DHN 101-201: Notes for Exam 2

Summary of Section 7.4: Protein in Foods

-High-quality complete proteins are well-digested and contain all nine of the essential amino acids in necessary amounts. High-quality proteins are most commonly found in animal foods. -Low-quality incomplete proteins are more difficult to digest and lack an adequate amount of one or more essential amino acid. Low-quality proteins are found in certain plant foods.

Summary of Section 7.6: Protein Metabolism

-If an essential amino acid is not available when protein synthesis occurs, the process stops, and the amino acids in the unfinished peptide are removed and returned to the amino acid pool through deamination. -Following deamination the nitrogen-containing group in the form of ammonia, is converted into urea in the liver and eventually excreted in the urine. -Increased amino acid metabolism results in increased urea in the urine, leading to an elevated urine urea nitrogen level. High blood urea nitrogen levels may indicate the kidneys are not filtering the flood correctly. -In adults, the body maintains its protein content by carefully balancing nitrogen intake and losses.

Summary of Section 5.6: Maintaining Normal Blood Glucose Levels

-Insulin and glucagon play major roles in maintaining normal blood glucose levels. Insulin allows glucose to enter cells, where it is metabolized for energy. Insulin also stimulates glycogen synthesis. Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream. -Ketosis occurs when cells have an inadequate supply of glucose to metabolize for energy and they begin to break down considerable amounts of fat as an alternative fuel source.

Summary of Section 6.1: Introducing Lipids

-Major lipids are triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. The body needs lipids for energy (triglycerides), proper growth and development, nerve functioning, the maintenance of healthy skin and hair, and the production of bile and several hormones

Summary of Section 7.11: Nutritional Genomics

-Nutritional genomics may predict how a person's diet affects their genetic makeup. It can also be use to determine how a person's genetic makeup affects their body's response to food and diet.

Summary of Section 5.3: Complex Carbohydrates

-Oligosaccharides are complex carbohydrates comprised of three to 10 monosaccharides bonded together -Polysaccharides are complex polysaccharides comprised of more than 10 monosaccharides bonded together. -Starch, glycogen, and most forms of dietary fiber are polysaccharides. -Fibers are categorized as soluble or insoluble based on their solubility in water. Fruits, vegetables, and whole-grain products are rich sources of fiber, particularly insoluble fiber.

Which of the following health problems may develop as a result of untreated celiac disease and the resulting nutrient malabsorption?

-Osteoporosis -Anemia -Stunted growth -Dementia

Which of the following plant oils contain mostly saturated fatty acids?

-Palm oil -Coconut oil

Summary of Section 6.4: Phospholipids

-Phospholipids have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, ands result they are partially soluble in water and can serve as emulsifiers. Phospholipids are the major structural components of cell membranes and are needed for proper functioning of nerve cells. Lecithin is the major phospholipid in food.

Summary of Section 6.9: Reducing Risk of Atherosclerosis: Dietary Changes

-Physical activity and the replacement of saturated fats with monounsaturated fats may reduce LDL levels and increase HDL levels. In the body, trans fat blood cholesterol levels. -Omega-3 fatty acids may protect the heart from CVD. Fatty fish, including salmon and tuna, are good natural food sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Although omega-3 and fish oil capsules are sources of omega-3 fatty acids, overconsumption of the fatty acids from supplemental sources can be dangerous. -People with elevated blood cholesterol and/or triglyceride levels may reduce their risk of developing CVD by modifying their diets, losing excess weight, and engaging in regular physical activity

Which of the following can be used to control type 1 diabetes? Check all that apply.

-Planning diets using carbohydrate counting -Insulin injections -Regular physical activity

After a discussion with his healthcare provider, Fernando has decided to follow an exclusively plant-based diet over the next several months. Fernando is likely to consume more of which of the following nutrients as a result of changing his diet from primarily animal-based to plant-based?

-Potassium -Folate -Phytonutrients -Vitamin E

complete protein

contains all essential amino acids in the proper proportions that promote the deposition of protein in muscles and other tissues, as well as support growth during development. These high-quality proteins are primarily found in animal foods including meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products. Milk and egg proteins generally rate very high for protein quality because they are easy to digest and have a pattern of essential amino acids that closely resembles the amounts needed by humans

Added sugars

contribute to the flavor as ell as the browning and tenderness of the food. It also serves as a preservative by lowering water content of a food and inhibiting the growth of molds and bacteria that would otherwise cause food spoilage.

Numerous studies conducted over the past 60 years indicate that consuming high amounts of certain lipids may increase the risk of

developing serious health conditions, including obesity, certain cancers, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) which includes heart disease and stroke

Lipoproteins play major roles in the

development of atherosclerosis. HDL conveys lipids away from tissues and to the liver, where they can be processed and eliminated. Thus, the cholesterol carried by HDL is often called good cholesterol because HDL carries the lipid from the body tissue back to the liver for recycling.

