, p.5) and that the supply costs of housing and services may be brought down through popular participation, it is also true that legalisation and upgrading programmes can be vulnerable to patronage and corruption. Additionally, settlement upgrading can reflect processes of speculation which lead to rising costs for low-income dwellers, causing outmigration (Gruffyd Jones, 2012; Desai and Loftus, 2013). Moreover, rental housing, despite its growing importance in the amount of accommodation it provides, has not been adequately addressed in many contexts. This is serious given that as cities continue to grow, pressures on urban land markets may well reduce the poor's prospects of self-help owner occupancy."

corrupt and/or fragile political systems

"Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, gombeenism, parochialism patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, though is not restricted to these activities. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is also considered political corruption."

challenges of an aging population

"Population aging generates many challenges and sparks concerns about the pace of future economic growth, the operation and financial integrity of health care and pension systems, and the well-being of the elderly.Accepting that a growing number of elderly people can bring increased problems of dependency. the Elderly Dependency Ratio is anticipated to increase around three-fold between 2000 and 2050.problems with a growing proportion of elderly people in developing countries is that they do not have access to the same social, economic and healthcare support systems as those provided in advanced economies"

Small fraction of GDP spent on shelter

"Public expenditure on housing has thus been small − in Latin America, for example, has rarely risen above 2 per cent of GDP (Gilbert, 2002). Given the general decline of central government spending on the social sector as a result of neoliberal restructuring, there is only a small chance of raising current levels. As it is, even when public or international agency-sponsored housing is actually built, it usually falls into the hands of state employees, workers affiliated to large unions and higher-income households, as in the classic case of the 'superbloques' of Venezuela built in the 1950s under the dictatorship of President Jiménez. Most of the very poor, whose homes in the squatter settlements had been bulldozed in the name of rehousing, ended up excluded from living in the new blocks or crowding in with other poor families in order to be able to pay the rents and maintenance charges."

housing provision in the global South

"Public expenditure on housing has thus been small − in Latin America, for example, has rarely risen above 2 per cent of GDP (Gilbert, 2002). Given the general decline of central government spending on the social sector as a result of neoliberal restructuring, there is only a small chance of raising current levels. As it is, even when public or international agency-sponsored housing is actually built, it usually falls into the hands of state employees, workers affiliated to large unions and higher-income households, as in the classic case of the 'superbloques' of Venezuela built in the 1950s under the dictatorship of President Jiménez. Most of the very poor, whose homes in the squatter settlements had been bulldozed in the name of rehousing, ended up excluded from living in the new blocks or crowding in with other poor families in order to be able to pay the rents and maintenance charges.a study by Faranak Miraftab (2001), drawing on a UN Gender and Habitat programme in 16 low-income communities in Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Sri Lanka, Colombia and Costa Rica, found that increasingly high costs of housing relative to people's incomes (owing inter alia to rising competition for urban land, downward raiding by impoverished middle classes and so on) is making home ownership particularly inaccessible to women. As such, households headed by women often end up in rental accommodation where they suffer greater policy neglect than in owner-occupied shelter (see also Chant, 2007). Indeed, Gilbert (2003) argues that part of the 'overidealisation' of home ownership stems from the influence of Northern countries in which private property has often been viewed as an integral part of successful capitalist development"

inadequacy in terms of coverage of the population for services in shelters

"Shortfalls in shelter and urban services are usually attributed not just to poverty, but to the failure of government capacity and political will.conventional private sector housing is usually well beyond the financial possibilities of low-income populations, governments have rarely stepped in to provide housing themselves. This is because, as Gilbert describes, housing occupies a rather 'awkward' realm between the economic and the social. Traditionally economists have not been interested in housing because they do not regard it as contributing to economic growth, even if a labour force clearly needs shelter! As far as social planners are concerned, housing has not been a priority due to cost: it is expensive to produce (the per capita cost of housing is higher than the per capita cost of providing primary education or even medical care), and unlike other social interventions which tend to be targeted everyone needs a home Public expenditure on housing has thus been small − in Latin America, for example, has rarely risen above 2 per cent of GDP"

Rise of corporate social responsibilities

"Sustainable economic development in the Global South will depend on job creation, education, poverty alleviation, and careful environmental management. Government, civil society organizations, and academic institutions should all be involved in this effort. Companies have a particularly important role to play. They must be involved and contribute to the betterment of the societies in which they operate. They can do this through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives that align with national development objectives in areas as diverse as affordable housing, educating women, and conserving water. s, the debate in the global South has begun to shift from understanding CSR as aid, towards thinking of responsible behaviour more in terms of development. "

define "sustainable urbanization"

"Sustainable urbanisation' has become a major element in the urban development lexicon since the second United Nations conference on Human Settlements − HABITAT II − held in Istanbul in 1996. This said, now, as then, there is no clear consensus on how the term should be defined. This urbanization has a better chance of being sustainable, if the flow of population from rural to urban contexts is slower. However, in discussing the goals of sustainable urbanisation, UNHabitat highlighted environmental aspects as well as economic and social dimension. Inclusively defined, the concept of sustainable urbanisation embodies several goals and dimensions, including economic, environmental, social, political, demographic, institutional and cultural"

MDG 7 slum—dwelling

"Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resourcesTarget 7.B:Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of lossTarget 7.C:Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitationTarget 7.D: Achieve, by 2020, a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers"

SAPs in Bolivia

"The Bolivian experiment which began on August 29th 1985 with the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP),The reforms were aimed at putting an end to economic stagnation and chaos, widespread deep-rooted poverty, and political instability. experiment was highly successful in the very short term at putting an end to political turmoil and economic destabilization and decline. the impact of the new policies on private investment, overall economic growth and poverty alleviation was rather limited, particularly during the early stages, and results are still disappointing. This has raised serious questions about the appropriateness and adequacy of the neo-liberal agenda, while the extremely low overall level of welfare, and widespread poverty in the country create an urgent need to intensify and redirect policy reform"

CPA and feminist lobby

"The Cairo agreement recognizes gender equality as a prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.The Programme recommends policies and programs that promote the full participation of women in political and public life and eliminate gender discrimination in education and employment.The agreement also calls for measures to prevent neglect and abuse of female children, and to encourage equal participation of men in domestic life and reproductive responsibilities.the Cairo Programme of Action recommended that family planning be guided by imperatives of 'appropriate patient-provider interaction' and 'informed choice"

End of the Cold War and the collapse of the 'Second World'

"The Cold War was a state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact). Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but 1947-91 is common. The term ""cold"" is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. "

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

"The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were the eight international development goals for the year 2015 that had been established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration. All 189 United Nations member states at the time (there are 193 currently), and at least 23 international organizations, committed to help achieve the following Millennium Development Goals by 2015: 1- To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger2- To achieve universal primary education3- To promote gender equality and empower women4- To reduce child mortality5- To improve maternal health6- To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases7- To ensure environmental sustainability8- To develop a global partnership for development"

Dependency theory and shortcomings of Modernization theory

"The Modernization theory insists that the Third World is underdeveloped and remains in sucha state because of its historical failure to industrialize and modernize with technology. This claim asserts that the Third World was 'left behind' by the First World countries consisting of Western Europe and North America, and that it must 'catch up' through adopting the same measures undertaken by these countries. The theory identifies the problem as being theexistence of counter-productive traditions and social practices which must be eradicated inorder for the Third World countries to modernize and develop. It blames the prevalence of poverty, war, famine and economic stagnation upon tradition and the inability to 'keep up' with the first world technologically. The Dependency Theory however, is opposed to all the assessments and solutions offered bythe Modernization Theory. The Dependency Theory argues that the plight of the Third Worldis as a result of the rapid economic growth and economic development in the First Worldcountries. In essence the theory puts forward a dynamic of exploitation in which the development in 'metropolitan' states undermined development in the 'satellite' states. This means that the wealthy get wealthier at the expense of the already impoverished; in example,embrace a scenario in a home with ten people that are all expected to share all availablefoodstuff in the household. If the foodstuff is adequate for exactly ten people, the momentany individual possesses enough food to fit two or more people means that another personwill go without food and be in a state of hunger or poverty. This is the idea behind the concept of being 'dependent', the riches of wealthy countries 'depend' upon the poverty of impoverished countries. "

CPA and high rates of infant and child mortality among the poor

"The Programme calls on governments to expand the accessibility and affordability of all health care services. By 2015, infant and child mortality rates should be reduced to 35 and 45 per 1,000 respectively1, and maternal mortality should be cut in half globally. Child mortality remains very high with more than a quarter of children dying by age 5 years. Nevertheless, women aged 30-39 years, on average, have more than four surviving children but over 90% with four children want more. Improvements in child survival should be a top priority but should not be used as a reason for failing to address population growth"

summary of urbanization in developing countries

"The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008.s It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized.That is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2016 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities, about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 14 years.During the period 1950−2000, the global urban population grew nearly four times, from 730 million to 2.8 billion (Satterthwaite, 2005), and in 2008, for the first time in history, more than half the world's population (3.3 billion people) lived in urban areas This is equivalent to the population of the whole world in 1960. By the year 2030, the urban population will nearly double again to around five billion, much of which will be accounted for by Africa and Asia, where '...the accumulated urban growth of these two regions during the whole span of history will be duplicated in a single generation' (UNFPA, 2007, p.1). Somewhat inevitably, therefore, most growth in population in the coming decades will take place in urban areas"

Rise of newly industrializing countries (NICs)

"The category of newly industrialized country (NIC) is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists. NICs are countries whose economies have not yet reached a developed country's status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts. Another characterization of NICs is that of countries undergoing rapid economic growth (usually export-oriented). Incipient or ongoing industrialization is an important indicator of an NIC. In many NICs, social upheaval can occur as primarily rural, or agricultural, populations migrate to the cities, where the growth of manufacturing concerns and factories can draw many thousands of laborers. NICs usually share some other common features, including: Strong political leaders. A switch from agricultural to industrial economies, especially in the manufacturing sector. An increasingly open-market economy, allowing free trade with other countries in the world.[dubious - discuss] Large national corporations operating in several continents. Strong capital investment from foreign countries. Political leadership in their area of influence. Rapid growth of urban centers and population."

practical elements of housing provision

"The development of housing finance systems 2. The targeting of subsidies 3. The development of property rights (regularising tenure, removing rent controls etc) 4. Infrastructure improvement 5. The introduction of regulatory audits to remove regulations inhibiting housing sector development 6. Improved organisation and competition in the building industry 7. Institutional reform"

Dependency theory and Latin America structuralism

"The first real analysis of the situation of developing countries based on neo-Marxist ideas was from the Latin American structuralists. Structuralism refers to a strand of thought which argues that 'development involves changes in underlying social and economic structures' (Thomas, 2000, p.44). In the Latin American context, it relates to how, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, Latin American exporters of raw materials and agricultural products found themselves progressively less able to buy manufactured goods. Among the main reasons were Latin America's structural disadvantage in the world economy, their heavy dependence on European and North American markets and competition from other primary producing regions - if Latin American countries set their prices for raw materials too high, then the West would go elsewhere for their coffee, bananas and so on.These basic principles of structuralism were first put forward by a group of Latin American economists from the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA)"

women's lack of continuous employment and pension entitlements

"The lack of women in leadership positions speaks volumes of the failure of businesses around the world to address gender discrimination and establish a mixed gender leadership pipeline as a top priority.western European countries the nature of women's employment participation remains markedly different from that of men. For example, few women are in continuous full-time employment after the birth of a first child. Due to the lack of childcare and because women in Britain lose 9% of their wage after their first child and 16% after their second child. Over the last 25 years, women's share of wage employment has continued to grow, though at a slow pace. The proportion of women in paid employment outside the agriculture sector has increased from 35 per cent in 1990 to 41 per cent in 2015. Over the period 1991-2015, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment (being a contributing family worker or an own-account worker) as a share of total female employment has declined 13 percentage points, from 59 per cent to 46 per cent."

Majority World

"The majority world (sometimes capitalized as Majority World) is a term used in preference to the largely inaccurate, out-of-date and/or non-descriptive terms developing countries, third world and the "South". In the early nineties, Bangladeshi photographer Shahidul Alam [1][2]began advocating for a new expression "majority world" to represent what has formerly been known as the "Third World." The term highlights the fact that these countries are indeed the majority of humankind. It also brings to sharp attention the anomaly that the Group of 8 countries—whose decisions affect majority of the world's peoples—represent a tiny fraction of humankind. Majority world defines the community in terms of what it is, rather than what it lacks.The political message behind these terms is to show that despite being home to most of the world's population and countries the majority world has limited power. It serves to remind people of the sheer scale of the South/Third World/Poor World, despite its apparent lack of importance in global affairs. Reflecting the importance of culture, another binary with some salience has been the 'Western'/'non-Western' distinction"

children's education and health

"The number of out-of-school children of primary school age worldwide has fallen by almost half, to an estimated 57 million in 2015, down from 100 million in 2000.Sub-Saharan Africa has had the best record of improvement in primary education of any region since the MDGs were established. The region achieved a 20 percentage point increase in the net enrolment rate from 2000 to 2015, compared to a gain of 8 percentage points between 1990 and 2000.The global under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, dropping from 90 to 43 deaths per 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2015.Despite population growth in the developing regions, the number of deaths of children under five has declined from 12.7 million in 1990 to almost 6 million in 2015 globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, the annual rate of reduction of under-five mortality was over five times faster during 2005-2013 than it was during 1990-1995.Measles vaccination helped prevent nearly 15.6 million deaths between 2000 and 2013. The number of globally reported measles cases declined by 67 per cent for the same period.About 84 per cent of children worldwide received at least one dose of measlescontaining vaccine in 2013, up from 73 per cent in 2000.Over 6.2 million malaria deaths have been averted between 2000 and 2015, primarily of children under five years of age in sub-Saharan Africa. The global malaria incidence rate has fallen by an estimated 37 per cent and the mortality rate by 58 per cent. children from the poorest 20 per cent of households are more than twice as likely to be stunted as those from the wealthiest 20 per cent. Children in the poorest households are four times as likely to be out of school as those in the richest households. Under-five mortality rates are almost twice as high for children in the poorest households as for children in the richest. In rural areas, only 56 per cent of births are attended by skilled health personnel, compared with 87 per cent in urban areas. About 16 per cent of the rural population do not use improved drinking water sources, compared to 4 per cent of the urban population. About 50 per cent of people living in rural areas lack improved sanitation facilities, compared to only 18 per cent of people in urban areas"

Legal restrictions for worker's organizations and unions

"The only way that unions can attain their purposes is through the coercive power of government. Unions are state-protected monopolies or legal cartels. Labor legislation grants union employees the privilege to command higher wages than they could earn in a competitive market. Legislation excludes non-union workers whenever greater than 50 per cent of workers in a plant, industry, or profession select a particular union to be their exclusive bargaining agent. Labor legislation is intended to improve the union's well-being and protect the jobs and wages of one group of workers by restricting the opportunities of other workers. Legislation that mandates unionization decreases the economic freedom of both employers and workers. A firm may prefer to ignore a union, just as workers may prefer to deal individually with the employer.

Nutrition and death rate

"The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half since 1990. One in seven children worldwide are underweight, down from one in four in 1990.Healthy eating and physical inactivity are leading causes of death in the U.S. People are dying. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, unhealthy eating and inactivity cause 678,000 deaths every year—similar to the number of deaths caused by tobacco and 13 times more than are caused by guns and Diet- and inactivity-related disabilities. Quality of life is reduced. Unhealthy eating and physical inactivity are major contributors to reduced quality of life and disabilities. Amputations and blindness can be complications of diet-related diabetes. People who have had a stroke or an osteoporosis-related hip fracture may suffer loss of independence."

feminization of poverty

"The rise in female household headship has frequently been met with concern, if not alarm, in public and policy circles. Growing numbersof female heads, especially those who are unmarried, divorced or separated, are widely construed as symbolising a 'breakdown' in the family, especially where the patriarchal (male-headed) unit remains a normative ideal. Part and parcel of this anxiety stems from links drawn between rising levels of female headship and a putative 'feminisation of poverty'. Even if the 'feminisation of poverty' should technically imply a trend for women (not just female household heads) to become poorer over time, and is frequently confused with 'feminised poverty', which is merely a state in which women are poorer than men (see Medeiros and Costa, 2006), female-headed households are frequently typecast as the 'poorest of the poor' on grounds of their allegedly greater likelihood of being poor, and of experiencing more pronounced degrees of indigence than male-headed units. poverty data disaggregated by the sex of the household head from 41 countries across Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean indicates that disparities in poverty for female- and male-headed households are country specific (United Nations, 2010, p.161). Only in four of the 16 countries in Africa with available data - Burundi, Malawi, Sao Tome and Principe, and Zambia - were the poverty rates for femaleheaded households higher compared to male-headed households"

NGOs in GAD

"The role that human service non government-organizations (NGOs) are playing in the empowerment of women.During the last two decades NGOs and government, regionally and internationally, have promoted development and advocacy programs to improve the plight of women in developing countries.There are many NGO's to protect the gender and specifically females.the GAD (or Gender and Development) approach focuses on the socially constructed basis of differences between men and women and emphasises the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations"

Consumer demand for cheap goods

"The specific goods that consumers purchase can vary significantly under different economic conditions, the level of consumer spending on more optional purchases, such as automobiles and electronics, varies greatly depending on a number of economic factors. The economic factors; that most affect the demand for consumer goods and the price that they are ready to pay ;are employment, wages, prices/inflation, interest rates and consumer confidence. If wages are stagnant or falling, consumer demand for cheaper goods is likely to rise. Higher inflation rates erode purchasing power, making it less likely that consumers have excess income to spend after covering basic expenses such as food and housing. Higher price tags on consumer goods also deter spending and their demand for cheaper goods ultimately rises.

diversity within 'Third World' countries

"Third World' includes the world's most impoverished countries in Africa, such as Ethiopia and Mozambique, as well as those deeply undermined by conflict and inequality in Central America and the Caribbean such as Nicaragua and Haiti. At the other end of spectrum, the term has also extended to the oil-rich nations of the Middle East, as well as Venezuela and Nigeria, in addition to wealthy 'Newly Industrialising Countries' (NICs), such as South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan"

role of trade

"Trade can help boost development and reduce poverty by generating growth through increased commercial opportunities and investment, as well as broadening the productive base through private sector development.Trade enhances competitiveness by helping developing countries reduce the cost of inputs, acquire finance through investments, increase the value added of their products and move up the global value chain.Trade facilitates export diversification by allowing developing countries to access new markets and new materials which open up new production possibilities.Trade encourages innovation by facilitating exchange of know-how, technology and investment in research and development, including through foreign direct investment. Trade expands choice and lowers prices for consumers by broadening supply sources of goods and services and strengthening competition."

John Turner on self help housing

"Turner's main ideas was that housing should not be valued as much as for what it is, as for what it does for people: in other words, housing should be seen as a 'verb' as well as a 'noun'. What really mattered to the poor was the 'use value' of housing, rather than its 'exchange value'. Being able to spend resources on housing as and when they were able to do so was infinitely more sensible than attempting to buy a finished product of too high a quality at too high a price. The poor's 'freedom to build' also allowed them to design their dwelling environments in accordance with their own wishes. Other arguments offered by Turner for favouring selfhelp over government-built housing included the fact that self-help was extremely cheap. It could be built for up to half the price of government housing due to the absence of administrative costs. Key policy recommendations which emerged out of this were that governments should tolerate self-help, facilitate access to land and provide essential services and building materials. Turner also advocated dropping 'minimum norms' for servicing levels − as long as the poor had a home, services could wait."

NGOs and housing shortages

"Under this 'new agenda', which has been actively promoted by the World Bank and other multilaterals such as UNCHS, states have important overall roles in policy making, but the provision of shelter (which upholds the idea of private property rights) is essentially the responsibility of the market, NGOs, CBOs (community based organisations) and household self-help in various forms of partnership. Private entrepreneurs should get more involved in catering for low-income demand, using, where possible 'sweat equity' (i.e. people's own labour converted from 'leisure time' to productive use) to bring supply costs down."

lower average earnings of women

"Women's average non-agricultural earnings are still only 75 per cent of their male counterparts, and in many countries of the South, considerably less. For example, at the turn of the century women's average wages in manufacturing were as low as 56 per cent of men's average wages in South Korea, and only 54 per cent in Brazil. Bearing in mind the relative crudity of quantitative aggregate measures of gender disparities. Globally women earn 24 per cent less than men, with the largest disparities found in Southern Asia (33 per cent) and sub-Saharan Africa (30 per cent).Many factors contribute to women's heightened vulnerability to poverty. These include unequal access to paid work, lower earnings, lack of social protection and limited access to assets, including land and property. Even where women are equally as likely to live in poor households as men, they are more likely to be deprived in other important areas of well-being, such as education."

population growth rate decline in developing countries

"after developing the population growth rate is declining in developing countries because of contraceptive measures adoption and some other natural disasters. Like flood and earthquak.in developing areas the mean rate is 1.44 percent and in sub-Saharan Africa, the fastest growing region in the world, it is 2.3 per cent. Recent studies suggest that use of contraceptives reduces births by almost 230 million every year and family planning remains the major primary prevention strategy for unwanted pregnancies. The rapid reduction of global fertility level in recent years − from a total fertility rate of 4.7 in early 1970s to 2.6 in late 2000s − is predominately credited to increased rates of contraceptive use"

domestic and inter-personal violence

"behaviour involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something.strength of emotion or of a destructive natural force.like shouhting,agravation,anger and beating in the domestic level in the family institutions and houses and in offices. percentage of female death with interperosnal violance is 2.82 while the male death with interperosonal violence is 9.97. Everyday violence usually involves interconnections between political, economic and social conflicts. In both Guatemala and Colombia, for example, militias and gangs have been found to be involved in political activities, economic extortion in communities as well as in interpersonal violence through gang warfare. This is often compounded due to gender-based violence both within and beyond the home"

social differences in development

"class, race, culture, age, ability, sex etc. Social differences can create discrimination among the individuals on the basis of their social characteristics. For example, if in a American society, individuals with high status (White) are given more respect and importance as compare to the (Black, Mexican) poor or homeless people then it is a social difference. Social differences can create a lot of problems in a society because discrimination always result in inequality, inferiority complex and other social problems.

women's employment opportunities in agriculture vs urban labour market

"empollyment opportunites for women in agriclutures are less because due to industrialization urban market offer for job opportunities for unskilled labor so women provide unskilled labor in food, garments and other factories at low wages in comparision to male, the low wages in urban market is far more then they get in agriculture. Over the last 25 years, women's share of wage employment has continued to grow, though at a slow pace. The proportion of women in paid employment outside the agriculture sector has increased from 35 per cent in 1990 to 41 per cent in 2015. Over the period 1991-2015, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment (being a contributing family worker or an own-account worker) as a share of total female employment has declined 13 percentage points, from 59 per cent to 46 per cent. In contrast, vulnerable employment among men has fallen by 9 percentage points, from 53 per cent to 44 per cent.Women remain at a disadvantage in the labour market.Globally, about three quarters of working-age men participate in the labour force, compared to only half of working-age women. Women earn 24 per cent less than men globally. In 85 per cent of the 92 countries with data on unemployment rates by level of education for the years 2012-2013, women with advanced education have higher rates of unemployment than men with similar levels of education. Despite continuous progress, today the world still has far to go towards equal gender representation in private and public decision-making"

poverty and female headship

"female-headed households are poorer than their male-headed counterparts, female-headed households face gender discrimination with respect to education, earnings, rights, and economic opportunities. women's lower average earnings compared to men, less access to remunerative jobs, and productive resources such as land and capital contribute to the economic vulnerability of female-headed household. female headed households in general have more dependents and thus have higher non-workers to workers ratio compared to other households"

reasons for incorporation of gender

"gender equality is an important goal in itself - an issue of human rights and social justice - efforts to promote greater equality between women and men can also contribute to the achievement of other social and economic objectives. It has been clear for decades that women in many parts of the world make key contributions in areas of development such as agriculture and water resources management. Neglecting women in these areas has often led to less than optimal effects of development inputs, and at worst negative impacts. In other sector areas it is becoming increasingly clear that development goals will not be met unless the needs and priorities of all stakeholders are identified and addressed, for example in the transport or health sectors. Even in areas, where gender perspectives were normally considered irrelevant, such as trade and macroeconomics, it is increasingly recognized that sound developments must be based on a clear assessment of the contributions of women as well as men and the potential impact of planned interventions on both women and men and on their productivity."

main reasons for variations of aging among continents

"given the scant economic and infrastructural resources available in many nations of the Global South, it has been argued that urgent steps need to be taken to stop population ageing from becoming 'the next social crisis to face the developing world' (Lloyd-Sherlock, 1997, p.231; see also Aboderin, 2006). At present, for example, most elderly people in developing countries have to rely on their children's support in old age. However, declining birth rates may well make this less feasible. In China, for example, McNay (2005) points out that increasingly protracted life expectancies mean that by 2030, a 40-year old woman in an average city will have to care for her parents for 17 more years (or about twice as long) as she did in 1990. Moreover, she may well have to support two sets of grandparents."

fair trade and ethical trade

"important dimension of the need to create a fairer world for people in the Global South has been the emergence of the concept offair trade, although this refers mainly to the agricultural rather than the industrial sector. This model was developed in the 1970s by Oxfam and other development organisations, focusing mainly on the need to develop fairer terms of trade for small-scale producers who were perceived as being unable to compete with large TNCs and the host of 'middlemen' involved in exporting primary products such as coffee, bananas and handicrafts. Fair or ethical trading has now been recognised by the EU Parliament as an important aspect of development aid. Over time, the fair trade system has become more formalised with the Fairtrade Labelling Organisations International (FLO), established in 1997. By 2013, the global Fairtrade system had become an association of three producer networks, 25 Fairtrade organisations and the independent certification system that awards the Fairtrade Certification Mark. These standards aim to provide a campaign function in terms of educating people about what free trade actually means, as well as promoting consumer confidence and demand. They also ensure that producers in the Global South receive fair terms of trade and prices, as well as being linked with initiatives that focus on the establishment of cooperatives and a range of social project. Although the fair trade consumer market is still small in global terms, it has grown considerably, especially in Europe since 2000. For example, the value of UK sales of Fairtrade certified produce increased from £92.3 million in 2003 to £1530.2 million in 2012."

CPA and women's lack of human rights

"it should also be remembered that the population establishment has used the position of women in a society as a means to pursue its objective since the 1970s (Gould, 2009). Thus, although the last decade has seen a much fuller adoption of the language of 'rights' and 'choice' for women, this could also be regarded as a tactic to perpetuate anti-natalist (fertility reduction) agendas. This would certainly appear to be the case in Peru, where in 1995 President Alberto Fujimori introduced a sweeping 'family planning' programme which led to the sterilisation of an estimated 277,793, mainly rural and indigenous, women in a period of only four years (in the early 1990s, the fertility rate of rural women had been 5.9 versus 2.7 among their urban counterparts) (Rousseau, 2007). Although the programme was couched in the rhetoric of the Cairo consensus, and nominally afforded women the 'right to choose', a number of factors suggest otherwise."

declining birth rates.

"more women are seeking out higher education, entering the work force later and achieving more economic independence as a result, the report said. Access to family planning services and contraception was also directly linked to declining fertility rates. In certain regions of the world, fertility rates remain high, and the average age of marriage is young, particularly in areas of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. For example, the average fertility rate is 5.6 children per woman in Central and West Africa, versus about 1.6 children per woman in Eastern and Southern Europe, where rates are among the lowest. Worldwide, the birth rate among adolescent girls aged 15 to 19 has declined from 59 births per 1,000 girls in 1990 to 51 births in 2015. This global trend masks wide variations among regions and countries in the level of adolescent childbearing and the speed of its decline over time. In all regions, the adolescent birth rate fell between 1990 and 2015, with the most dramatic progress in Eastern Asia, Oceania and Southern Asia. Adolescent childbearing remains high in sub-Saharan Africa, at 116 births per 1,000 adolescent girls in 2015. This region has made the least progress since 1990, in both relative terms and absolute numbers. "

PRSP approach within broad neoliberal agenda.

"neo-liberal policies continue to be central elements of PRSPs, Critics have identified a series of obstacles that prevent greater country ownership: (i) the continuing dominance of the Bank and the Fund in agenda-setting, which results in the imposition of neo-liberal policies that many countries might not include on their own, (ii) severe administrative capacity constraints in low-income countries, and (iii) shortcomings of data as well as lack of tools to assess the impact of policies.The fundamental principles of neoliberal lending have not really altered; all that has changed is the shift in the emphasis of conditionality away from pre-conditions (Bradshaw and Linneker, 2003). Furthermore, despite a focus on flexibility and the claim that PRSPs have no blueprint, broad neoliberal ideology must be followed and the contents are largely prescribed (see above). There also remains the assumption that neoliberal macroeconomic reform will engender poverty reduction, despite some evidence to the contrary (Panos, 2005). Indeed, PRSPs have tended to focus on growth through privatisation, trade liberalisation, low inflation and creating conditions for faster growth, rather than poverty reduction (Oxfam, 2006). The extent to which PRSPs are really country-owned is debatable, given that they still require World Bank and IMF approval prior to the disbursement of funds. Ultimately, PRSPs do not address the causes of poverty but rather the symptoms"

Relative Merits of 'Third World" vs. other terms.

"notion is much too singular to encapsulate the huge diversity of conditions found within the region.Other alternatives for 'Third World' and 'South' include 'developing world' and 'developing countries'. Yet these also imply inferiority, together with normative assumptions that all countries should follow a similar path to that forged by the 'developed' nations and/or that progress is being made even when it is not. Moreover, both of these latter terms conjure up an image of a rich/poor world binary and fail to recognise internal diversity within both continents and countries of the South and North alike. Less Economically Developed Countries' (LEDCs). Although the use of 'economic' in the term does not automatically imply that development is only related to the economy, they do suggest that economic factors are more important than social, cultural and political issues"

lack of development catalyst for violence

"violence may raise the tension and threaten a relapse to war or at least put the peace process on hold for some time. However, at times, violence appears to push the parties into negotiation, bringing the peace process forward Clearly, acts of violence during peace processes seldom pass unnoticed most often the result is a debate on the value of the peace process. This raises a number of pertinent questions: How do acts of violence influence the progression of a peace process? When does violence serve as a catalyst for peace? And, what kinds of peace processes are likely to be vulnerable to violence? In this paper, the focus is on violence which occurs during a peace process. The following question is addressed: Under what circumstances does violence tend to disrupt negotiations"

urban livelihoods - income generation at the city scale

"− a 'liveable city' is one in which governments, community-based and private sector interests work alongside one anotherAccepting that poverty has always called upon the poor to be resourceful, in the last three decades urban household livelihoods have come under unprecedented strain due to recession and neoliberal economic restructuring. Interest in this started rising in the 1980s with the outbreak of debt crisis and the implementation of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) across a wide range of countries. According to Diane Elson (1989), the four main phenomena which affected households during this period − and which continue to do so today −are as follows Changes in income. For employees, through reductions in wages and reduced availability of jobs. For the self-employed, through changes in product prices and product demand. Essentially products are more expensive to make due to increased prices of components, yet at the same time, there is lower demand for goods because of the reduced purchasing power of the population"

price paid to producer/wage paid to workers

.Producer surplus or producers' surplus is the amount that producers benefit by selling at a market price that is higher ... If a consumer would be willing to pay more than the current asking price, then they are getting more benefit from and A wage is monetary compensation (or remuneration, personnel expenses, labor) paid by an employer to an employee in exchange for work done. Price paid to producer= revenue: revenue/ wages= profit. Less wages and high revenue is the expolitation of labour (male and female)

reasons for increase in women headed households

1. Widowhood 2. migration 3.non marital fertality 4. marital insatbility 5. men has left home for work 6.civil unrest and displacement. Sri Linka has the higest female head of household.

regional differences in the approaches to housing

16 low-income communitiesin Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Sri Lanka, Colombia and Costa Rica, found that increasingly high costs of housing relative to people's incomes (owing inter alia to rising competition for urban land, downward raiding by impoverished middle classes and so on) is making home ownership particularly inaccessible to women. As such, households headed by women often end up in rental accommodation where they suffer greater policy neglect than in owner-occupied shelter (see also Chant, 2007). Indeed, Gilbert (2003) argues that part of the 'overidealisation' of home ownership stems from the influence of Northern countries in which private property has often been viewed as an integral part of successful capitalist development.

Aging population and poverty alleviation

1982 saw the launch of the Vienna Plan of Action on Ageing which established specific targets for the inclusion of older people in social and economic development. More recently, the Beijing Declaration of 1995 stressed the need for approaches to development that were explicitly inclusive of women of all ages. The Copenhagen Declaration of the same year also called for generations to 'invest in one another and recognise diversity and generational interdependence guided by the twin principles of reciprocity and equity' (ibid.). The year 1999 was designated as the International Year for the Older Person by the United Nations (Clark and Laurie, 2000, p.80), which has also established a series of 'Principles for Older Persons' emphasising independence, dignity, self-fulfilment, care and participation. International NGO networks such as HelpAge International, which hasover 100 affiliated organisations in 65 countries (in 2013), are currently trying to get these principles adopted as a legally binding charter of rights which all governments will have to observe. Against a background of demographic change, they contend that 'greater numbers of people will be affected directly by age discrimination and ageism, thereby increasing pressures on governments and society as a whole to respond' to failures to address older people's rights into laws, budgets, programmes and training for service delivery staff

Details of a PRSP process

A PRSP process consists of three main phases: formulation, implementation and monitoring/ evaluation. PRSP is an ongoing learning process, meaning that all stakeholders involved should critically reflect on their work and make efforts to improve it at all stages.1- Formulation:The poverty analysis is the starting point of the PRS process, and is designed to help understand the specific causes and consequences of poverty within the country concerned. The analysis gathers quantitative data (e.g. the number of people living in poverty) as well as qualitative data (e.g. the feelings and individual views of persons affected). The poverty analysis indicates the priority issues and forms the basis for the formulation of the PRSP strategy. This takes several steps, during which the different stakeholders discuss the various drafts of the PRSP until they reach consensus. In this process of formulating the PRSP, it is essential that the government organises participatory events enabling an exchange between all stakeholders. This usually requires a substantial amount of time: the establishment of a full PRSP takes on average 24 months. Most countries therefore formulate an Interim PRSP (I-PRSP) before the full version, in order to gain access to debt relief and credits as soon as possible. However, the drawback of an I-PRSP is that the participation of the civil society is generally limited. The government then sends the finalised PRSP to the World Bank and the IMF for assessment and approval of the strategy. 2- Implementation: After the proposed activities have been authorised, the implementation phase starts. A comprehensive PRSP will already include the different responsibilities and a budget for the implementation of activities. The government is supposed to align its annual national budget according to the PRSP, and the ministries are expected to plan and facilitate the required actions. In some countries, civil society organisations and international stakeholders are also strongly involved in the implementation phase, which lasts three to five years. 3- Monitoring and evaluation The monitoring and evaluation process starts parallel to the implementation. It allows the actions and measures taken to be monitored and provides an indication of their efficiency regarding poverty reduction. The government has to submit regular progress reports (approximately once a year) to the World Bank and the IMF. In the last year of the implementation phase, all stakeholders again jointly evaluate the whole strategy in order to revise the PRS where necessary. The new PRS is based on this revision, and effectively restarts the process. Experience shows that revising the PRS entails considerable work, as it normally starts during the implementation and monitoring of actions stage of the original PRS. The revision itself takes approximately one to two years.

regional poverty development

A World Bank study shows that about half of the 155 countries lack adequate data to monitor poverty and, as a result, the poorest people in these countries often remain invisible. During the 10-year period between 2002 and 2011, as many as 57 countries (37 per cent) had none or only one poverty rate estimate. In sub-Saharan Africa, where poverty is most severe, 61 per cent of countries have no adequatedata to monitor poverty trends.The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half since 1990, from 23.3 per cent in 1990-1992 to 12.9 per cent in 2014-2016.Globally, the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by more than half, falling from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015. Most progress has occurred since 2000.Fragile and conflict-affected countries typically have the highest poverty rates.More than 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990.By 2011, all developing regions except sub-Saharan Africa had met the target of halving the proportion of people who live in extreme poverty (Oceania has insufficient data). The world's most populous countries, China and India, played a central role in the global reduction of poverty. As a result of progress in China, the extreme poverty rate in Eastern Asia has dropped from 61 per cent in 1990 to only 4 per cent in 2015. Southern Asia's progress is almost as impressive—a decline from 52 per cent to 17 per cent for the same period—and its rate of reduction has accelerated since 2008.

'Third World' usage due to unfamiliarity with alternative terms

A common contemporary substitute terminology is "developing" and "developed" nations. While in certain circumstances this is a quick and easy way to sort through the socioeconomic status of different countries, the phrases have their own problems. The term "developing" can be useful with concrete and effectively universal quality-of-life metrics such as hunger and infant mortality rates. But the term is a bit self-satisfied and obscures the complications of what we understand as modernity. There are features of life in much of the "developed" world that could be seen as a step backward for humanity, such as the erosion of social connectedness and leisure time.

Rising poverty levels from the SAPs

A common policy required in structural adjustment is the privatization of state-owned industries and resources. This policy aims to increase efficiency and investment and to decrease state spending. State-owned resources are to be sold whether they generate a fiscal profit or not. Critics have condemned these privatization requirements, arguing that when resources are transferred to foreign corporations and/or national elites, the goal of public prosperity is replaced with the goal of private accumulation. Furthermore, state-owned firms may show fiscal losses because they fulfill a wider social role, such as providing low-cost utilities and jobs. Some scholars have argued that SAPs and neoliberal policies have negatively affected many developing countries, and have resulted in increase in poverty levels making rich richer and poors poorer.

quality of care framework by Judith Bruce

A framework for assessing quality from the client's perspective is offered, consisting of six parts (choice of methods, information given to clients, technical competence, interpersonal relations, follow-up and continuity mechanisms, and the appropriate constellation of services)

Gender and race

A gender-specific category could be implemented where gender has a specific relation to the topic. For example, Category:Women contains articles such as International Women's Day, Women's studies, and female-specific subcategories. Similarly, Category:Men contains articles such as father, men's studies, boy and human male sexuality, as well as male-specific subcategories. Neither category, however, should directly contain individual women or individual men.race is a stereotypical characteristic of the ethnic group, e.g. with African-Americans or Anglo-Indians. See Lists of ethnic groups for groups that are typically considered ethnic groups rather than races

title to land

A land title is an official record of who owns a piece of land. It can also include information about mortgages, covenants, caveats and easements. Victoria's land titles are held in the state's online land titles register, managed by the Registrar of Titles using the Torrens system. Before the Torrens system was introduced in 1862, a General law system operated in Victoria. In 2012 Victoria celebrated 150 years of the Torrens title system, which revolutionised land registration and replaced the convoluted General law title system.

Multinational corporations and globalization

A multinational corporation (MNC) is a business enterprise that manages production or delivers services in more than one country. Multinational corporations affect local and national policies by causing governments to compete with each other to be attractive to multinational corporation investment in their country. he digital revolution has truly changed the way the world does business. It allows companies to provide customized service to consumers, by actually enabling their customers to "serve themselves in their own way...according to their own tastes". There are companies who provide the infrastructure and hardware for this new technology, but there are also those companies that thrive on the very bonds that the Internet creates with every other part of the world. importance of MNCs in the world economy is central to the NIDL, accounting for around 25 per cent of world production and 70 per cent of world trade (Gilbert, 2014). A noticeable trend in recent years has been the increasing importance of FDI flows from Global South countries (particularly China and India) to other countries in the Global South

Multinational and transnational corporations

A multinational corporation or worldwide enterprise is an organization that owns or controls production of goods or services in one or more countries other than their home country. It can also be referred as an international corporation, a "transnational corporation", or a stateless corporation.For example A multinational corporation is usually a large corporation which produces or sells goods or services in various countries. Importing and exporting goods and services Making significant investments in a foreign country Buying and selling licenses in foreign markets Engaging in contract manufacturing permitting a local manufacturer in a foreign country to produce their products Opening manufacturing facilities or assembly operations in foreign countries. The shifting of MNC production processes to the Global South has been a significant contributor to the new international division of labour (NIDL), and forms a fundamental part of the increasing globalisation of production and consumptionimportance of MNCs in the world economy is central to the NIDL, accounting for around 25 per cent of world production and 70 per cent of world trade. A noticeable trend in recent years has been the increasing importance of FDI flows from Global South countries (particularly China and India) to other countries in the Global South.

Growth in sub-contracting relationships

A subcontracting relationship may be defined as; a person who is hired by a general contractor (or prime contractor, or main contractor) to perform a specific task as part of the overall project and is normally paid for services provided to the project by the originating general contractor.The incentive to hire subcontractors is either to reduce costs or to mitigate project risks. In this way, the general contractor receives the same or better service than the general contractor could have provided by itself, at lower overall risk.Call centres are an important example of such services. They are usually sub-contracted companies that provide telemarketing, technical or customer services for larger TNCs. Using satellites, telephone calls are routed across the world, usually from the North to the South. India has been at the forefront of the ICT expansion, with 2.78 million people employed in the ITES-BPO sector as a whole in 2012,3 over half of whom will have worked in call centres

age-gaps between spouses

Age disparity in sexual relationships and sexual relationships between individuals of a significant difference in age have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes, from normalized acceptance to taboo. Concepts of these relationships and of the exact definition of a "significant" age disparity have developed over time and vary between societies, legal systems (particularly with regards to the age of consent),and ethical systems. These views are rarely uniform even within cultures and are affected by views of consent, marriage, and gender roles, and by perceptions of social and economic differences between age groups.

Alfred Sauvry 'Tiers Monde'

Alfred Sauvy (31 October 1898 - 30 October 1990) was a demographer, anthropologist and historian of the French economy. Sauvy coined the term Third World ("Tiers Monde") in reference to countries that were unaligned with either the Communist Soviet bloc or the Capitalist NATO bloc during the Cold War. In an article published in the French magazine, L'Observateur on August 14, 1952, Sauvy said: "car enfin, ce Tiers Monde ignoré, exploité, méprisé comme le Tiers Etat, veut lui aussi, être quelque chose" "because at the end this ignored, exploited, scorned Third World like the Third Estate, wants to become something too".

define households

All persons living under one roof or occupying a separate housing unit, having either direct access to the outside (or to a public area) or a separate cooking facility. Where the members of a household are related by blood or law, they constitute a family. A household is officially defined as follows: A household includes all the persons who occupy a housing unit. A housing unit is a house, an apartment, a mobile home, a group of rooms, or a single room that is occupied (or if vacant, is intended for occupancy) as separate living quarters.

subnational level of development

All the institution of country are subsustally developed with proper planning and avaiability of necessities, emplyment opportunities like developed agri,industrial and service sector. Development of a region within a nation

international agencies and development

An agency is an organisation dedicated to a distributing aid. Many professional aid organisations exist, both within government (e.g. AusAID, USAID, DFID, EuropeAid, ECHO), between governments as multilateral donors (e.g. UNDP) and as private voluntary organizations or non-governmental organisations, (e.g. ActionAid, Ducere Foundation, Oxfam, World Vision). The International Committee of the Red Cross is the world's oldest humanitarian organisation and is unique in being mandated by international treaty to uphold the Geneva Conventions.

eco-cities

An eco-city is a city built from the principles of living within environment means. The ultimate goal of many eco-cities is to eliminate all carbon waste (zero-carbon city), to produce energy entirely through renewable resources, and to merge the city harmoniously with the natural environment; however, eco-cities also have the intentions of stimulating economic growth, reducing poverty, using higher population densities, and therefore obtaining higher efficiency, and improving health.

Ecological footprint

An ecological footprint is a measure of human impact on Earth's ecosystems. It's typically measured in area of wilderness or amount of natural capital consumed each year. A common way of estimating footprint is, the area of wilderness of both land and sea needed to supply resources to a human population; This includes the area of wilderness needed to assimilate human waste.At a global scale, it is used to estimate how rapidly we are depleting natural capital. The Global Footprint Network calculates the global ecological footprint from UN and other data. They estimate that as of 2007 our planet has been using natural capital 1.5 times as fast as nature can renew it.Within the sustainable urbanisation debate, environmental issues have been particularly prominent. For example, cities are often associated with pollution and greenhouse gases (particularly carbon dioxide emissions), resource degradation and waste generation - and as responsible for leaving a massive 'ecological footprint' extending way beyond their territorial boundaries (UN-Habitat, 2009; Satterthwaite, 2014b). It has also been stressed that in the context of climate change, low-income urban populations are particularly vulnerable to the hazards associated with sea-level rise and extreme weather events

household strategies vs equilibrium approach

An equilibrium approach the emphesis on the rule of wage rates in stimulating in one area to another and not considering the impact of structured differentials groups, norms and relations. However household strategies keeping veiw the above mentioned and takes into account every aspect including gender.

old age and vulnerability to ill health

As people age, they become more susceptible to disease and disability. However, much of the burden of ill health among older people can be reduced or prevented by adequately addressing specific risk factors, including: injury development of noncommunicable diseases poverty social isolation and exclusion, mental health disorders elder maltreatmen

Progress of MDGs in different regions

Asia and pecific: Between 1990 and 2012, the proportion of the region's population living on less than $1.25 per day fell from 53 to 14 %, and is expected to fall to 12% by end 2015. More than two-thirds of countries are expected to halve the proportion of the population without access to safe drinking water by 2015. The rates of under-five and infant mortality fell short of the required two-thirds reduction, but passed the 50 percent mark. Africa: The Gambia reduced poverty by 32 percent between 1990 and 2010, while Ethiopia decreased its poverty rate by one third, focusing on agriculture and rural livelihoods, Cabo Verde increased its forest cover by more than 6 percentage points, with millions of trees planted in recent years.official development assistance to Africa is projected to remain low over the period 2015-2018, at an average of around US$47 billion annually. Latin America and the Caribbean:The region has progressed 85% in reaching the goal of halving extreme poverty, In education (MDG 2), Latin America and the Caribbean progressed significantly in terms of coverage and access. Most countries have registration rates close to or over 90%, similar to developed countries, the gaps with regard to men have diminished over the past 15 years, but the rate of progress has been slow, he region made significant progress in its international insertion between 2005 and 2009, although the international crisis caused its exports to drop drastically.

Paul Baran

Baran had developed Lenin's ideas of imperialism further by arguing that it was actually in the interests of capitalism to keep the Third World as an 'indispensable hinterland,' since it provided the West with raw materials and the chance to extract an economic surplus, or a higher profit rate. For Baran, the underdevelopment of the Third World was a direct result of the development of the First World. Development of the First World therefore took place at the expense of the underdevelopment of the Third World. The only way out of this problematic relationship was for Third World countries to de-link from the world economy altogether and introduce socialist economic planning. This was a direct challenge to the way in which economic development was seen at the time Baran was writing.

why development needs to be measured

Because from this the speed and level of development can be measured by the nations for the further policies and arrangements.like empoloyment rate,economic growth,education progress and infrastructure development levels.

Hoselitz and Modernization theory

Bert Hoseiltz emphasized the idea that societies are integrated wholes composed of functionally compatible institutions and roles, and that societies progress from one increasingly complex and efficient social system to another. This contributed to the notion that internal social and cultural factors are important determinants or obstacles of economic change.

blanket assumption about disproportionate poverty

Blanket stereotypes, it is also acknowledged that in situations where families are affected by male violence or financial neglect, female headship can be an important survival strategy in its own right, as well as enhancing women's personal power and autonomy. With growing numbers of researchers therefore finding the concept of headship and household-level measures of poverty unsatisfactory. female household headship increase the poverty of women "feminization of poverty" , which is also refers as the term of blanket assumption of povertyy when women household headship make the household "poorer of the poor". so more female household headed houses are more is the poverty.

Private companies and housing shortages

Britain's housing shortage means there are not enough properties to go around for those looking to get on the ladder.Private companies are helpful in increasing the supply of houses but their aim is earing profit so this increase the prices of houses as witnessed in US. In Britain Average selling prices on private completions increased by 9% to £254k (2014: £234k), benefiting from our focus on better quality locations.