A person's diet, including dietary fiber and fruit and vegetable intake is thought to contribute to the risk for

development of colorectal cancer.

carbohydrate counting

diabetes management tool in which an individual tracks their daily carbohydrate intake

vegan diets

diet based solely on plant foods, with complete elimination of animal foods and products

Treatment for diabetes may involve

diet, exercise, insulin injections, and oral medications. Which treatment option a person receives depends on a variety of factors, including their type of diabetes, age, and current health status

low-quality protein

dietary proteins that are incomplete and have lower digestibility and bioavailability

incomplete protein

dietary proteins that are low in or lack one or more essential amino acids

personalized nutrition

dietary recommendations based on individual response to food and nutrients

pancreatic lipase

digestive enzyme that removes two fatty acids from each triglyceride molecule

insoluble or non fermentable fiber

does not break down completely and as a result contributes to softer and easier to eliminate feces

The resulting accumulation of fluid in tissues is called

edem or swelling

In general, scientific evidence suggests that dietary cholesterol does not have as much

effect on blood cholesterol levels as dietary saturated fat. The reason appears to be that, in a healthy person, the liver synthesizes less cholesterol when dietary cholesterol intake is higher. On the other hand, eating large amounts of saturated fat increases the liver's cholesterol production

_______________ acid is an omega-3 fatty acid

eicosapentaenoic

omega or methyl end

end of a fatty acid containing a methyl (-CH3) group

pancreatic amylase

enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down starch into maltose molecules

lactase

enzyme that splits lactose into glucose and galactose

maltase

enzyme that splits maltose into two glucose molecules

sucrase

enzyme that splits sucrose into glucose and fructose

lipases

enzymes that break down lipids

limiting amino acid

essential amino acid found in the lowest concentration in an incomplete protein

arachidonic acid (AA)

essential fatty acid; precursor to some eicosanoids

docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

essential fatty acid; precursor to some eicosanoids

eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)

essential fatty acid; precursor to some eicosanoids

Saturated fatty acid (SFA)

fatty acid that has each carbon atom within the chain filled with hydrogen atoms. each carbon within the chain is saturated, that is, completely filled with hydrogen atoms

monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)

fatty acid that has one double bond within the carbon chains

polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)

fatty acid that has two or more double bonds within the carbon chain

unsaturated fatty acid

fatty acid that is missing hydrogen atoms and has one or more double bonds within the carbon chain

essential fatty acids

fatty acids that must be supplied by the diet; linoleum and alpha-linolenic acid are essential fatty acids

arterial plaque

fatty buildup in the artery

thrombus

fixed bunch of clots that remain in place and disrupt blood flow

Which of the following foods is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids?

flaxseeds

partial hydrgoenation

food manufacturing process that adds hydrogen atoms to liquid vegetables oil, forming trans fats

Cholesterol is found only in

foods derived from animals. Egg yolk, liver, meat, poultry, and dairy products made from cream or whole milk are rich sources of the lipid

Kwashiorkor

form of undernutrition that results from consuming adequate energy and insufficient high-quality, complete protein

marasmus

form of undernutrition that results from starvation; diet lacks energy and nutrients

marasmic kwashiorkor

form of undernutrition that results in a child with kwashiorkor who then starts to not consume enough energy; characterized by edema and wasting

soluble fiber

forms of dietary fiber that dissolve or swell in water; include pectins, gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses

insoluble fiber

forms of dietary fiber that generally do not dissolve in water; include cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin

Resistant starches

found in seeds, legumes, whole grains, and some fruits and vegetables that resist digestion and are not broken down in the human GI tract

People who do not consume seafood can obtain omega-3 fatty acids

from alternative plant sources

The three most important dietary monosaccharides for human are

galactose, glucose, fructose

Absorption of monosaccharides occurs almost exclusively in the small intestine. Intestinal cells absorb

glucose and galactose by active transport; fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion

hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test

glycated hemoglobin; blood test used to measure a person's average blood glucose over several months

homocysteinuria

group of conditions caused by gene mutations that cause homocysteine to accumulate in the blood

eicosanoids

group of long-chain fatty acids with hormone like functions

Diabetes mellitus

group of serious chronic conditions characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism

syndrome

group of signs and symptoms that occur together and indicate a specific health problem

Gallstones

hard particles that can accumulate in the gallbladder or become lodged in one of the ducts carrying bile from the gallbladder to the small intestine

Compared to a triglyceride molecule, an amino acid molecule _____________________

has nitrogen in its chemical structure

Complex carbohydrates

have three or more monosaccharides bonded together. Plants and animals use these to store energy or make certain structural components such as stems and leaves.

myocardial infarction

heart attack

Food manufacturers use large amounts of

high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) as a food additive

glycogen

highly branched storage polysaccharide in animals

epinephrine

hormone produced by the adrenal glands; secreted in response to declining blood glucose levels

glucagon

hormone secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreas that contributes to an increase in blood glucose levels

insulin

hormone secreted from the beta cells of the pancreas that contributes to a decrease in blood glucose levels

fatty acids

hydrocarbon chain found in lipids; one end of the chain forms a carboxylic acid and one end forms a methyl group

fat malabsorption

impaired fat absorption; symptoms include diarrhea, steatorrhea, and rapid weight loss