Changing production processes

Changing production process or process innovation means the implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method (including significant changes in techniques, equipment and/or software). Minor changes or improvements, an increase in production or service capabilities through the addition of manufacturing or logistical systems which are very similar to those already in use, ceasing to use a process, simple capital replacement or extension, changes resulting purely from changes in factor prices, customisation, regular seasonal and other cyclical changes, trading of new or significantly improved products are not considered innovations." The shifting of MNC production processes to the Global South has been a significant contributor to the new international division of labour (NIDL), and forms a fundamental part of the increasing globalisation of production and consumption

child labour

Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful. In its most extreme forms, child labour involves children being enslaved, separated from their families, exposed to serious hazards and illnesses and/or left to fend for themselves on the streets of large cities - often at a very early age. Whether or not particular forms of "work" can be called "child labour" depends on the child's age, the type and hours of work performed, the conditions under which it is performed and the objectives pursued by individual countries. The answer varies from country to country, as well as among sectors within countries.

child labour

Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful. This practice is considered exploitative by many international organisations. Legislation across the world prohibit child labour.UN unfinished work included Child Labour. child labour is less in female headed hosusehold.

City regions in Asia

City region is a concept used by economists and urban planners to denote a metropolitan area and its hinterland, usually divided administratively but with shared resources and markets. In this way there are two types of relationship, and these two types produce two different natures of regions around a city: (i) City region comprising towns of lower order of services, and institutions, and (ii) City region and surrounding countryside. examples Maharashtra - Gujarat sector (India), Lahore (Pakisatan), Dhaka, Khulna (Bangladesh), Kinki (Japan)

civil violence

Civil disorder, also known as civil unrest or civil strife, is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe unrest caused by a group of people. Civil disturbance can include a form of protest against major socio-political problems. It is essentially the breakdown of orderly society, of which examples can include: illegal parades; sit-ins; riots; sabotage; and other forms of crime. Even on occasions where it is typically intended to be a demonstration to the public or the government, such can escalate into general chaos. for example Ministry of Interior Iraqi Federal Police perform a riot control demonstration in the civil disorder management course on Camp Dublin, Baghdad, Iraq, Civil disobedience and public may be defined as the refusal to obey the laws that are enforced by the government.Minor civil disobedience and public disorder is something that may occur, but with minimal impact. Contagion effects and endogenous processes of positive feedback also explain how civil disorder emerges and propagates

community based organizations (CBOs) in GAD

Community based organizations (CBO's) are nonprofit groups that work at a local level to improve life for residents. The focus is to build equality across society in all streams - health care, environment, quality of education, access to technology, access to spaces and information for the disabled, to name but a few. The inference is that the communities represented by the CBO's are typically at a disadvantage. CBO's are typically, and almost necessarily, staffed by local members - community members who experience first hand the needs within their neighborhoods. Besides being connected geographically, the only link between staff members and their interests is often the desire and willingness to help. Occupational skill sets and experience are greatly diverse.

community poverty alleviation

Community lack financial resources is known as community poverty as to reduce this IMF and WB are introducing various projects where poor countries lin the region Africa, Asia and Latin America are provided finance for development. community poverty allivation is that through education ,human resource development,microfinance measures and developmental issues poverty can be reduced from the community and society.for example vocational education,small size bussiness and skills development

Development of corporate social responsibility policies

Corporate social responsibility (CSR, also called corporate conscience, corporate citizenship or responsible business) is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a self-regulatory mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards and national or international norms. With some models, a firm's implementation of CSR goes beyond compliance and engages in actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law. The aim is to increase long-term profits through positive public relations, high ethical standards to reduce business and legal risk, and shareholder trust by taking responsibility for corporate actions. CSR strategies encourage the company to make a positive impact on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, communities, and others.

Cost of caring for elderly people

Cost of caring for elderly people are increasing as it invovles pesion from govenrment then tarining programms, allocation of budgest for service proders and employees more number of people for care giving services.Many elderly people resist becoming dependent on their relatives, or at least their dependence is not one-way. Moreover, in many HIV/AIDS-stricken communities in sub-Saharan Africa, the elderly are having to become the major breadwinners and/or care-givers to orphaned child. Nonetheless, elderly dependency of some degree is likely, given limited pensions and/or because older people have difficulty securing income-generating work. This is exacerbated by a dearth of institutional care in most countries, and minimal support from health and welfare services. Against a background of demographic change, they contend that 'greater numbers of people will be affected directly by age discrimination and ageism, thereby increasing pressures on governments and society as a whole to respond' to failures to address older people's rights into laws, budgets, programmes and training for service delivery staff

Growing inequality from SPAs

Critics hold SAPs responsible for much of the economic stagnation that has occurred in borrowing countries. SAPs emphasize maintaining a balanced budget, which forces austerity programs. The casualties of balancing a budget are often social programs.The programs most often cut are education, public health, and other social safety nets. Commonly, these are programs that are already underfunded and desperately need monetary investment for improvement. The decrease in developmental bugets ultimately results in growing rate of inequality on social and economic levels.

demotraphic transition model

Demographic Transition Model' (DTM). This is based on the historical experience of Europe and North America and posits an evolution from a situation of high mortality and fertility, through to low fertility and mortality where population growth is close to zero (see Figure 3.2). In between these extremes, there are two intermediate stages. In the first (or 'early transition') phase, the population expands significantly as death rates fall relative to birth rates as a result of improvements in living standards, nutrition and public health. In the second (or 'late transition') phase, a gap remains between birth and death rates, but is of less magnitude due to, inter alia, increased education, legislation on child employment and access to family planning which encourage people to limit birth. the DTM cannot account for the contemporary experience of Africa, where demographic structures are 'transforming in a unique way - unlike in any other region of the world

define 'demographic aging'

Demographic aging also known as, Population ageing is a phenomenon that occurs when the median age of a country or region rises due to rising life expectancy and/or declining fertility rates. 'Demographic ageing' refers not only to the progressive increase in the average age of a given population, but to the share of the population defined as 'elderly' (Desai, 2014). This is usually set at those aged more than 60 or 65 years.

demographic transition model

Demographic transition (DT) refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. This is typically demonstrated through a demographic transition model (DTM). The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson (1887-1973). Demographic Transition Model' (DTM). This is based on the historical experience of Europe and North America and posits an evolution from a situation of high mortality and fertility, through to low fertility and mortality where population growth is close to zero (see Figure 3.2). In between these extremes, there are two intermediate stages. In the first (or 'early transition') phase, the population expands significantly as death rates fall relative to birth rates as a result of improvements in living standards, nutrition and public health. In the second (or 'late transition') phase, a gap remains between birth and death rates, but is of less magnitude due to, inter alia, increased education, legislation on child employment and access to family planning which encourage people to limit birth. the DTM cannot account for the contemporary experience of Africa, where demographic structures are 'transforming in a unique way - unlike in any other region of the world

Dependency theory and Raúl Prebisch

Dependency theory became popular in the 1960's as a response to research by Raul Prebisch. Prebisch found that increases in the wealth of the richer nations appeared to be at the expense of the poorer one. Prebisch's main argument was that the international economic order was divided between an industrial core and an agrarian periphery whereby the colonising core countries dominated world trade and geopolitics, and systematically deprived the colonised peripheral nations. Through emphasis on comparative advantage, the global economic system condemned some countries (in the South) to being exporters of raw materials and importers of manufactured goods in perpetuity. This created a cycle of poverty and disadvantage whereby poor countries always imported high value goods without ever earning enough to pay for imports. Southern countries therefore became dependent on selling a limited range of raw materials on highly prejudicial terms. As well as developing theoretical arguments ECLA also developed policy prescriptions.

Dependency approach to international trade.

Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system".Examples are globlaization,specialization,resource utilization, division of labore. Between the 1940s and the 1970s, economic growth was encouraged in many developing countries by means of import substitution industrialisation (ISI). Associated theoretically with the dependency school of thought this is an inwardlooking strategy, in which domestic industries are developed to supply internal markets previously served through imports. In line with its theoretical antecedents, ISI was most frequently, although not exclusively, implemented by governments of the political left.

Dependency approach to modernization

Dependency theory states that it is the unleveled distribution of power in global politics and markets that keeps underdeveloped regions in poverty. Dependency theory looks closer at how international economics play into the underdevelopment of states and the nations within them. Modernization theory and dependency theory are really two sides of the same coin when explaining the history of international relations.Dependency theory observes and explains the effects modernization in one region has on other parts of the world. Dependency theory is more inclusive than modernization theory. The dependency school sought to overturn the views of modernisation from a Southern perspective, and more specifically, from a Latin American viewpoint. Indeed, it is often referred to as the dependencia school because most of the scholars (known as dependistas) were Latin American and therefore writing largely in Spanish. Put simply, dependency theorists argued that the lack of economic development and widespread poverty in the Global South, and in Latin America in particular, were caused by the exploitative influence of the industrialised, advanced nations of the North. They argued that the growth of the advanced countries was only possible because of the active exploitation and underdevelopment of Southern countries (hence the fact that dependency theory is sometimes referred to as 'underdevelopment theory'). Unlike modernisation, dependency theory took the historical and global context, as well as colonialism, into consideration.

economic definition of development

Development economics is a branch of economics that focuses on improving the economies of developing countries. Development economics considers how to promote economic growth in such countries by improving factors like health, education, working conditions, domestic and international policies and market conditions.Progress in an economy, or the qualitative measure of this. Economic development usually refers to the adoption of new technologies, transition from agriculture-based to industry-based economy, and general improvement in living standards.

how development policies and institutions are dealing with violence

Developmental policy are framerized as that they are enabling the regions free from voilence by security development,education,workshops and institutional development.

human rights and equality in GAD

During the development proccess the equality of woen can not be denied because they are a big part of our society. Given the challenging political, economic and funding environment in which women's organizations must survive, a milestone such as this is worthy of recognition.In the past two decades the geo-political landscape has been transformed and development theories have come and gone, but approaches to ensure women benefit from development processes have endured.

national economic development

Economic development is a term that economists, politicians, and others have used frequently in the 20th century. The concept, however, has been in existence in the West for centuries. Modernization, Westernization, and especially Industrialization are other terms people have used while discussing economic development. Economic development has a direct relationship with the environment and environmental issues. For example whereas economic development is a policy intervention endeavor with aims of economic and social well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and rise in GDP. Consequently, as economist Amartya Sen points out, "economic growth is one aspect of the process of economic development". The National Economic Development Council (NEDC) was a corporatist economic planning forum set up in 1962 in the United Kingdom to bring together management, trades unions and government in an attempt to address Britain's relative economic decline. UN promote economic deveoplement throu CEB which comprises IAEA and WTO

environment aspects

Environmental Aspect is an element of an organization's activities, products or services that can interact with the environment. There are two types of environmental aspects. (i) Direct Environmental Aspect Activities over which a company can be expected to have an influence and control. For example, emissions from processes. (ii) Indirect Environmental Aspect Actual or Potential activities over which the organization can be expected to have an influence, but no control. For example, supply chain controlled aspects, customer controlled aspects, aspects managed elsewhere within the same company.

environmental protection

Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the natural environment and humans. Due to the pressures of population and technology, the biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently.

Men brought in to improve women's lives

Equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and a condition for social justice and is also a necessary and fundamental prerequisite for equality, development and peace. A transformed partnership based on equality between women and men is a condition for people-centred sustainable development. A sustained and long-term commitment is essential, so that women and men can work together for themselves, for their children and for society to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century

definition: ethical trade and production

Ethical or fair trade and production is a social and economic movement which promotes international standards of ethical production, labour and environmental policies in the trading of goods or commodities such as cotton. It includes principles such as payment at a fair price and gender equality. Where fair trade is a way of doing business, ethical production refers to the production of a textile product and encompasses the whole life cycle of the product from the raw materials, through the finishing processes, to the construction.

evictions

Eviction is the removal of a tenant from rental property by the landlord. In some jurisdictions it may also involve the removal of persons from premises that were foreclosed by a mortgagee (often, the prior owners who defaulted on a mortgage). Depending on the laws of the jurisdiction, eviction may also be known as unlawful detainer, summary possession, summary dispossess, summary process, forcible detainer, ejectment, and repossession, among other terms. Nevertheless, the term eviction is the most commonly used in communications between the landlord and tenant.

Fair Trade (certified agricultural or handicraft production

Fair trade is a social movement whose stated goal is to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions and to promote sustainability. Members of the movement advocate the payment of higher prices to exporters, as well as improved social and environmental standards. The movement focuses in particular on commodities, or products which are typically exported from developing countries to developed countries, but also consumed in domestic markets (e.g. Brazil, India and Bangladesh) most notably handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, wine,fresh fruit, chocolate, flowers, gold. The movement seeks to promote greater equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency, and respect. It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers in developing countries. Fair Trade is grounded in three core beliefs; first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers. Secondly, the world trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations. Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a fair price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity and aid

negative elements of fair trade of ethical trade

Fair trade products only account for a segment of overall sales for any given product, fair trade don't have issues with the positive impacts of the programs or the humanitarian intentions behind them, but rather some of the possible flaws in the long-term effects of fair trade.air trade certification's emphasis on agricultural cooperatives (co-ops) discriminates against smaller farmers who are wary of becoming entangled with a co-op.fair trade prices artificially inflate prices above the market value without doing anything to address real problems, like oversupply. The more coffee available for purchase, the lower coffee prices drop.

CPA and informed choice

Family planning programmes should ensure information and access to the widest possible range of safe and effective family planning methods (appropriate to the individual's age, reproductive history, family size preference and so on) to enable men and women to make free and informed choices. Information should be provided about the health risks and benefits of different methods, side effects and their effectiveness in preventing sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Services should be safe, affordable and convenient for users. Services should ensure privacy and confidentiality. A continuous supply of high-quality contraceptives should be ensured. Services should comprise expansion and improvement of formal and informal training in sexual and reproductive healthcare and family planning, including better training in interpersonal communication and counselling for family planning personnel. Family planning services should provide adequate follow-up care, including for the side effects of contraceptive use.

knock-on effects for women's own generation of human capital, savings

Female elderly in the household does not support the younger female to get more education or do good job so it halt the process of eaning, saving, investing and increaisng their wealth. The female keep other female close to them so this also have negetive impact them

contribution from other household members

Financial contribution from other houdehold member reduce the pressure from the the female household head. Resarch shows that in Latin america female headed house has more earners reletive of home size on comparision to mail headed house which involve various reasons like pride, honor and sexual jealousy

drinking water and shelters

For a growing number of people throughout the world there is a lack of basic shelter altogether. This has led to the emergence of slums, particularly in the urban areas of many poor countries. A slum is an area with a large number of people living in unclean and inadequate housing conditions. Slums are considered to be one of the only large-scale solutions to housing for poor people, particularly those who live in cities where land is expensive. Statistics from 2003 indicated that 928 million people live in slums around the world. The majority of these people were in developing countries, with 50 percent of them in South-East Asia. Statistics show, however, that 460 million people suffer from serious shortages of water and over 1.2 billion people still do not have access to safe drinking water. The majority of these people live in extreme poverty in developing countries, with the rural areas of poor countries being most affected.Statistics have shown that 85 percent of the world's supply of water is used by only 12 percent of world's population and that they do not live in developing countries. This is felt by many developing areas around the world, such as in countries in Africa, where there is not only a severe lack of clean drinking water but freshwater in general is rapidly declining. Although Africa has some of the largest lakes in the world it also has the Sahara, the largest desert in the world. A lack of clean water is a major inconvenience, especially for some women and girls in Africa who have to walk almost ten kilometres to fetch water.

quality of shelter

For a growing number of people throughout the world there is a lack of basic shelter altogether. This has led to the emergence of slums, particularly in the urban areas of many poor countries. A slum is an area with a large number of people living in unclean and inadequate housing conditions. Slums are considered to be one of the only large-scale solutions to housing for poor people, particularly those who live in cities where land is expensive. Statistics from 2003 indicated that 928 million people live in slums around the world. The majority of these people were in developing countries, with 50 percent of them in South-East Asia.Attempts are being made to improve the global housing situation. As part of one of the eight goals of the United Nations Millennium Declaration, a target was set to improve the living conditions of at least 100 million people who live in slums by the year 2020.

Andre Gunder Frank

Frank was able to successfully popularize Baran's ideas in the 1960s. He took Baran's notions, and conceptualized them in terms of a capitalist world system of metropolitan areas and satellite areas. The dominant world metropolitan areas subordinate the satellite regions through military, political and trade agreements, and extract an economic surplus.

inequality between women and men

Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles. Gender systems are often dichotomous and hierarchical; gender binary systems may reflect the inequalities that manifest in numerous dimensions of daily life. Gender inequality stems from distinctions, whether empirically grounded or socially constructed. (On differences between the sexes, see Sex and psychology. Women continue to face discrimination in access to work, economic assets and participation in private and public decision-making. Women are also more likely to live in poverty than men. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the ratio of women to men in poor households increased from 108 women for every 100 men in 1997 to 117 women for every 100 men in 2012, despite declining poverty rates for the whole region

Men's role in reproductive health

Gender influences women's and men's health in fundamental ways; harmful and rigid expectations about what men and women can or should do can place both women's and men's health at risk. For example, gender norms that define men as strong may discourage them from seeking health services as they might view asking for help from a nurse or doctor as a sign of weakness. Similarly, norms characterizing women as submissive can undermine their ability to negotiate condom use with male partners. Other consequences associated with the complex interplay of harmful gender norms include depression, gender-based violence (GBV), early marriage, unintended pregnancy, and increased risk of HIV.

incorporating men into GAD policies

Gender mainstreaming is a process in which women's and men's development challenges and needs as well as development impacts on both men and women are clarified throughout the process of policy formulation, project planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation on the premise that all policies, interventions, and projects have different impacts on men and women. There have been cases in the past in which development policies, programs and projects that were considered to be gender neutral have brought different consequences for men and women. Therefore, it is important to incorporate gender equality perspective into all the development policies including those not directly targeted at women. Development assistance can be implemented more effectively and efficiently by adequately addressing the differences in livelihood situations and needs of both men and women as a part of planning and implementation.

Little difference between WID and GAD in policies

Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men (femininity and masculinity). Gender roles and expectations are learned and The WID approach aims to integrate women into the existing development process by targeting them, often in women-specific activities. Women are usually passive recipients in WID projects, which often emphasize making women more efficient producers and increasing their income. Although many WID projects have improved health, income or resources in the short term, because they did not transform unequal relationships, a significant number were not sustainable.

definition of women-headed households

Generic term for a household where the senior woman or household head lacks a co-resident male partner. Often, although not always, the household head is a lone mother.

global economic interconnectedness

Global economic interconnectedness or globalization of economies refers to the procedure towards economic integration through the elimination of trade barriers or connecting of financial potential as the one big economy based on international trade. Furthermore, it also applies to the foreign investment and ownership of nation and industry as the considerable amount of goods produced by multinational corporations in the country is from outside. Economic interconnectedness has been leading the global market with the advancement in communication, transportation technology, and free-market paradigm, allowing for dynamics for goods, capital, people, and services. Social Networks & Connectivity through tools of economic production - digital technology, computers, smart phones... Most profitable companies on the planet are currently Apple, Google,.... Increasing interconnectedness...

population growth rate

Global human population growth amounts to around 75 million annually, or 1.1% per year. The global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7 billion in 2012. It is expected to keep growing, where estimates have put the total population at 8.4 billion by mid-2030, and 9.6 billion by mid-2050.population at a global scale is presently growing at 1.37 per cent per annum, in developing areas the mean rate is 1.44 per cent (see Figure 3.1) and in sub-Saharan Africa, the fastest growing region in the world, it is 2.3 per cent

global shift

Global shift refers to the economic developments that arise from the vigorous interplay between multinational conglomerates with nation states as regulators and facilitated by processes of technological change. This happens through globalization where there is free movement of capital which in effect stimulates investment in poor nations. This encourages the latter to transfer labour-intensive aspects of the production process, notably the assembly of finished or semi-finished goods, to the South via the establishment of branch-plants, or what are sometimes referred to as 'world market factories'. Peter Dicken (2011) has termed this a 'global shift'. In turn, the products assembled in these factories are exported back to industrialised nations.

potential for positive change in ethical trade and production

Globalization could be an engine for growth and great benefit to all groups if guided with some attempt at fairness.Globalization can be a great boon. It is not globalization per se, but the unfairness and damaging results from the way it is developing that is the moral and humanitarian problem. Following eviornmental laws and ILO completely can brring positive changes and make the production and trade more ethcial.

Globalization link producers/workers directly with consumers

Globalization has increae trade liberalization which has also imporved the mode of communication and technologyh has improved a lot that consumers can directly contact to any producer in the world easily and made purchase, online buying and selling is biggest exmaple of this. Consumers can buy anything from eatable to clothing and other capital goods for the business very easily. Comanpnies like Amazone, eBay and Just Fab are some exmples of such companies.

growing global economic interconnectedness

Globalization has increaseing the interconnectedness among the countries because each one is depending on other's products or services and market is expanding so more opportunities of job, more consuemr choice and easy avaiability of raw material. economic interconnections is increasing through IMF, WTO and World Bank.

globalization obstacle to ethical trade and production

Globalization, free trade and outsourcing are very controversial issues.The gap between rich and poor in the world is still very large. The bottom 2.5 billion ,40% of the worlds population live on less than $2 a day and receive only 5% of the worlds income. free trade system is undemocratic as the agencies or institutions like IMF anf WTO are increase the free trade through various tools but they are not working in the favor of poor country their polcies have ethical issues. There are many charges against the WTO. Here are three of the main criticisms.1. WTO places economic considerations ahead of concern about labor conditions and the environment.2. WTO is undemocratic3. WTO increases inequality and makes the rich richer and leaves the world's poor worse off. Such instituins are serving the interest of developed and rich countries becasue these organizations are headed by the people from devleoped countries and they expolite the poor countries people and resources.

women's relative engagement

Globally, about three quarters of working-age men participate in the labour force, compared to half of working-age women. Today, women make up 41 per cent of paid workers outside of agriculture, an increase from 35 per cent in 1990. The average proportion of women in parliament has nearly doubled over the past 20 years, but still only one in five members are women.

development is not difficult to measure

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are measures of economic activity. While GDP measures economic activity within a country's borders, the Gross National Product (GNP) measures the total income (or economic activity) of a country's citizens. GNP adds to GDP the income flowing into the country from citizens living abroad, and subtracts the income earned by foreigners in the country. Since GDP data tend to be used more often than GNP data (and in any case for most countries GDP is approximately the same as GNP), the rest of this section shall discuss GDP (although much of the discussion is equally applicable to GNP).Real GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of a country's standard of living or level of development. Despite numerous criticisms, GDP does have some advantages as a measure of standard of living or development: GDP growth (as a measure of economic growth) is a major contributor to welfare and GDP tends to be correlated with several other measures of 'development', such as literacy and healthcare provision.· As currently defined, it has a clear methodology and is relatively easy to calculate.Since it is a monetary/mathematical/accounting calculation with an established methodology, it is objective (in contrast, such things as 'happiness' and 'political freedom' are subjective and difficult to measure). It is widely used and all GDP calculations are made using broadly the same methodology. This facilitates cross-country and over-time comparisons

contested nature of "sustainable urbanization

Growth of urban areas in the Global South has been so rapid and so dynamic during the last 60 years that many see this 'second wave of urbanisation' as a 'historic shift'. While national population growth rates in developing regions were in the order of 2−3 per cent per annum between the 1940s and 1980s urban population growth rates averaged as much as 4−5 per cent during the same period. Indeed, although rates have generally slowed down or evened out since the 1980s. Douglass in Environment and Urbanization asserts that 'urban liveability' has evolved as a reaction to the degradation of cities as living paces due to the aggressive pursuit of economic growth and the growing intensity of inter-city competition.The concept of the 'liveable city' comprises the notion of investment in the physical and social quality of life, and embraces four main elements. Whether there is much scope to prioritise social and environmental concerns to the same degree as economic growth is a big question in the light of growing competition between cities of the south for footloose oreign investment. As pointed out by Mike Douglass (in Environment and Urbanization 14(1)2002), the number of countries with policies favourable to foreign investment has increased dramatically over the last 20 years.In 1980, only 19 developing countries had 'open door' regimes offering tax holidays, free infrastructure, greenfield sites and other dispensations to foreign investors. By 2000, however, a staggering 149 countries had jumped on the bandwagon, and with even greater concessions in respect of subsidies, tax relief and freedom from regulation

differences in growth rates

Growth rates allow for better comparison across regions. For example, because of Texas' large population, the state's employment level is one of the highest in the nation about 47%. But this fact makes it difficult to compare the number of jobs gained in Texas with the number of jobs gained in smaller states. Such states will have smaller monthly job gains, but employment could be rising at a faster pace than in Texas. In a sense, calculating growth rates levels the playing field between the states. Similarly, economists often compare a state's economy with that of the nation. By calculating growth rates, researchers can make comparisons between the national and regional economies—such as whether state employment is growing faster or slower than the national average

challenge of affordable housing with appropriate services

High cost, difference of demand and supply in developing countries, high cost of land, unplanned housing by people, high cost of finance and high cost of building. Affordable housing is fundamental to the health and well-being of people and to the smooth functioning of economies. Yet around the world, in developing and advanced economies alike, cities are struggling to meet that need. If current trends in urbanization and income growth persist, by 2025 the number of urban households that live in substandard housing—or are so financially stretched by housing costs that they forego other essentials, such as healthcare—could grow to 440 million, from 330 million. This could mean that the global affordable housing gap would affect one in three urban dwellers, about 1.6 billion people.for example. To replace today's inadequate housing and build the additional units needed by 2025 would require $9 trillion to $11 trillion in construction spending alone. With land, the total cost could be $16 trillion. Of this, we estimate that $1 trillion to $3 trillion may have to come from public funding.

holistic definition of development

Holistic development is a process of self-actualization and learning that combines an individual's mental, physical, social, emotional and spiritual growth. The term can be used to describe forms of alternative education that are based on the more humanistic and democratic outlooks. Its premise is that an individual finds purpose and meaning in life through connections to the natural world, the community and through humanitarian values

Cash strapped government and shelter

Homelessness is rising, but the governments are trying to help.MANY come to the centre for homeless families in the world with everything they own—a toddler in one hand, a suitcase in the other. It is the same story all across the USA. San Francisco had to open its winter shelter two months early last year. Louisville, Kentucky, reported an increase of more than 58% in family homelessness in 2008. Although national data on homelessness in 2008 will not become available for several months, most agree that there are "staggering increases", according to Ellen Bassuk, executive director of the National Centre on Family Homelessnes. To help both the homeless and cash-strapped local governments, the federal government has made $1.5 billion available through the stimulus bill, passed in February. The money, which doubles the federal funds available to fight homelessness, is being allocated to cities and states to try to stop the problem occurring. The money will help families pay rent and utility bills, as well as increasing "case-management units" to help people find jobs and get rehoused. The money should be rolled out in the next few months, and cities and states receiving it have been urged to spend it quickly.

household poverty alleviation

Household poverty alleviation can be defined as successfully lessening deprivation of well-being. In this regard, forest-based poverty alleviation (FBPA) is an encompassing term, where forest resources are used either to avoid or to mitigate poverty, or to eliminate poverty, or both. A recent study used a wealth asset index as a proxy forhousehold poverty to compare the percentage of women and men aged 20-59 who live in the lowest wealth quintile of all households. Using this measure, the study found that women are more likely to live in poverty in 41 out of 75 countries with data. Further analysis indicates that in countries where women are overrepresented in the lowest wealth quintile of households, the households are more likely to be headed by women or to have no male adults. This suggests a greater risk of poverty among separated women, widows and single mothers, including self-reported heads of household without a male partner.

household strategies and socialization

Household startegies involve operations within social and economic processes which structure the general condition of social life. Social constrtuctions are logical disgtincti and very with the circumstances. The process of sociallization of with the household startegies aris from from the analysis of social groups which ae the basic unit of social groups. The process of socialization increase activites with a material culture in order to enhane the funtioing of the society.

how urban processes affect surround areas

Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways, such as modifying land surfaces and waterways, introducing foreign species, and altering biogeochemical cycles. Some of these effects are more apparent, such as the reversal of the Chicago River to accommodate the growing pollution levels and trade on the river. Other effects can be more gradual such as the change in global climate due to urbanization.i.g Modification of land and waterways and Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species.

Chinese one-child policy and growth rate in the region

In China, where there were strict controls on rural-urban migration right up to the late 1970s, migration predominates in contemporary urban growth, with an estimated 18 million people moving annually to the country's rapidly expanding hubs of export industry; this is also attributable to low urban fertility, which until recently was the result of an aggressive 'one child' policyThe one-child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population control policy of China. It was introduced between 1978 and 1980 and began to be formally phased out in 2015. The policy allowed many exceptions and ethnic minorities were exempt. In 2007, 36% of China's population was subject to a strict one-child restriction, with an additional 53% being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work

Non state providers of housing services

In Thailand, the eminently successful 'Baan Mankong' (Secure Housing) programme, which seeks to provide 300,000 households in 2,000 slums with improved housing and living conditions and secure tenure, is based on subsidies for infrastructure and loans to community-based savings groups which come from a government agency - the Community Organisations Development Institute (CODI) - which explicitly supports community-driven slumupgrading and new housing initiatives spearheaded by the poor themselves.In some instances, inspiring examples of 'community drivendevelopment'(CDD) in individual countries have led to international initiatives such as the network of community-based housing groups represented by Shack/ Slum Dwellers International (SDI), founded in 1996, which fosters interchange on processes and practices in places as far apart as India, South Africa and the Philippines, and works to garner the support of major donors

perpetuate gender disadvantage in the future

In developing countries lack of education is making is possible of gender disadvantage for female in the future.

Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRIC economies)

In economics, BRIC is a grouping acronym that refers to the countries of Brazil, Russia, India and China, which are all deemed to be at a similar stage of newly advanced economic development. It is typically rendered as "the BRICs" or "the BRIC countries" or "the BRIC economies" or alternatively as the "Big Four. The rise of the BRIC economies,particularly China, has intensified pressures to reform in IMF.

high levels of urban primacy in sub-Saharan Africa

In most african countries the degree of urban primacy has tended to increase in recent years with the capital city growing faster then the majority of urban centers in each country accountiy of increasing share of total urban population and economic activity. Sub-Saharan Africa continues to have the highest prevalence of slum conditions of all regions, estimated at 55 per cent in 2014. However, this represents a decline of almost 10 percentage points in prevalence since 2000. On the other hand, the proportion of the urban population living in slums continues to grow in countries affected by or emerging from conflict. Iraq, for example, experienced an increase of more than 60 per cent between 2000 and 201

Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs)

In order to secure debt relief, a country must put in place a Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) in the form, first, of an Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and subsequently a full PRSP. PRSPs provide lending organizations, like the World Bank and the IMF, assurance that aid receiving countries will utilize aid to pursue development outcomes that have been elaborated in the PRSPs and approved by lenders. The IMF specifies that the PRSP should be formulated according to five core principles First, it should be country-driven, meaning that country ownership of the strategy should be culminated through broad-based participation of civil society It should also be result-oriented by focusing on outcomes that will benefit the poor, comprehensive in exploring and understanding the multidimensional nature of poverty, partnership-oriented by involving development partners such as the government, domestic stakeholders, and external donors, and the development of the PRSP should be based on a long-term perspective geared towards reducing poverty These core principles are central to the goals of the PRS process

1980s international debt crisis

In the 1980s, the world experienced a debt crisis in which highly indebted Latin America and other developing regions were unable to repay the debt, asking for help. The problem exploded in August 1982 as Mexico declared inability to service its international debt, and the similar problem quickly spread to the rest of the world. To counter this, macroeconomic tightening and "structural adjustment" (liberalization and privatization) were administered, often through the conditionality of the IMF and the World Bank. This crisis involved long-term commercial bank debt which was accumulated in the public sector (including debt owed by SOEs and guaranteed by the government). The governments of developing countries were unable to repay the debt, so financial rescue operations became necessary.The near-zero real rates of interest on short-term loans along with world economic expansion made this situation tenable

Cairo moved away from net-malthusian stance

In the Cairo conference totally new questions were considered as women empowerment and poverty were focused. A new holistic approach was used and the consense have the essense of moving away from the modified Malthus approach which structure the society as the property per se. In the lead-up to the 1994 Cairo Conference, feminist groups in the South and North argued for a fundamental rethinking of population programmes to shift the focus away from fertility regulation to the empowerment of women. They argued for the need to explicitly recognise women's sexual and reproductive rights. {'neoMalthusian' approach which, in the main, sought to control/limit [some] women's fertility during 1980s conference}

relative control over women exerted by families and kin

In the joint family set-up, the workload is shared among the members, often unequally. The roles of women are often restricted to housewives and this usually involves cooking, cleaning, and organizing for the entire family. The patriarch of the family (often the oldest male member) lays down the rules and arbitrates disputes. Other senior members of the household babysit infants in case their mother is working. Older women exerted substantial authority and control over children and adolescents, the most powerless sector within a household.

Historical origins of neoliberalism

In the late 1970s to mid-1980s, it became apparent that a substantial number of third world countries would be unable to continue making payments on their debts to commercial banks in wealthier developed countries. an economic recession began as inflation rates rose throughout the world. It was feared that if many countries defaulted on their loans, the entire global financial system would collapse. This major crisis and potential collapse was averted by the intervention of major financial institutions such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

increase in average age national population

In the near future, virtually all countries will face population ageing, although at varying levels of intensity and in different time frames. Although only 8 per cent of the population of the Global South is presently over 60 years of age (compared with around 25 per cent in the North), in many countries, the number of people who are over 60 is growing substantially. By the year 2025, it is estimated that one-eighth of the population in developing regions will be aged 60 or more.

'Third World' usage due to inertia

In the post-Cold War environment, Third World became a way to refer to the most impoverished countries and regions of the world, serving as a blanket term for characterizing the political and economic life of Latin America, Africa and Asia. It has also began to operate as a shorthand for extreme destitution in otherwise affluent countries; the U.S. has often been described as containing bits of the Third World because of its failures in health care or exceptional wealth inequality.The term Third World is no longer fashionable due to a growing consensus that the category is neither accurate nor socially appropriate for the 21st century. The term First World provides a veneer of primacy and superiority for countries slowly declining in power unable to provide material abundance for significant portions of their population, and plagued by their own unique maladies. What is to be made of emerging economies like Brazil and India, which both host enormous populations of poor people but are also the site of a new middle class and are key players in the global production of goods and services? If First World countries have Third World qualities and Third World countries have First World qualities, we'd be better served by a term that captures how countries can be different, but not quite a world apart.

old age and vulnerability to unemployment

Inability of old age people to fulfll their bsic needs due to lack of financial resources. nstead, specific public policy priorities are required for promoting the quality of life and well-being of older people: Norway and Sweden for instance progressively invested in education, health care, employment and training, and social security throughout the life course long before they became "high income countries". Likewise, the introduction of good practices in middle-income countries such as Mauritius and Sri Lanka is relevant to countries at a similar stage of economic development and to emerging economies. In Sri Lanka, long-term investments in education and health have generated a cumulative lifetime advantage for many older people, offering lessons to other South Asian countries such as India and Pakistan. In Mauritius, on the other hand, nearly all the over 60s receive a non-contributory pension, which offers lessons for Africa in providing income security for older people.

old age and vulnerability to poverty

Inability of old age people to fulfll their bsic needs due to lack of financial resources.The strengthening of social protection is required, but must be undertaken with the two interventions mentioned above. Recently, many countries have placed a strong emphasis on basic non-contributory social pensions, which have helped attain income security for older people.

inter-urban migration

Interurban migration shows the movement of people between the census metropolitan area (CMA) and other cities within the province. If the figure is positive, it refers to people moving from other cities within the province to settle in the metropolis.

Intra-regional differences of urbanization

Intra-regional means with the same region. There are many differences of Intra-reginal differences of Urbanization due to population, rate of migration, then funding, governance, planning, sectoral policies, and the shape, or pattern, of urbanization, both across the nation as a whole and within cities themselve cause difference in ubanization

owner-occupied housing in the South

Irregular settlements are referred to popularly as 'shanty towns', and have long housed the majority of the urban population in most parts of the Global South.Irregular or self-help settlements may be divided into two main types: a. Squatter settlements. These occur as a result of invasions on private or publicly owned land. b. Low-income or clandestine sub-divisions. Here the poor buy cheap land which is sold off illegally, usually without services, by landowners who lack authorisation to sell for low-income housing development. Thus settlements are illegal or clandestine because they do not comply with planning regulations: they lack official permission and fail to comply with minimum norms of servicing and building standards.In many cases the only land available to the poor is that which is not being used for other purposes. As such, it may be peripherally located (whether physically distant or beyond the reach of existing transport and service networks) and/or on land liable to geological or environmental hazard, such as hillsides, ravines, river banks or railway sidings

Dependency explanation of inequalities in development

It believes that development of the core (the West) depends on the exploitation and active underdevelopment of the periphery (Latin America). In the past, colonialism allowed wealthy countries to plunder their colonies for material benefits—raw materials like rubber, sugar, and slave labor. Today, poor countries have taken enormous loans from wealthy countries in order to stay afloat. Paying off the compound interest from this debt prevents them from investing resources into their own country. Foreign trade gets in the way of local governments' ability to improve the living conditions of their people by encouraging the export of food and other raw materials to wealthy consumer markets.

Dependency definition of development

It was in the interests of capitalism to keep the 'backward world' as an 'indispensable hinterland' to provide valuable raw materials and economic opportunities for the First World. Satellites experience their greatest economic development when their ties with their metropolis are cut. They suggested that the state should intervene in the economy through protectionism and import substitution industrialization (ISI) by which the import of consumption goods from the West could be replaced by domestic production

development organizations implementing gender and development policies

It will also introduce new institutional mechanisms for increasing and improving ADB's performance and activities directed at improving the status of women.The GAD policy marked a shift from targeted interventions in selected sectors, mainly the social sectors, to a gender mainstreaming approach recognizing gender as a cross-cutting issue influencing all development activities.The policy requires a full review of implementation experience after 5 years. The review, which commenced in 2004, includes desk studies, rapid gender assessments of selected loans under implementation, consultations with and technical inputs from ADB's External Forum on GAD, and selective consultations with developing member country (DMC) officials and ADB staff.

life-time gender differences

Life-time difference in gender observed men live less than women and average life time of menis less than women. Women's life span depends on the balance of two forces, according to Thomas Perls, a geriatrician at Harvard Medical School. One is the evolutionary drive to pass on her genes, the other is the need to stay healthy enough to rear as many children as possible. "Menopause draws the line between the two," Perls says. It protects older women from the risks of bearing children late in life, and lets them live long enough to take care of their children and grandchildren.mortality gap varies during other stages of life. Between ages 15 and 24 years, men are four to five times more likely to die than womenAfter age 24, the difference between male and female mortality narrows until late middle age. In the 55- to 64-year-old range, more men than women die, due mainly to heart disease, suicide, car accidents, and illnesses related to smoking and alcohol use.

Are MDGs well-specified and monitored

MDGS are not well specified and monitored because many of the goals are not achieved till 2015. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon links the lack of progress to 'unmet commitments, inadequate resources, lack of focus and accountability, and insufficient interest in sustainable development'. The MDGs cannot be fully met because of how the goals were designed. the goals 'overambitious' or 'unrealistic' and believe the MDGs ignore the limited local capacities, particularly missing governance capabilities.The lack of clear guidance on policy changes or how the goals ought to be achieved.

gender in migrant selectivity

Males: Often dominant international migrations. Once established, try to bring in a wife. Females: Often dominate rural to urban migrations. Find jobs as domestic help or in new factories. Send remittances back home. Filipino females 17-30 to Hong Kong and Japan

Gender issues specific to men

Men also face gender-specific issues such as lower life expectancy, bad health, lower education levels and rigid gender norms.

Metropolitan expansion in Asian

Metropolitian means large city, its surrounding suburbs, and other neighboring communities. he Asia Pacific region, where the 100 largest metro economies accounted for 29 percent of global GDP growth in 2014. They are some of the fastest-growing economies in the world, registering 3.5 percent output growth, 2.6 percent GDP per capita growth, and 1.5 percent employment growth in 2014, outpacing global averages.Almost 200 million people moved to urban areas in East Asia from 2000-2010 - a figure that would be the world's sixth-largest population for any single country.Indonesia has the second-largest urban population in East Asia after China - 94 million people in 2010, an increase of 28 million since 2000.

SAPs in Mexico

Mexico is in the throes of an economic and social crisis following twelve years of adherence to "structural adjustment" programs imposed by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United States Treasury.Over 50 percent of all Mexicans live in poverty.More than a quarter of a million workers lost their jobs in past two months. There has been a sharp decline in real wages, further exacerbated by the current economic crisis. Government bars free wage negotiation.Economic policies are the cause of the Chiapas uprising.he Mexican government has implemented virtually all of the adjustment policies promoted by the World Bank and the IMF: a reduction in public expenditures; elimination and/or targeting of subsidies; tax reform; restriction of credit; privatization of most state enterprises; trade liberalization; devaluation; removal of barriers to foreign investment; and "competitive" wages. Privatization and deregulation have contributed to a steep concentration of income and wealth, a trend which runs counter to the imperative of creating a strong domestic market as a factor in ensuring sustained economic growth.

migration and population growth

Migration affects not only the size of the population but also its composition. A key question widely debated in policy circles, particularly at the international level, is whether migration is a possible solution to the economic and social challenges associated with population ageing and decline - i.e. the sustainability of pension systems, the provision of long-term care for older people, labour and skill shortages, higher labour cost, a decrease of the relative influence in the global economy. Although the UK population is projected to age more slowly than most other European countries over the next decades (Matheson 2010), the continuation of positive net migration flows at about the current levels would only partly slow down population ageing. The contribution of net migration in mitigating demographic ageing decreases if projections are carried forward beyond 2050 because larger numbers of immigrants are found among the older population (for a more detailed discussion of immigration and ageing.

Millennium Summit of 2000

Millennium Summit on 8 September 2000, the largest-ever gathering of world leaders. The Declaration was the main document of the Summit and it contained a statement of values, principles and objectives for the international agenda for the twenty-first century. It also set deadlines for many collective actions.The Summit Declaration cited freedom, equality (of individuals and nations), solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature and shared responsibility as six values fundamental to international relations for the twenty-first century. The Declaration reaffirmed Member States' faith in the United Nations and its Charter as indispensable for a more peaceful, prosperous and just world. The collective responsibility of the governments of the world to uphold human dignity, equality and equity is recognized, as is the duty of world leaders to all people, and especially children and the most vulnerable..

Modernization influenced policies

Modernization policies refer the processes of transformation from traditional or underdeveloped societies to modern societies. In the words of one of the major proponents, "Historically, modernization is the process of change towards those types of social, economic, and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and North America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have then spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South American, Asian, and African continents" . Examples are as modernization theory has been one of the major perspectives in the sociology of national development and underdevelopment since the 1950s. Primary attention has focused on ways in which past and present premodern societies become modern (i.e., Westernized) through processes of economic growth and change in social, political, and cultural structures.

Outline modernization theory

Modernization theory is not a "proper" theory with explanatory claims, but rather a loosely defined approach to examining the processes of social change and the development of societies. It aims to answer the question of why inequality between nations persists, and offers blueprints for "development" along the "scientific-industrial lines pioneered by the West" (Adas, 2003, p. 36). Flourishing between the mid-1950s and mid-1960s in the United States, the modernization theory developed under the influence of scholars such as Walt Whitman Rostow, Bert Hoselitz, Daniel Lerner, Seymour Martin Lipset, Neil Smelser, David McCleeland, and others.

households and communities and housing shortages

More communities with housing shortages, particularly those lacking affordable housing, could greatly benefit from adopting practical zoning changes..."Accessory apartments aren't some fad that arose last week at a new-urbanism conference. They're part of a long tradition of modest apartments and multigenerational homes that predate the post-World War II boom in single-family suburban homes. And if "granny flats" — or "aunt haunts" or "nephew nooks" or even "total stranger studios" — provide suitable, cost-efficient quarters for more people, we need a lot more of them

Neo-liberal approach to development

Neo-liberalism emerged as a set of economic policies to replace Keynesianism and became widespread following the 1973 oil crisis. the liberalization of trade and financial regulations and privatization of many government enterprises in order to secure loans and lower interest rates. Remove State from control, regulation, and ownership of economic system. ts advocates support extensive economic liberalization policies such as privatization, fiscal austerity, deregulation, free trade, and reductions in government spending in order to enhance the role of the private sector in the economy. Neoliberalism is famously associated with the economic policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan in the United States

Neoliberal approach to international trade

Neoliberalism (or sometimes neo-liberalism) is a term which has been used since the 1950s, but became more prevalent in its current meaning in the 1970s and 80s by scholars in a wide variety of social sciences and critics primarily in reference to the resurgence of 19th century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism. Its advocates support extensive economic liberalization policies such as privatization, fiscal austerity, deregulation, free trade, and reductions in government spending in order to enhance the role of the private sector in the Examples are as classical liberalism , socialist planning and social market economy. This was ensured first through GATT (the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), established in 1947 as a multilateral forum for free trade negotiations, and then through its successor, the World Trade Organization (WTO), founded in 1995. Essentially the WTO promotes a neoliberal world order that incorporates free trade, opening markets across the world and encouraging export-led growth. globally, in 2010 the industrial sector represented only 24.4 per cent of total global employment (compared with 44.9 per cent for services and 30.4 per cent for agriculture). This proportion has risen over 10 years: in 2000 just 21.6 per cent of global employment was in the industrial sector. There are also some important regional variations, with Sub-Saharan Africa having the smallest industrial sector, representing only 8.6 per cent of the total employment in 2013 (a slight decline from 8.8 per cent in 2006). Beyond Eastern and Central Europe, the highest sectoral share for industry was in East Asia and the Pacific where it represented 26.4 per cent in 2010 (an increase from 22.0 per cent in 2000), followed by 25.8 per cent in the Middle East and North Africa, 22.4 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 22.4 per cent in South Asia

Neoliberal: market distortion of Fair Trade

Neoliberalism advocates support extensive economic liberalization policies such as privatization, fiscal austerity, deregulation, free trade, and reductions in government spending in order to enhance the role of the private sector in the economy. From the neoliberal prespective restrcited (managed trade) arrangements lead to market inefficencies, market distortions, rent seeking and politicization

power of the market and neoliberalism

Neoliberalism ideology and policy model that emphasizes the value of free market competition. it is most commonly associated with laissez-faire economics. In particular, neoliberalism is often characterized in terms of its belief in sustained economic growth as the means to achieve human progress, its confidence in free markets as the most-efficient allocation of resources, its emphasis on minimal state intervention in economic and social affairs, and its commitment to the freedom of trade and capital.

free trade and neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is promoted as the mechanism for global trade and investment supposedly for all nations to prosper and develop fairly and equitably. Neoliberalism is about making trade between nations easier. It is about freer movement of goods, resources and enterprises in a bid to always find cheaper resources, to maximize profits and efficiency.