Consuming a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids has been associated with all of the following except _________

improved cognition in young adults

lactose intolerance

inability to digest lactose properly because of a deficiency in the enzyme lactase

Undernutrition

inadequate consumption of nutritious food

Lipids

include triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols, such as cholesterol

Cardiovascular disease (CVD)

includes heart disease (coronary artery disease, or CAD), stroke, and diseases of the blood vessels. According to the American Heart Association, in 2019, 121.5 million Americans were living with one or more forms of CVD. In 2017, heart disease and stroke together accounted for 28% of all deaths

CCK signals the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes

including pancreatic lipase into the duodenum of the small intestine

sickle cell anemia

inherited form of anemia

Most lipids are completely

insoluble in water. This characteristic makes lipid digestion, absorption, and transport more complicated than that of carbohydrates because these three processes involve considerable amounts of water

Following digestion of proteins, the short peptides and amino acids are transported by specific carrier systems

into absorptive cells. After entering the absorptive cell, the peptides are broken down into amino acids, and the amino acids move into the capillary of the villus

Protein complementation

involves eating combinations of certain plant food protein sources that together contain a proportion of amino acids similar to complete proteins from animal sources. To make dishes that contain complementary amino acid combinations, consumers must know (1) which plant foods are good protein sources and (2) which essential amino acids are limiting or low in those plant foods.

A food allergy

is an immune response that results when immune cells mistake certain food proteins (allergens) for harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, and mount an attack against them by producing antibodies. This process is more likely to occur when food proteins are difficult to digest and travel through the digestive system intact

The cholesterol carried by LDL

is often referred to as bad cholesterol because LDL conveys the lipid from the liver out to other tissues in the body.

Cholesterol

lipid found in animal foods; precursor for steroid hormones, bile, and vitamin D

monoglyceride

lipid that has one fatty acid attached to a three-carbon compound called glycerol

triglycerides

lipid that has three fatty acid attached to a three-carbon compound called glycerol

diglyceride

lipid that has two fatty acids attached to a three-carbon compound called glycerol

very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL)

lipoprotein made in the liver; carries much of the triglycerides in the bloodstream

low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

lipoprotein that carries cholesterol into tissues; elevated LDL is linked to increase risk of cardiovascular disease

high-density lipoprotein (HDL)

lipoprotein that transports cholesterol away from tissues and to the liver, where it can be eliminated; low HDL is linked to increased risk for cardiovascular disease

Which of the following organs is key to the enterohepatic circulation of bile

liver

atherosclerosis

long-term disease process in which plaque builds up inside arterial walls

reactive hypoglycemia (postprandial hypoglycemia)

low blood glucose that occurs within 4 hours of eating

Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS)

or gluten sensitivity is an emerging disorder that has more recently been characterized as an intolerance to gluten-containing foods in the absence of celiac disease or wheat allergy

carboxylic acid

organic molecule with a carboxyl (-COOH) group

exogenous

outside the body (dietary or other external source)

hydrophilic

part of a molecule that attracts water

hydrophobic

part of a molecule that avoids water and attracts lipids

R group (side chain)

part of an amino acid that determines its physical and chemical properties

However, children and adults with the disorder need to avoid foods that are rich sources of

phenylalanine, such as nuts, dairy products, eggs, meat, and other animal foods.

Vegetarian diet

plant-based eating pattern that may or may not include some animal foods

Which of the following is NOT a type of lipid?

polysaccharides

omega-3 fatty acids

polyunsaturated fatty acids commonly found in fish oils that are beneficial to cardiovascular health

genes

portion of DNA that codes for a protein

amino or nitrogen-containing group

portion of an amino acid that contains nitrogen

steatorrhea

presence of lipid in the stool

lipolysis

process by which triglycerides (fats) are broken down into and glycerol and fatty acids, which are released into the bloodstream

enterohepatic circulation

process that recycles bile salts in the body

High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)

protein produced primarily by the liver in response to inflammation; a marker of CVD

Milk and milk products are excellent sources of

protein, many vitamins, and the minerals calcium and phosphorus

polypeptides

proteins comprised of 50 or more amino acids

Phenylketonuria or PKU

rare genetic metabolic disorder that affects about 1 in every 10,000 to 15,000 infants in the United States

high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)

syrup obtained from the processing of corn

Fiber

this in oats is not digested by the human small intestine, so it can eventually enter the large intestine. Then beneficial intestinal bacteria that reside in the large intestine can break down and metabolize (ferment) the soluble this for energy.

glycerol

three-carbon alcohol that forms the backbone of fatty acids

teritary structure

three-dimensional twisted structure of a polypeptide chain that includes interactions between various amino acid groups in the chain

embolus

thrombus or part of a plaque that breaks free and travels through the bloodstream

Consuming a well-balanced diet rich in dietary fiber appears

to reduce one's risk for colorectal cancer

glycemic index (GI)

tool to measure the body's insulin response to a carbohydrate-containing food

glycemic load (GL)

tool to measure the body's insulin response to carbohydrate-containing food; similar to the glycemic index but also factors in the total carbohydrate content of a typical size of the food

Transamination

transfer of the nitrogen-contain group from an unneeded amino acid to a carbon skeleton to form an amino acid

HDL

transports cholesterol from the tissue to the liver, where cholesterol can be processed or eliminated

LDL

transports cholesterol to the tissues, where cholesterol can be taken up by cells.

Aspartame consists of phenylalanine and aspartic acid

two amino acids (the building blocks of proteins)

phospholipid

type of lipid needed to make cell membranes and for proper functioning of nerve cells; chemically similar to a triglyceride, except that one of the fatty acids is replaced by a chemical group that contains phosphorus

Sterols

type of lipid that has a more complex chemical structure than triglycerides and phospholipids

chylomicron

type of lipoprotein formed in enterocytes to transport lipids away from the GI tract

In the United States, protein deficiency is

uncommon, but people suffering from alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, or certain intestinal tract disorders are at risk of protein malnutrition. Individuals experiencing food insecurity, especially those who are elderly, are also at risk of protein deficiency.

micelle

water-soluble spherical lipid cluster; bile salts create a shell around each cluster, allowing for the structure to be suspended in watery digestive juices

Lipoproteins

water-soluble structures that transport lipids through the bloodstream

choline

water-soluble, vitamin-like compound; component of lecithin

For healthy adults, this level of consumption is within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)

which is 10 to 35% of energy from protein. A young woman who consumes 15% of her calories from protein on a 2000-kcal diet is eating approximately 75g of protein per day, which is about the amount of protein in a 10-ounce steak

endogenous

within the body

Summary of Section 7.5: Protein Digestion, Absorption, and Transport

-Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where hydrochloric acid denatures food proteins and pepsin breaks proteins into polypeptides. -In the small intestine, enzymes secreted by the pancreas and absorptive cells digest polypeptides into small peptides and amino acids that are absorbed by enterocytes. The end products of protein digestion, amino acids, travel to the liver. The liver uses the amino acids or releases them into the general circulation

Summary of Section 7.8: Protein Undernutrition

-Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) affects people whose diets lack sufficient protein as well as energy; children are more likely to be affected by PEM than adults -Severely undernourished children do not grow well and are very weak, irritable, and vulnerable to dehydration and life-threatening infection infections

Summary of Section 5.5: Carbohydrates: Digestion and Absorption

-Salivary amylase initiates starch digestion in the mouth. Starch digestion halts in the stomach before resuming in the small intestine through the activity of pancreatic amylase. Maltase, sucrase, and lactase complete carbohydrate digestion. -Glucose, fructose, and galactose are absorbed in the small intestine and travel through the hepatic portal vein to the liver. -Humans cannot digest dietary fiber.

The diagram below shows how blood sugar levels are regulated right after a meal and then sever hours after a meal. Drag and Drop the hormones insulin and glucagon to their correct location on the diagram.

2. Pancreas releases insulin 5. Pancreas releases glucagon.

As of 2018, _________ million Americans were living with diagnosed diabetes

26.8

In 2017-2018, the average American consumed approximately

37% of their total daily energy from fat. Although the DRI committee has not established an RDA or AI for total fat intake (for people over 1 year of age), the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for fat is 20 to 35% of total caloric intake. According to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, adults should emphasize foods that are rich sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils

Nutritionally adequate diets provide ? of total energy from carbohydrates, preferably from foods that are rich sources of unrefined carbohydrates

45 to 65%

Which of the following statements about kwashiorkor is true?

All of the choices are correct

Proteins________________.

Are comprised of amino acids

The alternative sweetener that is made by combining the amino acids phenylalanine and aspartic acid is called____________

Aspartame

Ariel recently had her fasting blood lipid levels checked. The results of the blood lipid test are shown below. Indicate whether this blood lipid level is considered desirable, borderline high, or high

Borderline high

Determine whether or not each of the following is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.

CVD Risk Factor: -HDL cholesterol = 31 mg/dL -Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) levels -Smoking -Inactivity Not CVD Risk Factor: -Total blood cholesterol = 176 mg/dL -Total cholesterol: HDL cholesterol ratio = 3:1 -Blood triglyceride levels of 130 mg/dL

Which of the followings statements is true?

Certain fish, such as salmon, are rich sources of omega-3 fatty acids.

Fred is a lactovegetarian. Which of the following foods does he eat?

Cheese

Carbohydrates are classified into two general categories; simple carbohydrates and________ carbohydrates which include most forms of dietary fiber

Complex

Which of the following foods is naturally rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids?