Neoliberal definition of development

Neoliberals therefore argue that the lack of development in the South is due to the incorrect development policies of governments and an over-concentration on domestic markets rather than the global marketplace. The central proposals of neoliberalism are to permit free markets to flourish, privatize state-owned enterprises, promote free trade and expansion, welcome foreign investors and eliminate government regulations and protectionism. Other similarities to modernization include viewing tradition, together with the perceived new risks, such as monopolies, corruption and state regulation, as obstacles to development; problems in the South as internal rather than external; and the equation of economic growth with development in general.

diverse household types

Nuclear household:Couple and their biological children, Extended household:Household which, in addition to one or both parents and children, comprises other blood relatives or in-laws. May be male- or female-headed, laterally or vertically extended, and/or multi-generational. Nuclear-compound household:Arrangement where two or more related households share the same living space (e.g. dwelling or land plot), but operate separate household budgets and daily reproductive functions such as cooking and eating.Single-sex household:Consists of household in which the senior members are of one sex only (e.g. as is common among Ga and Asante in Ghana, where women live with female kin, daughters and infant sons).Non-family/non-kin household:Consists of household in which members are unrelated by blood or marriage (e.g. where workmates share accommodation). Semi-family household:Households which comprise related members and nonrelated members, as in situations where households have live-in domestic servants or apprentices.Couple household:Households comprising a married or co-resident couple.Lone/single person household:Woman or man living alone.Grandmother-headed household:Grandmother and her grandchildren, but without intermediate generation.Blended/stepfamily household:Household in which one or both partners in a couple is not the biological parent of one or more co-resident children.Child-headed household:Households in which minors occupy positions of headship usually due to being orphaned by parents who have died of AIDS or as a result of civil or military conflict.

age in migrant selectivity

One age group is dominant in a particular migration. International migration tends to involve younger people. The dominant group is between 25 and 45:Peak age of immigrants is 26.Studies and retirement are also age-specific migrations :Emergence of international retirement migration

Rostov and modernization theory

One of the most influential—if short-lived—articulations of the modernization theory was advanced by American economic historian Walt Whitman Rostow in his "non-communist manifesto" (1990), in which he argues that "take-off" toward modernity is achievable for the underdeveloped nations through the spread of modern economic organization and technology. Rostow's ideas were influential beyond the academic circles, since he served as the Kennedy administration's deputy special assistant to the president for national security affairs in the late 1950s. His ideas resonated in the wide-sweeping policies implemented during Kennedy's "Decade of Development," including increased US foreign aid to developing nations, military assistance, and overall emphasis on modernization (Haefele, 2003).

Limited consultation of PRSPs

Only a few stakeholders have been consulted and these consultations have rarely consisted of genuine dialogues. The PRSPs reflect these voices in only very limited ways. Despite being heavily criticised by civil society as a superficial consultation rather than genuine participation, the efforts at broader participation have had one highly significant spin off. In Tanzania in particular, where the whole process took only seven months, the undue speed had a marked effect on the initial participation and consultation processes. Governments often conduct dialogues on policy simply in order to release HIPC funds, rather than from a genuine commitment to bringing the voices of poor people into policy-making.

Different patterns of urbanization

Only about 30% of the world's population lived in urban areas in 1950.The proportion rose to ~50% by 2007. Projected urban share of global population in 2030 is ~60% . There are enormous differences in the pattern of urbanization between regions and even greater variation in the level and speed with which individual countries or indeed individual cities within regions are growing. Latin America, for example, is far more urbanized than Africa or Asia. The level of urbanization in Latin America-around 76 percent-already matches that of North America as well as many European countries. Consequently, the rate of urbanization in Latin America is quite slow. Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Chile, for example, are all well over 80 percent urban while levels of urbanization are somewhat lower in most of Central America and the Caribbean.

environmental aspects of production

Orthodox development theorists base their understanding of development in partly economic terms, on the teaching of how Britain developed during the Industrial Revolution. They argue that capitalism and the free market are the only real way to sustain economic growth. Rostow (1960) articulated that underdeveloped countries were 'backward' and destined to 'modernise' and become like the West through an emphasis on technological advancement. 'Modernisation' as it is known. This notion of development in purely economic terms (indeed orthodox theorists often measure developed purely using Gross Domestic Product per person) causes problems for the environment. This is because, as modernisation is the base of liberal economic theory, the environment is seen as a commodity - a tool for commodification that will help free companies

persistent poverty and rising inequality

Paul Krugman said, "the main cause of persistent poverty now is high inequality of market income" income inequality is the largest poverty-increasing factor. Vicious circle of poverty: low income,low savings, , low investment, low productivity. examples of high income inequality and persistent poverty is Pakistan, India, Sudan.

how to improve gender sensitivity of policy for the elderly

Pension, free helath care, care services and Social Security and Medicare, and other welfare programm are helpful for female

feminization of sex ratio among 60/65+ cohort, 80+ 'older old'

Percentage of older population by age and sex. most migration streams have been gender-differentiated, this has led to localised imbalances in proportions of women and men; where 'sex ratios' are strongly feminine, it is more likely that female household headship will be found. for example, men in Sub-Saharan Africa have traditionally predominated in rural-urban migration, leaving women heading households in the countryside. In Latin America and Southeast Asia, by contrast, the lure of jobs for women in towns, such as in industry and domestic service, has given rise to female-selective urban movement. In these regions, womenheaded households occur more frequently in urban than in rural areas

SAPs and rural/urban poor

Policies and variables which might influence poverty and income distribution include currency devaluation, reductions in the budget deficit and changes in growth rates, inflation rates and interest rates. Some argue that economic growth of a country has a direct influence on poverty as gains achieved via growth would trickle down and benefit the poor leading to a reduction in poverty. Access to domestic credit affects poverty and income distribution as well. Increased interest rates or bank reserve requirements as well as imposed credit ceilings will reduce access to domestic credit and will make it easier for large companies to get credits in contrast to small and medium-sized firms. Generally the urban sector is favored over the rural sector. SAPs is the amjor cause of povert as the examples of various devloping countries like Chile, Ghana and Zibabwe.

greater share of population in 60+ or 65+

Population ages 65 and above as a percentage of the total population. Population is based on the de facto definition of population, which counts all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship--except for refugees not permanently settled in the country of asylum, who are generally considered part of the population of the country of origin. Means that alarge proportion of country's population is aged 65 or above.In turn, given its share of the global population, the South already contains 50 per cent of over 60 year olds, and by the year 2025 this is expected to have risen to 70 per centPopulation ageing is a phenomenon that occurs when the median age of a country or region rises due to rising life expectancy and/or declining fertility rates. There has been, initially in the more economically developed countries (MEDC) but also more recently in less economically developed countries (LEDC), an increase in life expectancy which causes the ageing of populations.

Balance between services for the young and old

Population aging is inevitable. In countries where fertility is high, large numbers of children will eventually enter the labour force and expect to earn a living. In other countries, declining fertility rates coupled with longer life spans will lead to elderly populations growing faster than other age groups. the world's developed countries have faced problems associated with population aging, such as increased healthcare and pension costs. Now large groups of workers in developing countries, especially in Asia and Latin America, are also starting to reach retirement age.NTA analyzes people's economic "deficit" and "surplus" years. The young and the elderly run a deficit as they consume more than they earn. Those in between make up the difference because they earn more than they spen.The Philippines, for example, is still a relatively young country, but is beginning to age. Elderly Filipinos now represent 5% of the population but will account for 12% by 2040. As the number of elderly grows, the government will have to support them more, says Michael M. Abrigo, a researcher at the Philippines Institute for Development Studies. NTA research is important because it helps governments weight the needs of different age groups when designing policies to protect the most vulnerable generations,

population trends and female headship

Population growth and female headship are nnegetively related as more female are the head of house less children they have, this is so because of the reaons behind the female headship increase in the society (divoce, widow, marital instability, man out for work etc)

SAPs in Ghana

Population growth in Ghana was largely in line with the rest of the region, well above the low-income average. Gross economic mismanagement during the 1970s led to an exchange rate that was almost 1000% overvalued and thus "not so much wrong as irrelevant to economic calculation". In 1983 The standard structural adjustment reform package was proclaimed by the government, including a maxi-devaluation, fiscal austerity and tight money. Crowding out of the public by the private sector was seen as the critical impediment, and little attention went to exploring what was required to make sure the private sector would indeed respond

What is Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs)

Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) are prepared by the member countries through a participatory process involving domestic stakeholders as well as eng development partners, including the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Updated every three years with annual progress reports, PRSPs describe the country's macroeconomic, structural and social policies and programs over a three year or longer horizon to promote broad-based growth and reduce poverty, as well as associated eng financing needs and major sources of financing. Interim PRSPs (I-PRSPs) summarize the current knowledge and analysis of a country's poverty situation, describe the existing poverty reduction strategy, and lay out the process for producing a fully developed PRSP in a participatory fashion. The country documents, along with the accompanying IMF/World Bank Joint Staff Assessments (JSAs), are being made available on the World Bank and IMF websites by agreement with the member country as a service to users of the World Bank and IMF websites.

History of PRSP

Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) were introduced in 1999 by the World Bank and the IMF as a new framework to enhance domestic accountability for poverty reduction reform efforts; a means to enhance the coordination of development assistance between governments and development partners; and a precondition or access to debt relief and concessional financing from both institutions' HIPC Initiative.

Poverty-alleviation focus of development in late 20th, early 21st century

Poverty allivation is a big focus from the late 20th century when in the UN conference 1993 UN set the goal for Poverty allivationa and started its first decade (1997-2006) then in the 2000 (Millinium summit) eradication of poverty is included in the MDGs then this summit was followed by world summit in 2005 and agian its was focused.

psychological well-being

Poverty also figures prominently in another conventional wisdom which seems to be perniciously attached to female-headed households, namely the 'inter-generational transmission of disadvantage', whereby children are regarded as suffering as a result of being raised by women singlehandedly. Alongside poverty, psychological problems emanating from 'father absence', lack of maternal attention, limited parental discipline and so on are deemed to lead to a cumulatively downward spiral of insecurity, poverty and family instability. Mental health problems also seem to be found most frequently among low-income populations. While mental health conditions can clearly occur as a result of individual heredity, genetic malfunction, ageing and so on, the contexts in which people live and work also play a critical role. One survey carried out in São Paulo in the early 1990s,for example, revealed that the incidence of mental disorders was highest in the poorest socio-economic sub-district (at 21 per cent), and lowest (12 per cent) in the highest income area. Research also suggests that mental infirmity is on the increase, with Latin America's rate of neuropsychiatric disorders now being 10.2 per 100,000 persons, which is 56 per cent higher than the world average of 6.5 per 100,000

diverse definition of poverty

Poverty is general scarcity, dearth, or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a multifaceted concept, which includes social, economic, and political elements. Poverty may be defined as either absolute or relative. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of means necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. Relative poverty takes into consideration individual social and economic status compared to the rest of society. for example after the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made production goods increasingly less expensive and more accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Responding to basic needs can be restricted by constraints on government's ability to deliver services, such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms and providing financial services

rapid urban growth and housing and service supply

Public perceptions on the desirability of population and urban growth, its real impacts and the role of public policy, have changed dramatically since WW II. Global, national and local concerns increasing address the need to balance urban and rural growth, and uncontrolled development with its detrimental impacts. This includes efforts to preserve open space, shelter, food and fiber production, environmental quality and other aspects of quality of life.

women's domestic responsibilities

Raised children, kept house, looking after other members of house hold, reproduction. Women and girls play an important, largely unpaid, role in generating family income, by providing labour for planting, weeding, harvesting and threshing crops, and processing produce for sale. Usually they are responsible for taking care of smaller animals.In most societies rural women have also the primary responsibility for maintaining the household. They raise children, grow and prepare food, manage poultry, and collect fuel wood and water.

lack of rationalization barrier to growth

Rationalize means to justify by developing a rationale, or a set of reasons for something. You couldrationalize cutting school, saying your classes are boring, but you are still doing what you shouldn't be doing.think rationally; employ logic or reason. Rationalisation measures that lack any preventive focus on work environment most often lead to negative effects for the employees in the form of widespread stress, increased time pressure and unreasonable demands. This may cause poor mental and physical health, for example in the form of anxiety, fatigue and depression and musculo-skeletal disorder. Rationalisation refers to the process of replacing the current values, traditions and emotions of a society, that motivate their current behaviors, with thoughts and actions which appear to be more rational. For example, this could take the form of a Western society attempting to change the cultural traditions and values of a less economically developed country to, in their eyes, benefit them. IF an economy or individual does not chnage hismself like attaining more edcuation, embraceing new technology then he lack behind and results into low growth

male individual consumption

Referes that there are two housholds in the home like man and female.So the solely consumption of male is called man indvidual consumption.Man's recration,personal consumption and transport charges. While in male-headed units, men may spend significant amounts of income on 'non-merit' items such as tobacco and alcohol

Global South and international commerce in agricultural goods

Region included in global south are Africa, Asia& pecific, Latin America and North America. These countries are poor and developing countries and their major exports are agricultural priamry products, and to save their industries they want to imply protection for imports but WTO standards and polcies does not allow them becasue they are of the view that liberalozation trade will benefit the commerece in agriculture because competition in the country will increase. Another important dimension of the need to create a fairer world for people in the Global South has been the emergence of the concept of fair trade, although this refers mainly to the agricultural rather than the industrial sector. This model was developed in the 1970s by Oxfam and other development organisations, focusing mainly on the need to develop fairer terms of trade for small-scale producers who were perceived as being unable to compete with large TNCs and the host of 'middlemen' involved in exporting primary products such as coffee, bananas and handicraft

Men's role in women's livelihoods

Rural women's employment prospects are severely limited. Like women everywhere, they have primary responsibility for raising children, preparing food, and taking care of sick family members, plus extra burdens, such as collecting fuel wood. Gender roles reduce rural women's participation in labour markets and confine them to lower paid and more precarious employment in agriculture. As farmers, women grow traditional food crops, while men are more likely to grow cash crops and, therefore, are better positioned to capitalize on new market opportunities. Women farmers face systematic discrimination in access to the resources and services needed to improve their productivity, such as credit, secure land title and education. Gender bias in North Africa and the Near East limits women's use of machinery, such a tractors, which affects the productivity of farms run by women. Women farmers in some countries have established profitable businesses supplying international markets with organic or fair trade produce. But studies show that women can lose income and control as a product moves from the farm to the market - in Uganda, strong urban demand for leafy vegetables led men to take over their cultivation. When off-farm employment is available - for example as farm labourers or in agro-processing - women continue to suffer gender discrimination. In India, the average wage of female farm workers is 30% lower than that of men. As casual or seasonal labourers, they are usually the first to be laid off.

define 'rural-urban migration

Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside to the city. This causes two things to happen: 1. Urban growth - towns and cities are expanding, covering a greater area of land. 2. Urbanisation - an increasing proportion of people living in towns and cities.

secondary poverty

Secondary poverty was the term he coined for those living below his poverty line whose income was sufficient for them to live above the line, but was spent on things other than the necessities of life.Drawing on household survey data, poverty lines estimate a level of income or expenditure to be able to buy sufficient food to satisfy the average nutritional needs of household members. This is called the 'food poverty line' and is used to identify the extremely poor. More commonly, this 'basic basket' of food items is added to an allowance for basic clothing, fuel and rent, to calculate a figure below which a household is said to be living in poverty. Consumption lines are more commonly used than income because people in the South, in particular, are usually more able to identify expenditures than income. Male individual comsumption when income is low impose a scondary poverty on women and children. women face secondary poverty in male headed house.

self-help housing

Self-Help Housing" involves groups of local people bringing back into use empty properties that are in limbo, awaiting decisions about their future use or their redevelopment. It differs from "self-build housing", which involves constructing permanent homes from scratch.Self help housing groups negotiate with the owners of empty properties for their use and then go on to organise whatever repairs are necessary to make them habitable. These are normally groups of people who can't afford to buy their own housing and whose housing needs are such that they will not be offered a permanent tenancy by the local authority or a housing association ( eg all sorts of single people, couples, young people, refugees etc).

inequality between people of different socio-economic status/poverty

Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. Economic inequality, usually described on the basis of the unequal distribution of income or wealth, is a frequently studied type of social inequality. Though the disciplines of economics and sociology generally use different theoretical approaches to examine and explain economic inequality, both fields are actively involved in researching this inequality. However, social and natural resources other than purely economic resources are also unevenly distributed in most societies and may contribute to social status. Norms of allocation can also affect the distribution of rights and privileges, social power, access to public goods such as education or the judicial system, adequate housing, transportation, credit and financial services such as banking and other social goods and services.

Dependency theory and Frederick Engels

Socialism is a politico-economic theory based on the materialist conception of history. Unlike idealist conceptions that history is based on the great ideas and actions of famous individuals (a view held by Bertrand Russell for one), or guided by spiritual forces, or the expression of a grand plan set up by some deity or other materialists believe that the existence of the various institutions and social structures that have developed over time, and by which various groups of humans arrange their social institutions, belief patterns, and social relations are to be understood, in the last analysis, by a study of how they interact to make their daily bread (production) and how they come to distribute what they made to each other (distribution). Thus the causes of the different phases of human development , Engels says, "are to be sought, not in the philosophy but in the economics of each particular epoch."

social under-valuation of women

Socially women work is under-valued, paid less for the same level of efficiency within the same job, employed in jobs or occupations that are themselves undervalued. undervaluation associated with a) women's position in the family- as main carer or economic dependant b) skill as a social not a technical construct- e.g. undervaluation of care work c) exclusion from social networks/ professions Industrial relations: undervaluation associated with a) Variations in trade union bargaining strength and segmented labour markets b) Gender bias in workplace grading systems and payment systems. Despite notable gains by women, significant gaps remain between women and men in the labour market. Women are still less likely to participate in the labour force than men. As of 2015, about 50 per cent of all working-age women (aged 15 and above) are in the labour force, compared to 77 per cent of men. Globally women earn 24 per cent less than men, with the largest disparities found in Southern Asia (33 per cent) and sub-Saharan Africa (30 per cent). Of 92 countries with data on unemployment rates by level of education for 2012-2013, in 78 countries women with advanced education have higher rates of unemployment than men with similar levels of education.

Gender and socio-economic status

Socioeconomic status, a complicated construct in its own right, interacts with and confounds analyses of race/ethnicity and gender. The Academy recommends that research studies include race/ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status as explanatory variables only when data relevant to the underlying social mechanisms have been collected and included in the analyses.socioeconomic status. For example, the social and psychological pressures experienced by an African-American woman might be very different from those experienced by a white woman, with these pressures having differential impact on the long-term trajectory of disease.

International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) of 1994

Some 20,000 delegates from various governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and the media gathered for a discussion of a variety of population issues, including immigration, infant mortality, birth control, family planning, the education of women, and protection for women from unsafe abortion services.the conference delegates achieved consensus on Universal education, Reduction of infant and child mortality,Reduction of maternal mortality, Access to reproductive and sexual health services including family planning:

Chant (2002) analysis of trends of female headship in Latin America

Some of the biggest shifts have been the growing proportions of households headed by women, the rise in single person (predominantly female) households, declining fertility rates, the mounting incidence of divorce and separation, increased tendencies for couples to opt for visiting or consensual unions over formal marriage, and, within households of all types, the expansion of women's participation in income-generating workthe factors deemed to have given rise to contemporary trends in Latin America range from increased access to contraception, demographic ageing, the relaxation of social and legislative restrictions on divorce, the growth and consolidation of women's movements, and the influences of neoliberal economic restructuring.

Men's unwillingness to participate

Some works are typically related to women like nursing but they do not want to adot such professions.

State as enabler through land titling

State hase the right to allocat the aurithy to the citizens to accumulate the property and houses in researved rights.like poccession ,ownership and headship of houses.especially in light of the scaling-down of state bureaucracies and social programmes with structural adjustment, the idea that governments should 'help the poor to help themselves' and be enablers rather than providers of housing has taken a progressively firmer hold over time. There are three main elements in the definition of enabling: a. The public sector should play the biggest role in enabling others. b. All actors involved in the shelter delivery system should be enabled. c. A substantial degree of autonomy should be given to the beneficiaries or users.

SAPs women

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) have dominated African women's concerns because they have been implicated in the rise of poverty, especially of women, in Africa. SAPs, designed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB). the effects of SAPs and the policy climate they create are inimical to the promotion of social programmes and measures to address this issue. The problems of gender relations in Africa have been exacerbated by SAPs in a number of important ways. For example in Tanzania and Nigeria, poor and middle class women are giving up formal employment for informal sector work because it pays better. Export cropping has often not benefited women. Studies in Kenya and Zaire have found that although there is no neat dichotomy between men's cash crops and women's food crops, women farmers are disadvantaged in relation to men because they focus on own food consumption production and have less access to farm support services and crucial inputs.

Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs)

Structural adjustment policies emphasized the market allocation of resources, decreased public sector spending, liberalization, deregulation, and privatization. Within the doctrine of structural adjustment, individuals in a society were viewed as autonomous, rational producers and consumers whose decisions were motivated primarily by economic concerns. Despite the good intentions of many structural adjustment policies, they often propagated more harm than good.Today, structural adjustment is largely regarded as a failure that has not only failed to bring third world countries out of the "poverty trap", but has also resulted in injuries to the poor. The poorest of the poor were often forced further into poverty due to lower incomes, increased inequality, and less access to social services.The essence of SAPs was to reshape the economies of developing countries in favour of the free market, reducing overall government intervention in the economy. While some governments initiated adjustment on its own, most countries did so largely involuntarily as a condition for receiving loans from multilateral institutions, especially the IMF and the World Bank. In practice structural adjustment meant that loans were granted, but with conditions of structural economic reforms attached, known as 'conditionalities'.The overall aim of adjustment programmes was to reduce the balance-of-payments deficit by increasing exports and reducing imports, in conjunction with economic restructuring to allow new growth. SAPs were based firmly on free-market principles, comprising deflation, devaluation, de-control and privatisation.

household strategies vs neo-marxism

Structuration acknowledges the importance of both macro-economic and micro-social processes and has perhaps been best elaborated under the auspices of the 'household strategies approach' which views the organisation of household livelihoods and reproduction as crucial in shaping mobility

costs of state-subsidized accommodation

Subsidized housing is government sponsored economic assistance program aimed towards alleviating housing costs and expenses for people in need with low to moderate incomes. Forms of subsidies include direct housing subsidies, non-profit housing, public housing, rent supplements and some forms of co-operative and private sector housing.

Health costs of illnesses

That poor health can hamper development is evident on a number of counts. In economic terms, for example, perpetual vulnerability to illness reduces individuals' work capacity and productivity, as well as resulting in absences from work. In combination with malnutrition and under-nutrition, this is also clearly 'bad for business'. Where concentrations of people in given areas mean they are likely to contract particular types of disabling disease, such as river blindness (onchocerciasis), for example, this can inhibit the productive use of whole localities. In countries such as Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, otswana, Burundi and Namibia, where large percentages of working adults are afflicted by HIV/AIDS, the national labour supply is massively reduced. On top of this, the absence of available, affordable and effective vaccines and treatments is leading to the situation where AIDS may wipe out development gains when measured in terms of life expectancy at birth. In Botswana, for instance, life expectancy should theoretically be 71 years but as a result of AIDS has dropped to only 36 years

CPA and controversy around abortion

The Cairo Agenda promotes development of universal reproductive services and family planning programs by 2015, including services for adolescents. It encourages nations to provide the means for women to avoid abortion through accessible family planning services and promotes the prevention, detection and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.The document establishes policies and programs that support comprehensive sexual education and services based on the need for individual responsibility, the realities of current behavior, and the prevention of abus

women and housing

The Commission on Human Rights (CHR), by its resolution 2002/49 on women's equal ownership of, access to and control over land and equal rights to own property and to adequate housing, entrusted the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing with the additional task of preparing a study on women and adequate housing.

gender development indicators

The GDI is often considered a "gender-sensitive extension of the HDI". It addresses gender-gaps in life expectancy, education, and incomes. It uses an "inequality aversion" penalty, which creates a development score penalty for gender gaps in any of the categories of the Human Development Index which include life expectancy, adult literacy, school enrollment, and logarithmic transformations of per-capita income. In terms of life expectancy, the GDI assumes that women will live an average of five years longer than men. Additionally, in terms of income, the GDI considers income-gaps in terms of actual earned income.The GDI cannot be used independently from the Human Development Index (HDI) score and so, it cannot be used on its own as an indicator of gender-gaps. Only the gap between the HDI and the GDI can actually be accurately considered; the GDI on its own is not an independent measure of gender-gaps

limited role the governments in the Global South in production

The Global South encompasses a large portion of the countries in the world; however, they only have two major similarities within all the countries: imperialism and underdevelopment. The Global South's share of FDI inflow has increased from 13.8 per cent in 1980 to 44.8 per cent in 2011. East Asia received 14.3 per cent of global FDI and Latin America and the Caribbean 14.2 per cent, while the figure for Africa was 2.8 per cent.while most parts of the world now form part of the global market in terms of exposure to consumption, The fact that many countries and regions i the South are excluded or marginalised from industrialisation, and indeedthat much development agency work deals with the repercussions of this exclusion, suggests that more diverse models of industrialisation need to be considered. While small-scale 'populist' alternatives to industrialisation are often considered utopian and untenable,

Neoliberal approach to modernization

The Godfather of neoliberalism was Milton Friedman he made the case that illegal drugs should be legalised in order to create a free-market drug trade, emphasizes non-intervention from government and generally rejects regulation in markets as inefficient with the exception of central bank regulation of the money supply. Friedrich Hayek is well-known for his numerous contributions in the field of economics and political philosophy. The cycle occurs when the market rate of interest diverges from this natural rate of interest. This causes the structure of the capital stock to become distorted, so that it no longer reflects the desires of savers and investors as expressed in the market. The Washington Consensus is a set of 10 economic policy prescriptions considered to constitute the "standard" reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Treasury Department.Neoliberalism draws on the neo-classical economics of Adam Smith, as well as some elements of modernisation theory of the 1950s. In the 1970s, economics was dominated by Keynesian economics or development economics, which held that the state needed to intervene in the economies of developing countries in order to engender growth and development. The 1980s saw a return to the idea of capitalism as beneficial and the increasing vilification of the state as it was seen to be failing to improve the position of poor countries. Market forces were deemed to be the primary stimulus for growth, with government interventions frequently acting as a hindrance

Replacement of SAPs by PRSs

The IMF in 1999 replaced Structural Adjustments with Poverty Reduction Growth Facility (PRGP) and Policy Framework Papers with Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PSRP) as the new preconditions for loan and debt relief. However, the effect is still the same as the preceding disastrous structural adjustment policies, as the World Development Movement reported. Many civil society organizations are increasing their critique of the PSRPs.[A] senior [World] Bank official described the PRSP-PRGF as a 'compulsory programme, so that those with the money can tell those without the money what they need in order to get the money.'" It would be worth additionally noting the cruel irony that nations that are "those with the money" today have largely accumulated it through plunder via imperialism and colonialism upon those very nations who today are "without the money." Prescribing how to get "the money," in that context, is dubious indeed.