Corn oil

Which of the following provides the most lactose?

Cow's milk, 1 cup

The human body makes proteins by following information coded in

DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, the hereditary material in cell's nucleus that are in genes

Consuming too much protein or excess amino acids can contribute to____________.

Dehydration

According to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, added sugars should be limited in the diet. Based on that recommendation, which of the following foods should be limited.

Foods to limit in the diet due to added sugar content: -Breakfast cereal -Blueberry muffin

You overslept this morning and woke up late for class. You did not want to be late for class, so you skilled breakfast. A few hours later, your blood glucose level drops. This prompts your pancreas to release ? to stimulate breakdown of glycogen in the liver into glucose.

Glucagon

The only treatment or celiac disease is adherence to a gluten-free diet. Determine whether each food or ingredient is gluten-free or contains gluten.

Gluten-free: Corn, rice, and quinoa Gluten-containing: macaroni made from wheat flour, rye cracker, and barley cereal

Glucagon

Hormone secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreas that contributes to an increase in blood glucose levels

Which of the following. characteristics or conditions increases a person's risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD)?

Hypertension

A popular brand of light ice cream lists the following sweeteners. Classify each as a nutritive or nonnutritive sweetener.

Nutritive Sweeteners: sugar, corn syrup, polydextrose, sorbitol, and maltodextrin Nonnutritive sweetener: sucralose, acesulfame-K

Which of the following statements is true?

Oxidized LDL contributes to arterial plaque buildup

An omega-3 fatty acid

PUFA with its first double bond at the third carbon from the omega end of the molecule

Exclusively plant-based diets may not supply enough _________________ to meet a child's needs.

Protein

Which of the following grains does NOT contain gluten?

Quinoa

In the United States, _____________has been used for over 100 years.

Saccharin

Match the food with its major lipid component.

Saturated Fat: Beef and Butter Monounsaturated Fat: Olive oil and Peanut Butter Polyunsaturated Fat: Safflower oil and Fatty Fish

Identify which of the following food sources contains the most cholesterol

Shrimp

In 2008, the FDA approved a sweetener derived from a South American shrub called_________; you can purchase this sweetener in packet form as the brands Truvia and Sweetleaf.

Stevia

The alternative sweetener_________ is made by chemically modifying a sucrose molecule so it escapes digestion and absorption

Sucralose

Which of the following is NOT considered a major function of proteins in the human body?

Synthesis and storage of muscle glycogen

Because both beverages contain simple sugars, should a person drink regular soft drinks instead of fruit juices?

Unlike colas and other soft drinks, 100% fruit juices, such as oranges, grapefruit, and cranberry juice, contribute micronutrients and antioxidant phytochemicals to diets.

Determine whether the breakfast is appropriate for a vegan, lactovegetarian, or lactoovovegetarian and drag the breakfast to its appropriate classification.

Vegan: oatmeal made with soy milk and blueberries Lactovegetarian: whole wheat toast with melted cheese and a glass of orange juice Lactoovovegetarian: omelet made with two eggs shredded cheese and peppers

Compared to a diet that provides fewer plant foods, a plant-based diet typically provides more_____________.

Vitamin C

Dietary protein has to be denatured before you body can utilize it. Drag the potential way to denature protein into its appropriate classification.

Will Denature Protein: Cooking a piece of meat, Beating an egg vigorously with an electric beater, and adding acid to a protein-containing food. Will not Denature protein: Refrigerating a glass of milk, exposing a piece of cheese to air (oxygen), and soaking lentils in water.

urea

a metabolic waste product, and the main nitrogen-containing compound found in urine

The small intestine is the main site for carbohydrate digestion and absorption, but

a minor amount of starch digestion begins in the mouth, as salivary amylase converts of the oat starch molecules into maltose

hyperglycemia

abnormally elevated blood glucose levels

hypertension

abnormally high blood pressure levels that persist even when the person is relaxed

Sugar alcohols are not fully

absorbed by the intestinal tract, and as a result, they supply an average of 3 kcal/g

therapeutic lifestyle changes (TLC)

actions, such as avoiding excess body fat, exercising daily, and improving the diet, the promote health and reduce risk for chronic disease

ketosis

adaptive metabolic state in which the body primarily uses fat for energy

adrenaline

also called epinephrine

Alternative sweetener

also referred to as sugar substitutes or artificial. these are substances added to food that sweeten the item while providing few or no kcal

denaturation

altering a protein's natural shape and function by exposing it to conditions such as heat, acids, and physical agitation. a protein undergoes this, unfolding, when it is exposed to various conditions that alter its natural folded and coiled shape. Protein-rich foods are often cooked to make them more digestible and safe to eat because heat causes these proteins to unfold.

sugar alcohols

alternative sweeteners used to replace sucrose in some sugar-free foods; sorbitol, xylitol, and mannitol

Homocysteine

amino acid that may play a role in the development of atherosclerosis

Proteins are comprised of smaller chemical units called

amino acids

conditionally essential amino acids

amino acids that are normally nonessential but become essential under certain conditions

essential amino acids

amino acids the body cannot make or cannot make enough of to meet its needs

Celia disease

an autoimmune disorder in which a person's immune system reacts to gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and some other cereal grains. This disease is distinct from food allergy in that the immune response is not an allergic reaction but rather an autoimmune response

In 1990 scientists began the Human Genome project,

an effort to identify and sequence the approximately 23,000 genes that code for protein synthesis in human DNA. As a result of. the completed of this project in 2003, scientists discovered that people's food choices can affect their genes' expression (activity that results in protein synthesis)

As chylomicrons circulate through the body, lipoprotein lipase (LPL)

an enzyme in the walls of capillaries, breaks down the triglycerides in the chylomicron into fatty acids and glycerol

Polysaccharides

are complex carbohydrates comprised of more than 10 monosaccharides bonded together. The most common dietary ? include digestible and non digestible forms.

Proteins

are complex organic molecules that are chemically similar to lipids and carbohydrates because they contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. they also contain nitrogen, an element cells need to make a wide array of important biological compounds, such as enzymes and hormones

Plant sterols and stanols

are lipids that occur naturally in many grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and legumes. They are structurally similar to cholesterol and may compete with cholesterol for intestinal absorption. Consuming foods such as the spread shown above may be an effective way to lower blood cholesterol levels, particularly when used as a substitute for other fats that may increase risk high blood cholesterol levels.

dipeptides and tripeptides

are molecules that consist of two and three amino acids, respectively. When the dipeptides and tripeptides contact the microvilli, they can be either absorbed directly or further broken down by enzymes within the microvilli into amino acids. Thus, short peptides and amino acids are the end products of protein digestion

According to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans healthy adults should consume

as little cholesterol as possible while following a healthy diet

Type 1 diabetes

autoimmune disease that results in destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas; as a result, insulin must be supplied to the affected person regularly through exogenous sources

nitrogen balance (equilibrium)

balancing nitrogen intake with nitrogen losses

primary structure

basic structure of protein; a linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

According to the ADA, people with diabetes should strive to maintain their HbA1c levels

below 7%

The liver uses cholesterol to make

bile

In a healthy person, the body maintains fasting blood glucose levels between 70 and 99 milligrams per deciliter of blood (mg/dl). If a person has not eaten for a while,

blood glucose levels begin to fall, the person starts to feel hungry, and the stomach likely growls. In this case the individual may grab an apple or a cheese sandwich to eat, and as the carbohydrates in these foods are digested the glucose from these foods is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver.

Carter wants to lower his blood cholesterol level. Based on this information, he should limit his intake of

butter and beef

Oligosaccharides

carbohydrates comprised of three to 10 monosaccharides bonded together

carboxylic acid group

carboxylic acid portion of a compound

adipose (fat) cells

cells that store triglycerides

Protein turnover

cellular process of breaking down proteins and recycling their amino acids

hydrocarbon chain

chain of carbon atoms bonded to each other and to hydrogen atoms

mutation

change to the typical DNA sequence of a gene

peptide bond

chemical attraction that connects two amino acids together

Plant sterols/stanols

chemicals found in plants that are structurally similar to cholesterol. These lipids naturally in small amounts in many grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and legumes. Because their chemical structures are similar to cholesterol, plant sterol and stannous compete with cholesterol for intestinal absorption, which reduces the amount of cholesterol that is absorbed

Prostaglandins

class of eicosanoids that produce a variety of important effects on the body

Lipids

class of nutrients that do not dissolve in water; triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols

carbohydrates

class of nutrients that is a major source of energy for the body.

food provocation test (FPT)

clinical elimination-challenge test used to diagnose food intolerances

stroke

clot blocks an artery in the brain; brain cells that are nourished by the vessel die

Which of the following plant oils contains the highest amount of saturated fat per tablespoon

coconut oil

secondary structure

coiling of a polypeptide chain

High-quality proteins

complete proteins that are well-digested, absorbed, and used by the body.

bile salts

component of bile; aid in lipid digestion

hyperinsulinemia

condition in which the pancreas releases an excessive amount of insulin; over time, condition may contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes

metabolic syndrome

condition that increases risk of type 2 diabetes and CVD

ketoacidosis

condition that occurs in the absence of insulin when excess acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate in the bloodstream lower the blood's pH

hypoglycemic

condition that occurs when the blood glucose level is too low to provide enough energy for cells

arteriosclerosis

condition that results from atherosclerosis and is characterized by loss of arterial flexibility

food intolerance

conditions characterized by unpleasant physical reactions following consumption of certain foods

Inborn Errors of Metabolism (IEM)

conditions that occur when genes undergo mutations that disrupt metabolism of specific nutrients

Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides that

contain hundreds of glucose molecules bound together into large, chainlike structures.