International Labour Organization (ILO)

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency dealing with labour issues, particularly international labour standards, social protection, and work opportunities for all. The ILO has 187 member states: 186 of the 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO. For example in 1969, the organization received the Nobel Peace Prize for improving peace among classes, pursuing decent work and justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other developing nations.

Enforceable regulations for MNC

The OECD´s Guidelines for Multinational Corporations has existed in its present form since 2000. It represents one of several quasi-public efforts to create soft law frameworks for developing a customary consensus and culture of appropriate corporate behavior. One of its unique features is its enforcement procedures. These posit the creation of quasi-judicial organs whose purpose is to apply the Guidelines to the actions of multinational corporations. These panels, national contact points, are constituted whenever there is a complaint lodged. These complaints may be lodged by civil society actors. Recently two panel statements illustrate the growing maturity of this system and suggest the way in which these soft law systems can become effective mechanisms for developing global regulatory cultures of corporate behavior.

Second World' (communist)

The Second World is a Western term referring to the former socialist industrial states (formally the Eastern Bloc), mostly the territory and area under the influence of the Soviet Union. Following World War II, there were nineteen communist states, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, only 5 socialist states remained: China, North Korea, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam. Along with "First World" and "Third World", the term was used to divide the states of Earth into three broad categories.

CPA and hostility to the notion of sexual rights

The Task Force report recommends educational, legal and policy reforms to protect sexual and reproductive rights, end violence against women and girls, criminalize sexual violence, eliminate early and forced marriage and other harmful practices against girls and guarantee equality before the law regardless of sexual orientation and gender identity. Efforts must be strengthened to ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health information, services and education, especially comprehensive sexuality education for all young people. Other critical elements include emergency services for all victims of gender-based violence, the repeal of laws that punish women and girls who have undergone illegal abortion and expanded access to safe abortion.Believe that sexual and reproductive health and rights are fundamental freedoms for all people, and that recognizing and fulfilling those rights is critical to advancing an equitable, just and truly people-centered, sustainable world.

individual poverty alleviation

The World Bank professes that the 'ultimate objective' of its new Strategy for Health, Nutrition and Population Results (2007-15) is to 'improve the health conditions of people in client countries, particularly the poor and the vulnerable, in the context of its overall strategy for poverty alleviation'. Extreme poverty has declined significantly over the last two decades. In 1990, nearly half of the population in the developing world lived on less than $1.25 a day; that proportion dropped to 14 per cent in 2015.

economic sustainability

The ability of an economy to support a defined level of economic production indefinitely. Economic sustainability occurs when a political unit, such as a nation, has the preferred percent of its population below its preferred minimum standard of living level. The percent needs to very low, somwhere around 5% or less, because everyone below the level is suffering, either physically due to poor health or psychologically.

why there are housing shortages in the Global South

The century of cities brings with it great promise, but also great problems. While some countries' rapid urbanization has led to the creation of economic, cultural and political meccas, others have become slums. The greatest wave of urbanization in world history is occurring during our lifetimes, which means that providing quality, affordable shelter for the billions of people streaming into global cities is among the most pressing challenges we face.A study released today by the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) details the extent of the problem and proposes a series of innovative solutions.MGI finds a considerable global housing affordability gap, defined as the difference between the cost of a city's acceptable standard housing and what households can afford to pay for it using no more than 30 percent of their income. The report pegs this gap at $650 billion per year a full one percent of global GDP. As much as $16 trillion will be required to close it by 2025, from a combination of private and public sources.

First world' (capitalist)

The concept of the First World originated during the Cold War and included countries that were generally aligned with or on friendly terms with the United States (including all NATO countries) and were generally identified as non-theocratic democracies with primarily market-based economies. While there is no current consensus on an exact definition of the term, in modern usage, "First World country" generally implies a relatively wealthy, stable and functional non-theocratic democracy with a reasonably well educated population, or just any developed country.

working conditions

The conditions in which an individual or staff works, including but not limited to such things as amenities physical environment, stress and noise levels, degree of safety or danger, and the like.migrants work in exploitative working conditions in the lower and unprotected echelons of Northern labour markets, especially in service sectors such as cleaning and carewo. Women are thought to be more likely to take orders from senior personnel than men, and less prone to form unions and/or organise to demand higher levels of pay and better working conditions. Women are also often 'burnt out' after a few years of tough working conditions and may not be able to return to the factory floor. All this helps managers to avoid redundancy payments that might otherwise be entailed in compulsory dismissals. women are highly exploited as factory workers on the basis of the gender stereotypes noted above, as well as the poor working conditions and low pay that accompany factory employment. ILO focused on improving working conditions and make it less explotive. In Cambodia, the ILO's 'Decent Work' agenda has been pursued through its Better Factories Campaign which 'monitors factories, trains management and workers, and provides guidance and advice on factory improvements that help enterprises preserve profits while respecting workers' rights

price paid to producer/wage paid to the worker

The cost of labor is the sum of all wages paid to employees, as well as the cost of employee benefits and payroll taxes paid by an employer. The cost of labor is broken into direct and indirect costs. Direct costs include wages for the employees physically making a product, like workers on an assembly line. Indirect costs are associated with support labor, such as employees that maintain factory equipment but don't operate the machines themselves. (revenue/ cost= profit)

Neoliberal explanation of inequalities in development

The counter-revolution claimed that limited development was the result of three main causes: 1. an over-extended government and public sector apparatus associated with corruption and inefficiency. 2. a proliferation of state-sponsored distorting economic controls which inhibited the market. 3. the existence of 'traditional' non-market social relations which prevented the commodification of production.

Dependency ratio

The dependency ratio is a measure showing the number of dependents (aged 0-14 and over the age of 65) to the total population (aged 15-64). Also referred to as the "total dependency ratio"dependency. Ageing increases the dependecny ratio as elderly has to depedend on their children.

socio-economic status in migrant selectivity

The economic status refers to migrants' labour market characteristics, their income, and their general economic well-being. Labour market characteristics can cover various topics such as participation, employment and unemployment, hours of work, job tenure, occupation and industry, etc.migrants' socioeconomic conditions represents not only their legal and social incorporation into the host country, but also the health of society itself. Broadly, this dimension refers to the extent to which migrants and their descendants are included into the democratic process, civic organizations and associations of the host country. In addition, this dimension seeks to capture the degree to which there are harmonious intergroup relations.

Shifts in activities of MNCs

The efforts of host governments to maintain control over their own national economies have increasingly restricted the freedom of MNC managers in deploying economic resources. Of equal importance, host governments have often interfered with the autonomous process of MNC strategy formulation, forcing them to bring a shify in their activities. The chnages in activities may come due to any restriction on managerial autonomy or strategic freedom of MNCs.. MNCs has shifted the production process as transfered it to least developed cheap labor countries where taxes are laso minimal

high land speculations

The favorite object of speculation in America before the era of big business was public land. Investors could buy it cheaply in large quantities and withhold it from market, if they had sufficient capital to carry it, until rising prices brought profits.like purchase in less price from one market and sale in the next market on high prices.

differences in size of cities

The first Urban Demographics report showed that there were common patterns in the demographics of city centres, suburbs and hinterlands, but also a great deal of variation between cities. Yet this variation was primarily between city centres, rather than in suburbs or hinterlands. The same trend emerges from the polling responses in the four case study cities, where there was very little difference between the responses given by residents of suburbs and hinterlands and a great deal of variation between city centre residents' responses

UN World conference Mexico City (1984)

The fourth U.N. population conference, held in Mexico City in 1984, was intended to review and appraise the World Population Plan of Action. By 1984, the population in both the developed and the developing world had been appreciably reduced due to the policy-making interventions of national governments in fertility control. Raphael Salas, executive director of UNFPA and Secretary General of the Conference, suggested that the task before the conference was the stabilization of world population with specific time perspectives. On this occasion, the United States stated serious concerns regarding human rights violations, specifically insisting that abortion not be utilized as a method of family planning.

PRSP focus on country-specific policies

The government of each country is supposed to be the leading actor in the PRS process. It decides on the timeframe and design of the PRS process, and is responsible for initiating the participatory process and writing the document, as well as other documents required, such as status and progress reports. However, each country may conduct its PRS process in a different way. Other state institutions such as national parliaments should also participate in the PRS process, as they are the legally voted representatives of their respective country's citizens. The IMF and the Bank have renamed their lending facilities for poorer countries. The IMF has replaced its Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) with the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). The Bank's Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC), a lending instrument designed to support implementation of PRSPs, has been created to complement traditional adjustment loans. In fiscal year 2001/2002, roughtly 40% of World Bank lending was adjustment lending - 30% for poorer countries that get loans from the International Development Association (IDA).

role of the state and urban government in sustainable urbanization

The government should should steer the urban government according to the plan that should serve the purpose of with governance and other development issues including education, health, sustainable enviornment. Governemnt should ensure the flowidity of the markets for land, labor and produts while achieving the economic gains through effective urban planning, investment in core infastrcuture.

living condition of sustainable urbanization

The lives of those living in slums have improved significantly in the last 15 years. Between 2000 and 2014, more than 320 million people gained access to either improved water, improved sanitation, durable housing or less crowded housing conditions, which means that the MDG target was largely surpassed. The proportion of urban population living in slums in the developing regions fell from approximately 39 per cent in 2000 to 30 per cent in 2014. Although the target was met, absolute numbers of urban residents living in slums continue to grow, partly due to accelerating urbanization, population growth and the lack of appropriate land and housing policies. Over 880 million urban residents are estimated to live in slum conditions today, compared to 792 million reported in 2000 and 689 million in 1990.The proportion of urban population living in slums has fallen significantly in almost all regions. The largest declines have taken place in Eastern Asia, South-Eastern Asia and Southern Asia (at least a 12 percentage point drop). In 2015, the regions with the lowest prevalence of slum conditions are Latin America and the Caribbean and Northern Africa. In Northern Africa the proportion of urban slum population declined almost by half, to 11 per cent in 2014 from 20 per cent in 2000. In Latin America and the Caribbean it fell to 20 per cent in 2014 from 29 per cent in 2000. 'global cities', most of which are located in the North, are extremely arge in size, characterised by high densities of skills, infrastructure and investment, and are drivers of economic growth. Indeed, although reactions to urban growth in the South have often been negative, focusing on the 'costs' of unplanned city sprawl such as poverty, unemployment, disease and political volatility, a number of individuals and organisations have sought to dispel the myth of urban biased growth as a 'bad thing'.

fall in death rates in Latin America

The measurement and analysis of mortality are of interest to a number of disciplines and fields of action, including health, demography, social security and social policies as a whole. This broad interest reflects the fact that life is the most highly prized asset for everyone, hence the effort to avoid death and reduce as much as possible its individual and social impact. Mortality is, moreover, an indicator of the health situation and living conditions of the population in a wide variety of areas. death rate in 1999 was 10 per 1000 ppp and in 2006 it was 6 per 1000 ppp.

social connotations of migration for women

The migration of women has always been an important component of international migration. As of 2000, the United Nations Population Division estimates that 49 per cent of all international migrants were women or girls, and that the proportion of women among international migrants had reached 51 per cent in more developed regions. Women often migrate officially as dependent family members of other migrants or to marry someone in another country. Female migrants are, however, increasingly part of flows of migrant workers, moving on their own to become the principal wage earners for their families. Most migrant women move voluntarily, but women and girls are also forced migrants leaving their countries in order to flee conflict, persecution, environmental degradation, natural disasters or other situations that affect their security, livelihood or habitat.The participation of women in migration depends on the social roles of women, their autonomy and capacity to make decisions, their access to resources, and the existing gender stratification in countries of origin and destination.Gender inequality can be a powerful factor leading to migration when women have economic, political and social expectations that cannot be realized in the country of origin. social connotations of migration for men

household strategies vs neoclassical approach

The neoclassical microeconomic theory of migration decision-making posits that migration is an individual choice whereby the rational actor is motivated to move to maximize one's own personal gains, whether in terms of monetary or human capital (Todaro, 1976; Massey et al., 1998). In contrast, the new household economic theory places migration decisions within the context of the household and contends that the family is at the center of migration decision-making. Proponents of this theory argue that migration decisions are rarely made by individual actors but rather by families and households (Stark and Bloom, 1985;Fischer et al., 1997).

household strategies and networking

The network growth is the key component of household startegy it shapes the mechanizims within a communnity giving re-enforcement to a larger political economic system. It invovles multiple level of analysis with various dynamics and prespectives.

Cairo and people-centred reproductive rights approach

The new approach to reproductive health is people-centred, representing a shift from the earlier paradigm which emphasized increasing the number of acceptors of family planning methods. The new paradigm aims to enhance reproductive rights and promote reproductive health, rather than fertility control. That implies, among others, empowering women and having men assume greater responsibility for reproductive health.While precise needs vary from country to country, the report states that globally, reproductive health interventions are most likely to include attention to the issues of family planning, sexually transmitted diseases, and maternal mortality and morbidity. The working group also said that reproductive health should further address such issues as harmful practices, unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, reproductive tract infections, gender- based violence, infertility, malnutrition and anaemia and reproductive tract cancers.

regional differences in patterns of economic globalization

The new globalisation paradigm requires firms to adopt complex strategies intended to optimize multiple trade-offs: between labour costs and temporal proximity to customers; between transportation and inventory costs; among accesses to knowledge sources, to skilled labour and unskilled labour; between commodification of existing products and the need to accelerate product design and time-to-market. New cross-border relationships emerge, reflecting the fact that firms do not seek labour cost advantages alone, but also additional and more value-added local assets, like knowledge, creativity and an entrepreneurial spirit, the flexibility (rather than cost) of labour markets, and the presence of relational and social capital. As a result regional competition increases... It is clear that globalisation trends affect the division of labour of sub-national economies within advanced countries, and that regional economies increasingly compete to grasp the opportunities offered by globalisation. Globalisation is an unavoidable process for regional economies, and all the more so because of its pervasive nature. Globalisation influences emerging and developed, old and new economies, areas specialised in advanced and traditional sectors, and in high and low value-added activities and tasks.

Likely outcomes of the MDGs

The number of people living on less than $1.25 a day has been reduced from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015, although the target of halving the proportion of people suffering from hunger was narrowly missed.Primary school enrolment figures have shown an impressive rise, but the goal of achieving universal primary education has just been missed. The child mortality rate has reduced by more than half over the past 25 years - falling from 90 to 43 deaths per 1,000 live births - but it has failed to meet the MDG target of a drop of two-thirds. Some 2.6 billion people have gained access to improved drinking water since 1990 however, 663 million people across the world still do not have access to improved drinking water.Between 2000 and 2014, overseas development assistance from rich nations to developing countries increased by 66% in real terms.

Neo-Malthusianism and global preoccupation about climate change

The opposing Neo-Malthusian perspective holds that there are severe limits to growth and resource use which are further aggravated by pollution and subsequent resource degradatio. Essentially it argues that, unchecked, population growth will exceed the earth's carrying capacity thereby leading to disaster

SAPs in Chile

The policies implemented initially to face the 1982 crisis was hesitant. In early 1983, the financial sector was nationalized as a way to avoid a major banking crisis, and a number of subsidy schemes favoring debtors were enacted. The decision to subsidize debtors who had borrowed in foreign currency during the period of fixed exchange rates, and to bail out the troubled banks, resulted in heavy Central Bank losses, which contributed to the creation of a huge deficit in publicsector finance. This deficit became one of the underlying causes of the inflation of the early 1990s. Different exchange-rate systems were tried. Policies aimed at restructuring the manufacturing sector. the economy did not show a significant response; unemployment remained extraordinarily high, and the external crisis, which some had expected to represent only a temporary setback, dragged on.

define household headship

The position of head or chief; chief authority; leadership; supremacy in the household.the definition of head of household reflects the stereotype of the man in the household as the person in authority and the bread winner.

Urban poor federations and housing

The relatively recent concept of Federations arose from the realisation the best way for low-income households to acquire better quality housing is for them to organise improvement schemes themselves. The concept is based on people acting together by forming savings groups, often consisting of low income women. Every person has a savings book in which money paid in and out is recorded. Contributions can be as low as a penny per day per person. Such grass-roots organisations are controlled by, and are accountable to, member households. Money is put into a community pool and withdrawn for schemes approved by the community such as the improvement of local housing conditions, local water supplies and drainage, and the construction of public toilets. Communal water taps are allied to a meeting place. Although construction of new homes continues to be important, the emphasis now is on improvement of existing homes. The Federations have legitimacy by being representative and many have tens of thousands of members. When it comes to seeking loans, banks will lend to a co-operative more than an individual.

lack of bureaucratization and growth

The role of bureaucratic authority structures in facilitating economic growth has been a sociological concern since Max Weber's classic contributions of almost 100 years ago. Weber's (1968 [1904-1911]) monumental essays, Economy and Society, argued for the fundamental value of bureaucracy as one of the institutional foundations of capitalist growth. Subsequent comparative historical analysis (e.g. Polanyi 1944) echoed Weber's assertions, but the "bureaucracy as a tool of growth" thesis always had to contend with the historically prior and ideologically powerful "Smithian" view that government, regardless of its organizational form, was the enemy of growth as soon as it went beyond protecting property rights. so Bureaucracy and growth are positive related.

Race to the bottom

The situation in which companies and countries try to compete with each other by cutting wages and living standards for workers, and the production of goods is moved to the place where the wages are lowest and the workers have the fewest rights. a socio-economic phrase which is used to describe government deregulation of the business environment or taxes in order to attract or retain economic activity in their jurisdictions.In Southern Africa, for example, a range of countries have passed legislation in the last 20 years to lower labour standards and restrict union rights in order to attract multinational firms. This 'race to the bottom' has been so intense that in the mid-1990s both Zimbabwe and Namibia actually suspended national labour laws as a means of inducing footloose foreign investment

PRSP consultative process with key stakeholders

The specific consultative process with the key stakeholder of PRSP invovles: 1. inform the population, donoers and key stakeholders of the process, their role in its formulation and concequently enhance their particpiation in the entire process. • All stakeholders within the PRSP process need to ensure that gender is mainstreamed within their own institutions and that gender inequalities are addressed. National governments have conducted consultations in very different ways, but in most cases popular voices have not been heard.

Changes in global economic and political power disrupted 1st 2nd 3rd World grouping

The term "First World" refers to so called developed, capitalist, industrial countries, roughly, a bloc of countries aligned with the United States after World War II, with more or less common political and economic interests: North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australia. thye have high economic and political power in the world politics like US, Japan and Britain. Second World" refers to the former communist-socialist, industrial states, (formerly the Eastern bloc, the territory and sphere of influence of the Union of Soviet Socialists Republic) today: Russia, Eastern Europe (e.g., Poland) and some of the Turk States (e.g., Kazakhstan) as well as China. These coutnries are also improtant for the economic condition in the world and have influence on the world politics.Third World" are all the other countries, today often used to roughly describe the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America.The term Third World includes as well capitalist (e.g., Venezuela) and communist (e.g., North Korea) countries, as very rich (e.g., Saudi Arabia) and very poor (e.g., Mali) countries. someof these countries are startigical important and have political power whihc is utilize by lining with first or second world cocuntries.

Third World' was useful

The term Third World arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO, or the Communist Bloc. The United States, Western European nations and their allies represented the First World, while the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, and their allies represented the Second World.

development is difficult to measure

The term development is one that is difficult to define, and is often based upon the perception of an individual. In the past, countries have been labelled first world, second world and third world countries, with first world being the more developed countries of Northern America, Europe etc., the second world being communist countries such as the former USSR and third world meaning those which are less developed, such as sub-Saharan Africa. Over the years, this terminology has been modified as this terminology may have been offensive or even patronising to countries classes as second and third world, as it assumes that capitalism is the most developed form of government, and other forms such as communism are inferior; this is the opinion of many, but by no means a proven fact. When it was realised that this terminology may be offensive, the terms developed and developing were used. Again, there were issues with this terminology, as it implies that once a country has gained developed status it has finished developing and will develop no further, when, really, countries are developing all the time no matter how developed they are alread

UN World conference Bucharest (1974)

The third U.N. World Population Conference, held in Bucharest in 1974, was composed of representatives of governments rather than scientific experts. The scientific and technological topics had been presented at several symposiums prior to the conference allowing the government delegates to proceed with a more activist agenda through the formulation of a World Population Plan of Action. This pattern of separating the 'experts' from the actual conduct of the conferences while sublimating the demographics and other fields of scientific study to the political machinations of more ideological, international government representatives has continued at subsequent conferences. There were neither scientific nor technical topics on the agenda; the key issue was the adoption of a population plan of action

women's role in social reproduction through domestic roles

The translation of the 1970s feminist movements and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare. Yet this focus was part of the approach pushed forward by advocates of the WID movement, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.

Third World' has never been useful

The underdevelopment of the third world is marked by a number of common traits; distorted and highly dependent economies devoted to producing primary products for the developed world and to provide markets for their finished goods; traditional, rural social structures; high population growth; and widespread poverty. Nevertheless, the third world is sharply differentiated, for it includes countries on various levels of economic development. And despite the poverty of the countryside and the urban shantytowns, the ruling elites of most third world countries are wealthy. This combination of conditions in Asia, Africa, Oceania and Latin America is linked to the absorption of the third world into the international capitalist economy, by way of conquest or indirect domination. The main economic consequence of Western domination was the creation, for the first time in history, of a world market. By setting up throughout the third world sub-economies linked to the West, and by introducing other modern institutions, industrial capitalism disrupted traditional economies and, indeed, societies. This disruption led to underdevelopment.

poor unable to afford housing on formal private market

The urbanization process in developing countries is proceeding at an unprecedented rate. Over the next 25 years, over 109 newcomers, about twice as many as during the past 25 years, will have to be absorbed by the towns and cities and be employed in non-farm occupations. Most of these newcomers will be poor and unskilled. The developing countries are not ready for this task ahead—in terms of attitudes, policies, institutions or resource mobilization.a study by Faranak Miraftab (2001), drawing on a UN Gender and Habitat programme in 16 low-income communities in Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Sri Lanka, Colombia and Costa Rica, found that increasingly high costs of housing relative to people's incomes (owing inter alia to rising competition for urban land, downward raiding by impoverished middle classes and so on) is making home ownership particularly inaccessible to women

SAPs as loan conditionality's

The very nature of "conditionality" oes affect the operations of companies, whether these are publicly-owned or private. Conditionality imposes on the program-country such measures as: the adjustment/devaluation of local currencies and/or floating of hitherto fixed exchange rates; the decontrol of internal price systems as well as external and internal trade flows (trade liberalization); removal of legal restrictions on private entrepreneurship; abolition of state enterprises and monopolies in both production and marketing; reforming of banking policy, including interest rate decontrol; cutting the state budget, including the removal of all consumer subsidies and other social expenditures; and reduction in money supply accompanied by a general public sector wage and salary freeze to control inflation.