All cells in the body, including blood, nerve, and bone cells

contain proteins

alpha-linolenic acid

18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid with three double bonds; an essential fatty acid

Linoleic acid

18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid with two double bonds; an essential fatty acid

Glucose, fructose, and galactose are...

sugars commonly found in foods such as table sugar, fruit, and milk

Cholecystectomy

surgery to remove a diseased gallbladder

Maltose

(malt sugar) has two glucose molecules bound together.

Lactose

(milk sugar) forms when a galactose molecule bonds to a glucose molecule

Sucrose

(table sugar) consists of a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose.

Summary of Section 7.9: Food Hypersensitivity Disorders: Food Allergies, Food Intolerances, and Phenylketonria

-A food allergy is an immune response that results when the body's immune system reacts inappropriately to one or more protein allergens in the food. Anaphylaxis is a serious allergic reaction, resulting in anaphylactic shock, a sever drop in blood pressure -Celiac disease is an autoimmune condition triggered by an antibody response to the gluten protein found in wheat. This reaction leads to damage of the small intestine, which can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is an intolerance to gluten that results in mild to moderate symptoms such as abdominal pain and headaches. Both of these disorders are treated with strict avoidance of wheat and the gluten-containing foods. -Phenylketonuria occurs when cells are unable to produce an enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine to other compounds. Individuals with PKU must avoid foods that are rich sources of phenylalanine.

Summary of Section 6.3: Triglycerides

-A triglyceride has three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. Triglyceride comprise about 95% of lipids in the body and in food. -Triglycerides usually contain mixtures of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids, but one type of fatty acid tends to predominate

Major functions of Lipids in the Body

-Absorb fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals -Cushion the body against bumps and blows -Form and maintain cell membranes -Participate in cell signaling -Insulate the body against cold temperatures -Produce steroid hormones -Provide and store energy (triglycerides)

Summary of Section 5.1: Introducing Carbohydrates

-Carbohydrates are an important source of energy for the body. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and the sun's energy to make carbohydrates. Human cells break down the bonds in carbohydrates, releasing energy for cellular work.

ALL amino acids contain which of the following elements?

-Carbon -Hydrogen -Nitrogen -Oxygen

Summary of Section 7.3: Protein Synthesis and Structure

-Cells produce proteins by linking amino acids together in specific sequences that are dictated by instructions coded in DNA. Errors in the DNA code can result in the wrong amino acids being inserted into peptide chains. -Proteins have four levels of structure-primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

Summary of Section 5.8: Carbohydrates and Health

-Consuming too many added sugars on a regular basis can contribute to tooth decay. -Many adults are lactose intolerant because they do not produce enough lactase. People with lactose intolerance can often consume small amounts of yogurt and hard cheeses without experiencing intestinal discomfort. Enzyme pills, lactase-treated milk and milk products, and lactose-free products are also available. -Eating fiber-rich foods may reduce the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and certain intestinal tract disorders.

Summary of Section 5.7: Diabetes Mellitus

-Diabetes Mellitus is characterized by elevated blood glucose levels. Poorly treated diabetes can result in cardiovascular disease, kidney failure, blindness, and lower limb amputations. -Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that results from the lack of insulin production by the pancreas. In type 2 diabetes, beta cells of the pancreas usually produce insulin, but cells are insulin-resistant. Type 2 is the more common form of the disease. People who are sedentary are overweight, eat Western diets, and have a close relative with type 2 diabetes are at risk of developing type 2 diabetes. -Gestational diabetes develops during pregnancy. If untreated, this form of diabetes can be dangerous to both mother and fetus. -Regular blood glucose monitoring is import for diabetes management. Physicians treating diabetes evaluate daily blood glucose measurements as well as hemoglobin A1c in determining treatment options. -Medications, diet, and physical activity are important in the management of diabetes. People with type 1 diabetes require insulin through either multiple daily injections or insulin pumps. Type 2 diabetes can often be managed through diet and physical activity but may also require medications to improve insulin sensitivity. -Carbohydrate counting, the Choose Your Foods tool, and glycemic index and glycemic load are tools that people with diabetes can use to control their dietary intakes of carbohydrates.

Summary of Section 6.7: Lipid Consumption Patterns

-During the last century, the amount of fat eaten by Americans increased, primarily because of increased consumption of fast foods and high-fat commercial food products -The AMDR for fat is 20 to 35% of total calories -According to 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans saturated fat should account for less than 10% of total calories, and people should limit their cholesterol intake to as little as possible while following a healthy diet pattern

Summary of Section 6.2: Fatty Acids

-Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated fatty acids can be either monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their chemical structure. -In general, saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature and unsaturated fatty acids are liquid. -The body cannot synthesize the omega-6 fatty acid linoleic acid or the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid; these essential fatty acids must be supplied by the diet -Trans fatty acid molecules have a different configuration than cis fatty acid molecules. Most of the trans fat in food results from the hydrogenation process. Diets that contain high amounts of trans fats from processed foods are associated with an increased risk of developing heart disease and stroke

Summary of Section 5.4: Carbohydrate Consumption Patterns

-Healthy Americans should consume diets that furnish 45 to 65% of energy from carbohydrates, primarily complex carbohydrates. Intakes of added sugars should be limited to less than 10% of total calories.