Rural Urban divisions in the 'Third World'

The world urban population is expected to increase by 84 per cent by 2050, from 3.4 billion in 2009 to 6.3 billion in 2050. By mid-century the world urban population will likely be the same size as the world's total population was in 2004. Virtually all of the expected growth in the world population will be concentrated in the urban areas of the less developed regions, whose population is projected to increase from 2.5 billion in 2009 to 5.2 billion in 2050. Over the same period, the rural population of the less developed regions is expected to decline from 3.4 billion to 2.9 billion. In the more developed regions, the urban population is projected to increase modestly, from 0.9 billion in 2009 to 1.1 billion in 2050

representation of the elderly in policymaking

The world's elderly population is quickly growing, both in its absolute numbers and in its percentage relative to the younger population—the latter trend known as population aging.Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean are the world's fastest aging regions, with the percent of elderly in both regions projected to double between 2000 and 2030Even sub-Saharan Africa, which has the smallest proportion of elderly and which is aging slower than any other region, is projected to see the absolute size of its older population grow by 2.3 times between 2000 and 2030. Participation seems to have indeed become a democratic method of governance so each part of the population must be given representation in policy because they can better address the problems an dprovide solution based on their experiance. the US has large public programmes for the older population that provide health care, long-term care, and income support.

differences in level of urbanization

There are two measures of the degree of urbanization of a population. The first, urban population, describes the percentage of the total population living in urban areas, as defined by the country. The second measure, rate of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over the given period of time.

Usefulness of 'Third World' for whom?

Third World" country is not a country that simply is primitive, underdeveloped, or poor, as most people think. In fact, a third world country is actually just a country that is not considered a capitalist country (first world) and not considered a communist country (2nd world).This terminology was originally coined just after WWII with the "first world" countries being roughly all the countries that were aligned with the United States after WWII with more or less common political and economic structure (capitalists); the "second world" countries were all those that roughly aligned with the Soviet Union in terms of their political and economic structure (communists and socialists); the "third world" countries were just everybody els

Small scale of certified ethical and fair trade

This model was developed in the 1970s by Oxfam and other development organisations, focusing mainly on the need to develop fairer terms of trade for small-scale producers who were perceived as being unable to compete with large TNCs and the host of 'middlemen' involved in exporting primary products such as coffee, bananas and handicraft. When you buy products with the FAIRTRADE Mark, you support farmers and workers as they work to improve their lives and their communities. The Mark means that the Fairtrade ingredients in the product have been produced by small-scale farmer organisations or plantations that meet Fairtrade social, economic and environmental standards. The standards include protection of workers' rights and the environment, payment of the Fairtrade Minimum Price and an additional Fairtrade Premium to invest in business or community projects. Fairtrade works to benefit small-scale farmers and workers, who are amongst the most marginalised groups globally, through trade rather than aid to enable them to maintain their livelihoods and reach their potential. For certain products, such as coffee, cocoa, cotton and rice, Fairtrade only certifies small-scale farmer organisations. Working through democratic organisations of small-scale farmers, Fairtrade offers rural families the stability of income which enables them to plan for the future.

outline of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger ,To achieve universal primary education , To promote gender quality and empower women,To reduce child mortality, To improve maternal health , To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, To ensure environmental sustainability, To develop a global partnership for development

improve in transport and communication

Today, people in many countries can live and work anywhere they choose, because of improved communication technology and transport. Nowadays we may not only enjoy our talking or meeting through touching one button on a small screen whenever we are and wherever we are,but we also may enjoy our travelling with a variety of means of transport. There is no doubt that the new science and technology are bringing huge changes into our life. Firstly, for the globalization, the time and distance are no longer barriers to the international trade and exchange like teleconferencing as a result of improvement of communication means and transport. Secondly, for education, all kinds of the teaching approaches such as distance learning allow teachers and students to work more efficiently and effectively. Furthermore, for our daily life, people could live or work at any place they are willing to, even miles away from their hometown as they could be back home easily by bus, underground, private car, fairy, flight and so on and stay in touch with their family at any time by the means of communication equipments.

neighbourhood sustainable urbanization

UN-Habitat supports countries to develop urban planning methods and systems to address current urbanization challenges such as population growth, urban sprawl, poverty, inequality, pollution, congestion, as well as urban biodiversity, urban mobility and energy. The proposed approach is based on 5 principles that support the 3 key features of sustainable neighbourhoods and cities: compact, integrated, connected. These principles are:1. Adequate space for streets and an efficient street network 2. High density -at least 15,000 people per km² 3. Mixed land-use 4. Social mix 5. Limited land-use specializatio

Unequal terms of world trade

Under WTO the policy is that all nations should be treated equally in terms of trade but some policies lke MFNs. Then comparative advantage is not a natural endowment; rather, it is created by historical power relations through the exploitation of nations.comparative advantage is not a natural endowment; rather, it is created by historical power relations through the exploitation of nations.

Urban Corridors in Asia

Urban corridor menas urban spread pr unctrolled devlopment of unrban area. A linear 'ribbon' system of urban organization: cities of various sizes linked through transportation and economic axes, often running between major cities. Urban corridors Examples include the industrial corridor developing between Mumbai and Delhi in India; the manufacturing and service industry corridor running from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to the port city of Klang, Gawadar port in Pakistan.

slum clearance

Urban renewal, which is generally called urban regeneration ("regeneration" in the United Kingdom), "revitalization" in the United States, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high density urban land use. Renewal has had both successes and failures. Its modern incarnation began in the late 19th century.in developed nations and experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s under the rubric of reconstruction. The process has had a major impact on many urban landscapes, and has played an important role in the history and demographics of cities around the world. for example urban renewal involves the relocation of businesses, the demolition of structures, the relocation of people, and the use of eminent domain (government purchase of property for public purpose) as a legal instrument to take private property for city-initiated development projects

urbanization and female headship

Urbanisation tends to affect gender roles, relations and inequalities. since the factors responsible for female-headed household (FHH) formation arise through urbanisation. female headship may have positive aspects. FHHs are likely to be less constrained by patriarchal authority at the domestic level and female heads may experience greaterself-esteem, more personal freedom, more flexibility to take on paid work, enhanced control over finances and a reduction or absence of physical and/or emotional abuse.Single parent households, most of which are FHHs also face the difficulties of one adult having to combine income earning with household management and child rearing and this generally means that the parent can only take on part-time, informal jobs with low earnings and few if any fringe benefits. In Costa Rica, for example, female-headed households have long been more common in urban than in rural areas. In 1987, 20.9 per cent of urban households were headed by women versus 13.4 per cent in rural areas, and in 1995, the urban-rural difference was of similar magnitude, at 30.9 per cent versus 20.5 per cent respectively. In turn, there has been a progressively greater concentration of femaleheaded households in towns and cities over time, which partly reflects ongoing processes of urbanisation, but also suggests that female headship is more viable in urban environments. With 57 per cent of all female heads living in urban areas in 1987, by 2003 this had reached 69 per cent (as against 36 per cent and 54 per cent of households in general), and while only one in 3.7 urban households were headed by women in 1987, by 2003 this had reached one in 2.9

lower dependency ratios

Urbanisation, industrialisation and globalisation have often expanded women's opportunities for waged work. This has reduced women's dependency on men and raised their capacity to head households. This trend has been exacerbated by declining male employment, especially at the lower end of the occupational hierarchy. Inability to fulfil social expectations to be family breadwinners appears to be making men in some countries less likely to marry and is also associated with rising rates of conjugal breakdown A common finding from a range of countries is also that female-headed households are more likely to be extended than male-headed units. In instances where other adults are incorporated into the household, this may ease the labour burdens and/or boost the economic situation of female heads such that they may actually enjoy lower dependency ratios (proportions of non-earning to economically active members) and higher per capita incomes than their male counterparts. In Samoa, for example, Rochelle Stewart-Withers (2011) argues that female-headed households have strong familial relationships that afford daily assistance, be this from men as fathers, brothers, uncles or cousins. Accepting that a growing number of elderly people can bring increased problems of dependency, declining birth rates are likely to counter this such that there will actually be a net reduction in dependency ratios (proportion of the economically dependent to the economically active population) over the next 50 years. This is sometimes referred to as a 'demographic dividend' or 'demographic bonus' and is often seen as having favoured the development of 'tiger economies' such as Korea, Singapore and Taiwan over countries such as the Philippines where later reductions in fertility combined with increasing life expectancy have resulted instead in a 'demographic onus'. Yet although falling fertility may help to offset the growing 'burden' of elderly people in developing populations, the Elderly Dependency Ratio is anticipated to increase around three-fold between 2000 and 205

Urban and slum growth rate almost on par in sub-Saharan Africa

Urbanization in Africa has largely been translated into rising slum establishments. According to the UN Population Fund's State of World Population 2007 report, some 72 percent of sub-Saharan Africa's urban population currently lives under slum conditions. proportion of urban population in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) is 32.8%. SSA has the lowest proportion of urban population (32.8%), but the highest proportion of slum dwellers (65%). Sub sahara Africa Urban growth rate is 4.58 percent while the slum growth rate is 4.53 which means both growth rates are almost equal (on par)

define urbanization

Urbanization is a population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change.

rapidity of urbanization

Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behavior whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behavior. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago.w, partly due to accelerating urbanization, population growth and the lack of appropriate land and housing policies. Over 880 million urban residents are estimated to live in slum conditions today, compared to 792 million reported in 2000 and 689 million in 1990.

violence displace populations

Voilence compelled the peple to migrate to the peaceful areas for the empoloyment ,education and residenes.Like thousands of people have to migrated from Pakistan to England ,Kashmir to Pakistan ,India to London and Phlasteen to Europe.

violence threatens productivity and production

Voilence reduces the ways and patterens of productivity and development at every scal and level.the agri and industrial and services all the productivity is reduced due to voilence.

women should be incorporated into mainstream development

WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women's role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations of modernization theory. While previous thinking held that development was a vehicle to advance women, new ideas suggested that development was only made possible by the involvement of women, and rather than being simply passive recipients of development aid, they should be actively involved in development projects. WAD took this thinking a step further and suggested that women have always been an integral part of development, and did not suddenly appear in the 1970s as a result of exogenous development efforts. The WAD approach suggests that there be women-only development projects that were theorized to remove women from the patriarchal hegemony that would exist if women participated in development alongside men in a patriarchal culture, though this concept has been heavily debated by theorists in the field.

Who is paying the costs of MDGs

When the millennium development goals (MDGs) were developed, estimates of their cost were used to argue that rich countries should give more aid. The estimates varied - in 2001, the UN suggested that achieving the goals would cost an extra $61bn. In 2002, the World Bank's chief economist for Africa, Shantayanan Devarajan, argued for $63-$72bn. In 2005, the Millennium Project pushed the figure up again, to between $82 and $152bn

the State and housing shortages

While high-rise apartments, $100 million houses, and luxury condos continue to pop up in major metropolises all over the world, millions of poor people are living in housing that they can't afford. The National Low Income Housing Coalition states that about three-quarters of them are spending more than half their incomes on rent and utilities, a much greater share than what experts say should go to housing to ensure financial stability. People generally shouldn't spend more than 30 percent of their income on rent, according to Fortune and the problem stems from a drastic shortage of cheap and available rental units for extremely poor renters across all cities.

Men's role in domestic violence

While men are responsible for the majority of domestic violence becuase women and children are the main victim of domestic violence, it is important that we recognize the majority of men are not abusive in their relationships. Non-abusive men may not realize it but they have the potential to make an enormous difference in helping to stop domestic violence and sexual assault. Many men will come into contact with domestic violence in their daily lives. This can be through the workplace if they are a magistrate, judge, solicitor, police officer, doctor, nurse, social worker, psychologist, pastor, priest or crisis support worker. Others may come into contact with domestic violence in their personal lives: it might be their neighbour, a friend, a family member or an acquaintance who is affected by domestic violence. T

contribution to income generation

With ageing the contribution to income generation reduced and this is the reason the poverty among the elderly is high in comperision to young people. Ageining reduces the capacity due to diseases the efficency and power to bear the work load. These methods have revealed that the relationship between income and poverty is not straightforward. In a widely cited example from India, N.S. Jodha (1988) notes that people often perceived they were better off when they were able to buy shoes or to reside in separate living quarters from livestock, even at times when incomes had fallen. Another example from urban Jamaica highlighted how 'very, very poor people' were defined as 'blind ladies, beggars, the elderly and those living in shacks' . elderly dependency of some degree is likely, given limited pensions and/or because older people have difficulty securing income-generating work. This is exacerbated by a dearth of institutional care in most countries, and minimal support from health and welfare services (Varley and Blasco, 2000, p.48). Lack of public provision also carries a set of gender implications insofar as caring for older kin tends to fall within the remit of women's domestic and familial roles

relevance of gender to demographic aging

Women are the majority of the older population in virtually all nations and face different circumstances and challenges than men as they age. Older women are more likely to be widowed, to live alone, and to live in poverty. Older women tend to have lower educa-tional attainment, less formal labor force experience, and more family caregiving responsibilities than do older men. This brief examines the demographics that underlie the socioeconomic differences in Developing Countries.Women's longer life expectancy leads to an 'excess' of women in upper age groups. In Mexico, for example, a five to six year differential between male and female life expectancy translates into there being 112 women for every 100 men over the age of 60 (Varley and Blasco, 2000, p.48). In Bolivia, there are 121 women per 100 men aged 60 or over; in Chile, 132; and in Argentina, 135. Among people aged 80 or over, gender imbalances are even greater, at 153 women per 100 men in Bolivia, 188 in Chile, and 199 in Argentina (Cotlear and Tornarolli, 2011) With regard to pensions − accepting that coverage is low in general − women are particularly disadvantaged. For example, in Latin America and the Caribbean men are 30 per cent more likely to have public pensions than women, and in Peru men are five times more likely to have public pensions

younger women implicated in care of elderly and infirm

Women has caring nature and can better provide the nursing and caring services and by nature they are soft hearted so younger women are implicated in care of elderly.

unilateral focus on women in WID

Women in development (WID) is classified as a series of policies used by governments and non-government organizations between the 1970s and 1980s. WID policies promote women's economic empowerment and targeted women as a compartmentalized group of development beneficiaries. This marks a shift from previous development/welfare policies, which often classified women exclusively through their roles as mothers and familial caretakers. Ultimately, WID policies came under heavy feminist critique for being too essentialist, and gave way to a new set of development policies colloquially referred to as gender and development (GAD).

Which institutions are involved with PRSP

World Bank and IMF. The different stakeholders that are supposed to participate in the national PRS-process: It starts with the global role of the IMF and the World Bank and explains their instruments that offer technical and financial support to PRS programmes.

SAPs in Zibawe

Zimbabwe's Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP), launched in 1990, was meant to herald a new era of modernised, competitive, export-led industrialisation. But despite a high-performing economy in its first decade of independence, the country now appears firmly lodged in a quagmire of mounting debt and erratic growth in the wake of five years of ESAP-mandated reforms.n a short time, ESAP's World Bank-inspired reforms has ripped into the existing economic and social infrastructure, shifting the focus of many mass-oriented development social programs away from redistribution towards management of defined and limited, even declining, public resources. Now, as Zimbabweans await the unveiling of a follow-on, second five-year program, rising popular displeasure with ESAP has brought pressure to bear on the government and its international backers for the re-evaluation of what has proven in practice to be a treacherous model of development

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries strategies (HIPC)

a group of 38 developing countries with high levels of poverty and debt overhang which are eligible for special assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. The HIPC Initiative was initiated by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1996, following extensive lobbying by NGOs and other bodies. It provides debt relief and low-interest loans to cancel or reduce external debt repayments to sustainable levels, meaning they can repay debts in a timely fashion in the future.To be considered for the initiative, countries must face an unsustainable debt burden which cannot be managed with traditional means. Assistance is conditional on the national governments of these countries meeting a range of economic management and performance targets and undertaking economic and social reforms. Countries included Afghanistan, Haiti, Ghana,Ethipia, etc.

'unfinished business' from major late twentieth century UN conferences

a report by the Finance and Development Branch of the Development Policy Analysis Division provides an update on financial flows and policy reforms adopted since the 1998 report on the subject. The report identifies the unfinished business of international financial architecture reform, as per the recommendations of the Executive Committee on Economic and Social Affairs.The 59th Annual DPI/NGO Conference, entitled Unfinished Business: Effective Partnerships for Human Security and Sustainable Development, brought together over 1500 Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs) representatives from 62 countries representing nearly 500 organizations. he 58th Annual Conference on how the Millennium Development Goals affect our daily lives. Moving Development Forward: Accountability, Transparency, Equitable Trade Policies". The basic theme of the Panel Discussion was on creating partnerships. "Achieving Financial and Ecological Sustainability"the importance of providing affordable credit and financial education to community-based businesses, dedicated to sustainable, natural resource management in rural areas of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. "Science and Technology for Education" stressed the importance of achieving the Millennium Development Goal of universal primary education

ability to create indicators of development

ability to create indicators of development referes the experts of development economics that all te economic and social indicators like education,health,social standards,GDP and GNP etc.

advances in gender equality and female headship

advances in gender equlity by all countires under the pressure of UN and other developed countries has increased the access of education, helath, food and othe women empowerment programms has increased the number of female houshold headship as female has somehow equal income for same labor so increase in economic conditions has increased the female headship.

advocacy organizations run by the elderly

advocacy groups (also known as pressure groups, lobby groups, campaign groups, interest groups, or special interest groups) use various forms of advocacy in order to influence public opinion and/or policy. They have played and continue to play an important part in the development of political and social system. eldery can play the role efffectively due to the age factor people will respect and communicate with others and experiance will be beneicial for the organization, but with ederly young generation must be involve to mixed their enthusiam with the experiance of eldery

NGOs and development

agency can be subdivided into two categories: humanitarian aid (emergency relief efforts, e.g. in response to natural disasters), and development aid (or foreign aid), aimed at helping countries to achieve long-term sustainable economic growth, with the aim of achieving poverty reduction. Some aid agencies carry out both kinds of aid (e.g. EcoCARE Pacific Trust andADRA), whilst others specialise (e.g. Red Cross, humanitarian aid; War on Want, development aid)

Shift from WID to GAD

analytical and intellectual underpinnings of the shift from WID to GAD (gender and development). Gender is being used by researchers and practitioners in a number of different ways. The theoretical underpinnings and policy implications of two prominent frameworks for gender analysis (and training) the "gender roles framework" and "social relations analysis" are discussed at some length. These frameworks are then linked to two relatively recent sets of literature on gender: the first on gender and efficiency at the macro-economic level, which shares several premises with the gender roles framework, and the second on women's empowerment strategies, which can be seen as the action-oriented outgrowth of social relations analysis.

economic and political limits to sustainable urbanization

as limits a environmental destruction from human settlements impact all communities around the world. However the political and economic structures in place on the global sphere have demonstrated their inadequacies to provide the positive change necessary to achieve sustainable urbanization. Paradoxically, this most global of problems might be best addressed at the local level. For example communities and urban localities are significantly more adaptable to change and are well poised to become engines for a sustainable urban reconfiguration.economic forces in the global realm are paralyzed in producing effective ameliorative change. Conventional political power that has historically been yielded by the nation-states of the world is beginning to make way for a more decentralized power dynamic. Cities are becoming increasingly relevant in the global sphere and may become elements of positive change in the future. In addition, cities are ever expanding as a result of a mass exodus of rural dwellers to urban centres. A political economy of sustainable urbanization, then, entails the understanding that although the scope of concerns related to climate change are global, the solutions and forces for change may in fact be more localized, particularly at the urban level

availability and knowledge of family planning services

because family planning programmes in developing countries have frequently taken the form of 'population control' rather than 'birth control' interventions, they have often met with criticism.Family planning services are defined as "educational, comprehensive medical or social activities which enable individuals, including minors, to determine freely the number and spacing of their children and to select the means by which this may be achieved" Recent studies suggest that use of contraceptives reduces births by almost 230 million every year and family planning remains the major primary prevention strategy for unwanted pregnancies. The rapid reduction of global fertility level in recent years − from a total fertility rate of 4.7 in early 1970s to 2.6 in late 2000s − is predominately credited to increased rates of contraceptive use.One reason noted for the low take-up of family planning among poorer populations in the world is the persistence of high infant and child mortality. In Bangladesh, for example, 33 infants die in every 1,000 live births. This rate is 63 per 1,000 in Mozambique and 67 in the poorest country in the world, Burundi.4 Other documented reasons for resistance to family planning include limited knowledge of, or access to, family planning (sometimes referred to as 'unmet needs'); reluctance to resort to artificial birth control given the risky, unappealing, draconian and/or narrow range of techniques available; preference for traditional methods; religious dictat; the social importance attached to motherhood among women and virility among men; and belief in the welfare gains of large families

community and intra-urban violence

behaviour involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something.strength of emotion or of a destructive natural force.like shouhting,agravation,anger and beating among the socities and comunities,and different political,educational and acadamic groups and officials.

define violence

behaviour involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something.strength of emotion or of a destructive natural force.like shouhting,agravation,anger and beating.

two-way relationships between violence and development

conflict prevention and sustainable development are mutually reinforcing concepts. The relationship between these two concepts has been widely examined in various academic platforms. However, results of these studies and discussions have not been consistent with one another. Although it seems that eliminating the root causes of conflict such as economic and political discrimination could reduce the likelihood of conflict, in some cases the empowerment of previously discriminated group has led to the strengthening of the group militarily and may have given a hope of gaining power through violent or undemocratic way. Because of this anticipation, government in power may not necessarily wish to adopt inclusive economic policy that has been one of the cornerstones of sustainable development. Governments that are currently experiencing domestic conflicts have a huge dilemma: if they adopt inclusive economic, social and political policies and share national wealth with opposing and often violent groups, these groups may become more powerful in the future and impose a threat; but if these governments do not open the doors to political and economic participation of opposition groups, then it seems impossible to eliminate the root causes of these conflicts such as poverty and discrimination.

dimensions of poverty

developed nations poverty is often seen as either a personal or a structural defect, in developing nations the issue of poverty is more profound due to the lack of governmental funds. Some theories on poverty in the developing world focus on cultural characteristics as a retardant of further development. Other theories focus on social and political aspects that perpetuate poverty; perceptions of the poor have a significant impact on the design and execution of programs to alleviate poverty.For example Poverty as a personal failing,Poverty as a structural failing and Poverty as cultural characteristics

challenges of data collection in measuring development

double counting, bisedness, illegal economy, self dong unpaid activties, statistical error, pollution factor, facilities and living standard, quality improvement

GAD with efficiency and contribution to national economic development

economic) development and women was not clearly articulated until the second half of the 20th century. Women first came into focus in development as objects of welfare policies, including birth control, nutrition, pregnancy, and so forth primarily covers the dominant liberal approaches starting from WID, WAD, GAD and neoliberal frameworks.The term "women and development" was originally coined by a Washington-based network of female development professionals in the early 1970s[3] who sought to put in question the trickle down theories of development by contesting that modernization had identical impact on men and women.[4] The Women in Development movement (WID) gained momentum in the 1970s

Limited scope of Fair Trade

fair trade, although this refers mainly to the agricultural (Coffee, bananas, Cocoa, tea, sugar, cotton and flowers) rather than the industrial sector.

changes in family law and female headship

family laws are modifiying more in the favor and protection of female so family laws are making it easy of having divorce which is one of the reasons of increasing female household headship. Laws in many counties has abolished the household headship system but still there are many countires like Korea where household headship laws are very controversial. So dispropotionate amount of economic and social power has reduced and has empowered the women. family laws now has provided equal oprtunity to head the household both male and female under the marrgie clause.

gender labour force dynamics and female headship

female-headed households to be less well off than male-headed households, mainly because of women's lower income and more severe time constraints on non-market activities as compared with those of men. Female household head has higher rate of involuntary unemployment, and lower levels of education and literacy of the household heads so their labor is mostly unpaid even when they are the head. Example women is looking after house, children and doing job at low wages in comparision to man

how the justification for incorporating gender have varied

gender role is a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex. These are usually centered around opposing conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are myriad exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. There is ongoing debate as to what extent gender roles and their variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed.Various groups have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate, most notably the feminist movement.

How far MDGs represented a 'positive breakthrough'

good for advocacy example "Making poverty history". Then it presents a shift away from the conservatism associated with US presidential administration of George Bush. Provide a becnhmark to negotiate with governments and agencies. Addressing poverty, health, women empowerment, education and other factors of devlopment present a positive breakthorugh of MDGs.

household strategies

household strategies approach' which views the organisation of household livelihoods and reproduction as crucial in shaping mobility (Lawson, 1998). Consideration is given here to the different functions of households in different socio-economic contexts, including a 'sustenance' function which, in practical terms, conditions who might be released to migration (or not); a 'socialising' functionHousehold work strategy In essence, the division of labour between members of a household, whether implicit or the result of explicit decision-making, with the alternatives weighed up in a simplified type of cost-benefit analysis. It is a plan for the relative deployment of household members' time between the three domains of employment: in the market economy, including home-based self-employment second jobs, in order to obtain money to buy goods and services in the market; domestic production work, such as cultivating a vegetable patch or raising chickens, purely to supply food to the household; and domestic consumption work to provide goods and services directly within the household, such as cooking meals, child-care, household repairs, or the manufacture of clothes and gifts. Household work strategies may vary over the life-cycle, as household members age, or with the economic environment; they may be imposed by one person or be decided collectively.

Pelling (2002) 'weak' and 'strong' approaches to sustainability

identifies a broad spectrum of interpretations of sustainable development in academic and policy writings between 'weak sustainability' and 'strong sustainability'. 'Weak sustainability' has little regard for the intrinsic value of ecological assets because it believes that technology can solve environmental problems and human capital can act as a substitute for natural assets. This is described by Pelling as being an 'anthropocentric' view which places 'man' (sic) at the centre and could also be considered as a 'technocentric' approach. 'Strong sustainability', on the other hand, is characterised by a more 'ecocentric' view and seeks to minimise the loss of natural capital in the first place.there is emphasis on prevention rather than cure, such that instead of manufacturing fuel-efficient cars, for example, cities should be designed to minimise the need for vehicular transport. The 'strong sustainability' approach is also interested in promoting more equitable consumption patterns. Pelling argues that most of the literature on cities and development is characterised by a weak sustainability approach, whereby the adoption of a 'business as usual' attitude allows cities (and their wealthier inhabitants) to carry on with little regard for their impacts on the increasingly large hinterlands from which they draw their resources or dump their wastes. However, there are a range of possibilities for greater environmental sustainability in urban areas in the Global South. For example, David Simon (2013) provides a good summary of potential schemes for greening African cities.

'Decent Work' agenda

in 2001 the ILO launched an initiative called 'Reducing the Decent Work Deficit'. The 'Decent Work' agenda has the goal of obtaining productive work for all in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity. It is a goal both for individuals and for nations and is built around four strategic objectives, all of which are cross-cut by gender.Objectives: Creating jobs, Guaranteeing rights at work, Social protection, Promoting social dialogue

population increase in both numerical and percentage terms

increase in the number of people in numeric form is called numerical increase while the change in the numericla number of population is known as percentage increase. For example Taxes population growth 3.865,310 is the second largest numrical increase in the Whole US from 1990 to 2000 but the poulation growth was 2.29 percent which was the eight largest in 52 states of US. The differnce in both measures can be seen as percentage growth rate shows the natural growth rate but increase in numerical population have various casue like good health facilities and migration.

GAD shifts focus from women to gender

intellectual underpinnings of the shift from WID to GAD (gender and development). Gender is being used by researchers and practitioners in a number of different ways. The theoretical underpinnings and policy implications of two prominent frameworks for gender analysis (and training) ó the gender roles framework and social relations analysisî ó are discussed at some length. These frameworks are then linked to two relatively recent sets of literature on gender: the first on gender and efficiency at the macroeconomic level, which shares several premises with the gender roles framework, and the second on womenís empowerment strategies, which can be seen as the action-oriented outgrowth of social relations analysis

Aging population and economic growth

life expectancy increases, there will be relatively more people claiming pension benefits and less people working and paying income taxes. The fear is that it will require high tax rates on the current, shrinking workforce. Population ageing will tend to lower both labor-force participation and savings rates, thereby raising concerns about a future slowing of economic growth.

Living Standards and death rate

living standards effect he death rate as well Medical facilities and health care Nutrition levels Living standard Access to clean drinking water Hygiene levels Levels of infectious diseases Social factors such as conflicts and levels of violent crime. More than 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990. Despite progress, almost half of the world's employed people work in vulnerable conditions. By the end of 2014, conflicts had forced almost 60 million people to abandon their homes.

densification

making urban area more dencify. it is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of population density. Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as sustainability.i.g It is commonly asserted that higher density cities are more sustainable than low density cities. Much urban planning theory, particularly in North America, the UK, Australia and New Zealand has been developed premised on raising urban densities, such as New Urbanism, Transit-oriented development, and Smart growth

Men "take over" women's projects

men may take over women's duties in aquaculture when it becomes more market oriented. If this results in women having less access to fish for home consumption, it may have a negative effect on family welfare. In that case it would be advisable to keep at least one pond which can be used to fish for home consumption. men tempted to take over projects fostering equality for women. household work and cooking and taking care of children was the women reposnbility but men are taking over these projects.

internal and international migration and female headship

migration literature, finding that migration can improve the autonomy, human capital, and self‐esteem of women, as well as women's authority and worth in their families and communities. Migration can advance more equitable social norms and improve women'srights and access to resources. Although migration islargely beneficial, there are many constraints that limit its gains, such as restrictive social norms or laws, gender and racial discrimination, and gender‐specific vulnerabilities. An important aspect of migration is remittances, that is, migrants sending earnings home to support family members. According to UN Women, women are more likely to receive remittances regardless of the sex of the remitter. Remittances can increase women's autonomy.

proportion of urban population in slums

more than half the world's people live in cities: 54% in 2014, a proportion that is expected to increase to 66% by 2050. An additional 2.5 billion people are predicted to live in urban areas by that year. Approximately a quarter of the world's urban population lives in slums. In the State of the World's Cities 2012/2013, UN-Habitat estimated the number of people living in the slums of the world's developing regions as 863 million, in contrast to 760 million in 2000 and 650 in 1990. Given current urbanization trends, this figure is likely to have increased by 2014. These estimates suggest that one third of the developing world's urban population is living in slums (UN-Habitat, Global Urban Indicators Database, 2012), representing 15% of all the people living in those regions. The proportion of urban population living in slums has fallen significantly in almost all regions. The largest declines have taken place in Eastern Asia, South-Eastern Asia and Southern Asia (at least a 12 percentage point drop). In 2015, the regions with the lowest prevalence of slum conditions are Latin America and the Caribbean and Northern Africa. In Northern Africa the proportion of urban slum population declined almost by half, to 11 per cent in 2014 from 20 per cent in 2000. In Latin America and the Caribbean it fell to 20 per cent in 2014 from 29 per cent in 2000.

women's education and declining birth rates

more women are seeking out higher education, entering the work force later and achieving more economic independence as a result, the report said. Access to family planning services and contraception was also directly linked to declining fertility rates.

Mega-regions in Asia

new urban structures to which Webster refers "megaregions" - the startling phenomenon of supersized cities expanding into one another to create vast urban corridors from Delhi to Mumbai, or Hong Kong to the furthest reaches of the Pearl River Delta. It's a phenomenon that is happening worldwide but particularly in Asia and the so-called "global south", where the speed and scale of urbanisation are leaving analysts stunned and urban governments swamped. megaregion must meet two criteria: First, it must be a contiguous lighted area that includes at least one major city center and its metropolitan region. Second, it must have an LRP of more than $100 billion. Examples of mega region in Asia: Port Kalang, Manila, Bangkok, Singapore and Jakarta (Tunjung Priok)

Inappropriateness of 'Third World' to cover heterogeneous array of countries

notion is much too singular to encapsulate the huge diversity of conditions found within the region. For instance, at one end of the spectrum the 'Third World' includes the world's most impoverished countries in Africa, such as Ethiopia and Mozambique, as well as those deeply undermined by conflict and inequality in Central America and the Caribbean such as Nicaragua and Haiti. At the other end of spectrum, the term has also extended to the oil-rich nations of the Middle East, as well as Venezuela and Nigeria, in addition to wealthy 'Newly Industrialising Countries'(NICs), such as South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan (Dodds, 2014). Moreover, not only are there huge variations between countries of the 'Third World', but also within individual countries. Thus, as a spatial as well as political term, and in focusing on places rather than people, 'Third World' often glosses over vast intra-national as well as international income inequalities

old age and vulnerability to isolation

older adults tend to be more vulnerable than the young because they are less socially integrated and more likely to be under stress. "Social isolation" commonly occurs among older adults as a consequence of poor health, retirement, and loss of a spouse and friends.

who is benefiting from sustainable urbanization

people's because living standard will improve, envriornment, economy because it attarct investment. nvestments in energy-efficient windows or a rapid transit bus system, for example, have short payback periods because lower-energy consumption translates to lower costs. Put simply, the benefits to society of sustainable urbanization often outweigh the costs.

portion of elderly in developing region

populations in the developing world gained an average of 25 years on their lives between 1950 and 1990. In Latin America, the Caribbean, East Asia and the Pacific, average life expectancy presently stands at 68 years, just less than ten years behind the mean in advanced economies (77 years)Developing regions of the world host the majority of elderly subjects who are at risk for dementia. The world's elderly population is quickly growing, both in its absolute numbers and in its percentage relative to the younger population—the latter trend known as population aging.nd populations are aging even faster in the developing world, as fertility rates there have declined more rapidly and more recently than in the developed world.Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean are the world's fastest aging regions, with the percent of elderly in both regions projected to double between 2000 and 2030. Even sub-Saharan Africa, which has the smallest proportion of elderly and which is aging slower than any other region, is projected to see the absolute size of its older population grow by 2.3 times between 2000 and 2030.

define aging population

refers not only to the progressive increase in the average age of a given population, but to the share of the population defined as 'elderly'. Population aging is a shift in the distribution of a country's population towards older ages. This is usually reflected in an increase in the population's mean and median ages, a decline in the proportion of the population composed of children, and a rise in the proportion of the population that is elderly. only 8 per cent of the population of the Global South is presently over 60 years of age (compared with around 25 per cent in the North), in many countries, the number of people who are over 60 is growing substantially. By the year 2025, it is estimated that one-eighth of the population in developing regions will be aged 60 or more. In turn, given its share of the global population, the South already contains 50 per cent of over 60 year olds, and by the year 2025 this is expected to have risen to 70 per cent

pathologization of female-headed households

regard or treat as psychologically abnormal female-headed household. Such hosuehold bear more poverty, deliquency and crime. As children in the female headed house are more indulge in crime and show deliquency behaviour. Sitgma of divorce and dysfunctional family effect the welfare of the family. Black families, Mexican families and African American families are more highlighted in this catagory.

female-selective rural urban migration (Latin America)

rural urban migration is high in Latin America but femla face the issue of employment, they are occupied in unskilled labor, main work is house keeping and street vending, 1970, 29 percent of femlae age 8 were employeed in domestic services in Mexico city. More employmnet then rural areas female migrate to urban areas. Male-selective urban migration (sub_Saharan Africa)

Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa

structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) consist of loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. SAPs are created with the goal of reducing the borrowing country's fiscal imbalances in the short and medium term or in order to adjust the economy to long-term growth. SAPs remain ineffective in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa as their is still poverty because he architects of the programmes - due to "neo-colonial exploitation" driving the IMF and WB self-interested intention. SAPs devalued the currency, liberalized the market and bought legal and institutions. To some extent SAPs are sucessful in achieving the macroecomics targets in the short run and was not sucessful in long run.

household strategies vs structuralism

structuralist emphesis on the employement with the denial of reproductive relationship between the employee and the work which in result effects the mobiity however household strategies consider the selective mobility and the relationship of employee as productive element of society and economy.

private sector in sustainable urbanization

sustainable development and eco-efficiency as the pillars that guide its operations. It also presents examples of the projects that are currently being undertaken with the private sector. Based on these experiences, the important insights on the role of the private sector in the region's sustainable development and onthe importance of the need to build strong bridges between the public and the private sector in the region. i.e trade mobilization,globalization and specialization.

contested nature of development

sustainable development has come to mean all things to all people but argues this does not mean it has no theoretical or policy relevance. It is a 'contested' rather than an empty concept, and Jacobs identifies four 'faultlines' that produce two distinct conceptions of sustainable development which he calls 'radical' and 'conservative'. The faultlines are: limits to growth, environmental protection, equity, and participation. Jacobs argues in favour of the radical conception.Sustainable development has emerged in the last decade or so as apparently one of the most important goals of public policy. Most of the world's governments have now endorsed one or more of the several international agreements on sustainable development produced at, and subsequent to, the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).(2) In so doing they have committed themselves, amongst other things, to producing their own national strategies for sustainable development and promoting the development of similar strategies at the level of local government. This activity in the political sphere has taken place within a context of intense lobbying by a wide range of business and non-governmental organisations. Alongside all of this, and interacting with it, the subject of sustainable development has been investigated by large numbers of academics, approaching the subject from a wide range of disciplinary and intellectual perspectives.

household strategies and sustenance

sustainence activities bring money or goods into household or communit, it is necessary for survival and at household level it is distinguish as the work outside the home that brings in money and goods however at community level it is defined as economic base.

Secularization and growth

that economic development should be accompanied by a weakening of religious values. Economic growth is directly associated with diminishing church attendance rates, it is not directly associated with a decline in belief. The relation between economic growth and religious decline is therefore not primarily mediated by a "secularization of consciousness". economic prosperity leads to a change in consumption patterns on the part of individuals due to increased income and availability of alternative, secular opportunities to meet needs previously fulfilled by traditional religion. A decline in religious belief may occur as a secondary consequence of this behavioral change, since diminishing worship attendance rates reduce the influence of religion on value socializatio

income-related issues

that women's earnings are less than those of men, that female heads are time- and resource-constrained by their triple burdens of employment, housework and childcare, and because in most countries in the South female heads receive little transfer income through state welfare or child maintenance payments from absent fathers. Poverty also figures prominently in another conventional wisdom which seems to be perniciously attached to female-headed households, namely the 'inter generational transmission of disadvantage', whereby children are regarded as suffering as a result of being raised by women singlehandedly. Alongside poverty, psychological problems emanating from'father absence', lack of maternal attention, limited parental discipline and so on are deemed to lead to a cumulatively downward spiral of insecurity, poverty and family instabilit

access to urban services

the aproach of the community to the education,health,transport,recreation,communication and other liked demands of the urban people easly.

community-led savings schemes and housing

the community savings groups that are the foundation of over 20 federations of slum/shack dwellers/homeless people. Drawing on discussions with federation members in Kenya, Namibia, Malawi, the Philippines, Uganda and Zimbabwe, it describes how savings groups are set up to meet the need of members (mostly women living in informal settlements) for quick access to credit for daily needs. It also describes how these can develop to support their members in addressing collective needs and to help address difficult issues such as getting tenure of the land their homes occupy or getting land plots on which to build and access to services.

consequences of violence for development

the concequnces of voilence are always vey dengerouse like the country has to pay the cost of poverty,unemployment ,lower development,less economic growth,lower level of health and education.violence interrelates with development processes causally, in terms of outcomes and in relation to finding solutions to reducing violence. This applies to violence occurring at all levels, including so-called 'everyday violence' referring to the crime, delinquency and routine acts of violence that are now commonplace throughout the Global South, especially in cities. Thus, violence in all forms undermines sustainable development.

cross-border international wars and conflict

the cross boarder wars are also voilence between the two or more nations like inda and Pakistan,America and Korea and israeal and Muslims.

Third World' continues to be useful

the economies of underdeveloped countries have been geared to the needs of industrialized countries, they often comprise only a few modern economic activities, such as mining or the cultivation of plantation crops. Control over these activities has often remained in the hands of large foreign firms. The prices of third world products are usually determined by large buyers in the economically dominant countries of the West, and trade with the West provides almost all the third world's income. Throughout the colonial period, outright exploitation severely limited the accumulation of capital within the foreign-dominated countries. Even after decolonization (in the 1950's, 1960's, and 1970's, the economies of the third world developed slowly, or not at all, owing largely to the deterioration of the "terms of trade"-the relation between the cost of the goods a nation must import from abroad and its income from the exports it sends to foreign countries. Terms of trade are said to deteriorate when the cost of imports rises faster than income from exports. Since buyers in the industrialized countries determined the prices of most products involved in international trade, the worsening position of the third world was scarcely surprising. Only the oil-producing countries (after 1973) succeeded in escaping the effects of Western, domination of the world economy.

Colonialism

the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony drain of wealth" thesis, most of the colonial surplus was extracted by the metropolitan countries (in the form of interest payments on loans, repatriated pro¯ts, salaries and pensions) and this, by reducing the indigenous capital accumulation process, had a negative e®ect on the colonies' growth prospects. Direct exploitation also included taxes, tari®s, restrictions on trade and foreign investment, forced labor, and even enslavement of the indigenous population. These distortions furtherly hampered the colonies' growth potential

Rise of Fairtrade

the fair trade system has become more formalised with the Fairtrade Labelling Organisations International (FLO), established in 1997. By 2013, the global Fairtrade system had become an association of three producer networks, 25 Fairtrade organisations and the independent certification system that awards the Fairtrade Certification Mark.7 These standards aim to provide a campaign function in terms of educating people about what free trade actually means, as well as promoting consumer confidence and demand. They also ensure that producers in the Global South receive fair terms of trade and prices, as well as being linked with initiatives that focus on the establishment of cooperatives and a range of social projects. Although the fair trade consumer market is still small in global terms, it has grown considerably, especially in Europe since 2000. For example, the value of UK sales of Fairtrade certified produce increased from £92.3 million in 2003 to £1530.2 million in 2012.

Does MDG realistically address the poor and 'minority' groups

the link between protection of minority rights and realisation of the MDGs has not been widely considered by development actors. In fact many have expressed concerns that the pressure to reach the goals by 2015 forces governments to compromise on the quality and sustainability of development interventions. Despite being among the poorest, minorities and indigenous peoples in many countries may not be included in the one-half of the people lifted from extreme poverty by 2015. There is also a lack of information on the extent of minorities and indigenous peoples' poverty. For this reason, the collection of disaggregated data is essential.Exclusion of minority and indigenous children from school is often due to discriminatory treatment by teachers or pupils, a curriculum that perpetuates negative stereotypes, or the lack of education in minority and indigenous languages. Therefore, training should be provided for teachers, and education introduced for tolerance and diversity

Dodd (2008) economic division of 'Third World'

the original meaning of the 'Third World' was political or, more accurately, geopolitical (reflecting what Klaus Dodds, 2014 calls a 'new geopolitical imagination'), by the 1960s, it was commonly used as part of a geography of global politics that also encompassed economic divisions. This comprised the 'First World' of capitalist, Western and industrialised wealthy nations referring to the USA and its allies; the 'Second World' of communist or socialist bloc countries of centrally planned economies encompassing the Soviet Union and communist world; and the 'Third World' made up of poorer, and mainly recently politically independent former colonies in Africa, Latin America and Asia

Economic development after Second World War

the period spanned from 1945 to 1952, with overall growth lasting well until 1971, though there are some debates on dating the period. Booms in individual countries differed, some starting as early as 1945, and overlapping the rise of the East Asianeconomies into the 1980s or 1990s.also known as the postwar economic boom, the long boom, and the Golden Age of Capitalism, was a period of economic prosperity in the mid-20th century which occurred.Examples can be seen in defferent countries as :this high growth also included many countries that had been devastated by the war, such as Japan (Japanese post-war economic miracle), West Germany (Wirtschaftswunder), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle), and Greece (Greek economic miracle)

how approaches to gender and development have changed over time

the social differences between men and women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes in roles. Another criticism is that GAD does not dig deep enough into social relations and so may not explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at women. It also does not uncover the types of trade-off that women are prepared to make for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood. Another criticism is that GID perspective is theoretical distinct from WID, but in practice, a program seem to have the element of the two. Whilst many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remains as WID.examples are as that with time,space,fashion,culture and enviroment role of women is changed.

neoliberalism and neoclassical economics

the two terms are not necessarily related. Neoliberalism branches into two separate arguments - one consequential and empirical, the other philosophical and normative. Consequentialist neoliberalism derives many of its arguments from the prescriptions of neoclassical economics, including smaller governments, free trade, private sector deregulation and fiscal responsibility in government.the neoclassical theory assumed that individual economic actors have rational preferences, that individuals seek to maximize utility and that decisions are made at amrgin. Neoclassical economics gave birth to the perfect competition models of microeconomics.Neoliberalism does not have a set definition, although it has often been attributed to the policies of Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan in the United States.Neoliberalism does not have a set definition, although it has often been attributed to the policies of Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan in the United States

Define 'Third World'

the underdeveloped nations of the world, especially those with widespread poverty. 2.the group of developing nations, especially of Asia and Africa, that do not align themselves with the policies of either the U.S. or the former Soviet Union. 3.the minority groups within a nation or predominant culture

death rate and HIV/AIDs, living conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa

the vast majority of new HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa occur in adults over the age of 25, HIV disproportionately affects young women. More than 4 in 10 new infections among women are in young women aged 15-24. 15-19 year olds are particularly at risk equating to higher HIV prevalence rates when they are older.3For example, in Mozambique, HIV prevalence is 7% among 15-19 year olds but rises to 15% for 25 years olds. Likewise, in Lesotho, HIV prevalence rises from 4% among 15-19 year olds to 24% among 20-24 year olds. Death rate in 1999 was 20 per 1000 and in 2009 was 14 per 1000. specially important in sub-Saharan Africa where as many as 26.6 million people are living with HIV (UNAIDS, 2013, p.A12), with women making up 57 per cent of those living with HIV in 2012

transfer of Western aid and expertise to developing nations

transfer of Western aid and expertise to developing nations is that the fruits of growth and development of developed countries is reaping by developing nations.like information technology,skills and experts.

relative advantages of the MDGs

turned the global focus on the removal of poverty as a central aspect of development cooperation in special and as an aim in international relations in general. The current health-focused Millennium Development Goals have driven significant investment and progress in health since 2000. Important national and international initiatives were set up in line with the MDGs. , the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was established in 2002 to mobilise international financing for MDG 6.resulted in a strong sense of ownership and shared responsibility emerging in many partner countries

participatory governance in sustainable urbanization

urban governance are emerging across the developed and developing world that demonstrate that it is possible to tackle the underlying challenges of urban growth, urban poverty, and environmental unsustainability. urban governance that would potentially lead cities into a sustainable future is a task that no single theory or approach can claim to have researched extensively and infinitively, and therefore what works at multiple scales and in different contexts is something that is yet to be established. We reasoned that transformation via adapting to pressures such as climate change, globalization, social fluidity, or relocation projects is not a linear process that would necessarily be inscribed into a model to ultimately have a technical fix.Urban land use planning, if based on sustainable development principles, can help address the challenge of informal settlement, tenure insecurity, and—ultimately—urban poverty.

incidence and degree of 'urban primacy'

urban primacy indicates the largest city in a country. Such a city is called a primate city. In other words, urban primacy can be defined as the central place in an urban or city network that has acquired or obtained a great level of dominance. The level of dominance is measured by population density and the number of functions offered. Higher functions and population will result in higher dominance.

violence consumes scarce public funds

violence consumes scarce public funds of the state to maintan the peace ,these expenditures are called unproductive expenditures. Wars need arms so fund are utilized there desipite of using in development work.

violence undermines trust and security

violence undermines trust and security in the country so people ,forigeners ,states and multinational companies dislike to invest and move in the voilent countries that resulted the form of less development and unemployment and concequently brain drain.

working conditions

working conditions cover a broad range of topics and issues, from working time (hours of work, rest periods, and work schedules) to remuneration, as well as the physical conditions and mental demands that exist in the workplace.