Summary of Section 6.8: Lipids and Cardiovascular disease

-Heart disease, stroke, and hypertension are major forms of CVD. In the United States, heart disease is the leading cause of death in both males and females. Atherosclerosis is a long-term process that can result in CVD. -Numerous risk factors are associated with atherosclerosis; some risk factors are difficult to modify but many are related to lifestyle practices that can be altered. -Blood lipid levels can have a major influence one a person's risk of CVD. It is better to have high blood levels of HDL cholesterol than high levels of LDL cholesterol because LDL cholesterol contributes to the development of atherosclerosis. Elevated HDL cholesterol is associated with lower risk of this condition.

Summary of Section 7.7: Meeting Protein Needs

-The AMDR for adults is 10 to 35% of energy intake from protein. -The adult RDA for protein is 0.8g/kg of body weight per day. Protein requirements increase during pregnancy; breastfeeding; periods of growth; and recovery from serious illnesses, blood losses, and burns -Protein complementation involves combining certain plant food protein sources to ensure consumption of adequate levels of essential amino acids -Well-planned high-protein diets can be beneficial for health, including weight loss and blood glucose control

Summary of Section 6.5: Cholesterol and Other Sterols

-The sterol cholesterol is a component of every cell membrane. Cells use cholesterol to make a variety of substances, including bile and vitamin D. Cholesterol is found only in animal foods. Plants synthesize sterols and stanols that are not well absorbed by humans

Summary of Section 5.2: Simple Carbohydrates

-The three most important dietary monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose -Glucose is a primary fuel for muscles and other cells; nervous system and red blood cells rely on glucose for energy under normal conditions -Alternative sweeteners provide few or no kcal while sweetening foods and beverages

Summary of Section 6.6: Lipid Digestion, Absorption, and Transport

-The triglycerides and phospholipids in food undergo digestion primarily in the duodenum. The GI hormone CCK stimulates secretion of pancreatic lipase and bile. Bile emulsifies fat molecules, and pancreatic lipase removes two fatty acids from the triglyceride. -Following digestion and absorption of fats, bile salts are reabsorbed in the ileum. Soluble fiber can interfere with this enterohepatic circulation of bile. -The digestion of phospholipids results from phospholipase removing two fatty acids from each phospholipid molecule. -Cholesterol is not broken down and is packaged in micelles along with monoglycerides, fatty acids, and phospholipid fragments. After entering absorptive cells, monoglycerides and two fatty acids re-form triglycerides. -Within small-intestinal absorptive cells, lipids are coated with a layer that contains protein to form chylomicrons. Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic system of the small intestine and eventually reach the bloodstream. The liver uses lipids from chylomicrons to make other lipoproteins.

Summary of Section 7.10: Plant-Based Diets

-There are many different types of plant-based diets, including vegan diets that eliminate all animal foods. -A well-planned plant-based diet can promote health, contributing to reduced risk for cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain types of cancer, and obesity. -If improperly planned, plant-based diets Amy not contain enough energy; high-quality protein; omega-3 fatty acids; vitamins B-12 and D; and zinc, iron, and calcium to meet a person's nutritional needs, especially in children and women who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

Summary of Section 7.1: Introducing Proteins

-proteins are organic compounds that contain nitrogen -proteins have numerous functions in the body, including forming tissues such as muscles and bones, catalyzing chemical reactions, transporting nutrients, and helping maintain proper fluid and acid-base balance

Summary of Section 7.2: Amino Acids

-the chemical structure of an amino acid includes a nitrogen-containing (amine) group, a carboxylic acid group, and an R group. -the diet must supply nine of the amino acids , the essential amino acids, because the body cannot make them or cannot make enough of them to meet its needs

According to the AMDR recommendations, alpha-linolenic acid should provide _________ of a person's total daily energy intake.

0.6-1.2%

For each of the following food sources, rank the food based on the amount of protein provided per serving (1= most protein, 4 = least protein)

1. Chicken breast, 4 oz 2. Pepperoni pizza, 2 slices 3. Vegetarian baked beans, 1/2 cup 4. White rice, cooked, 1 cup

Drag and drop the steps involved in the digestion of protein to the correct locations.

1. Stomach proteins undergo desaturation by stomach acid, and partial digestion by pepsin. 2. Small intestine further digestion occurs as the pancreas secretes protein-splitting enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin. 3. Small intestinal cells final digestion occurs within absorptive cells. 4. Liver after being absorbed, amino acids enter the hepatic portal vein and travel to the liver. 5. Rectum very little dietary protein is excreted in faces.

The Adequate Intake (AI) for alpha-linoleic acid is

1.6g/day for men and 1.1 g/day for women

Fatty acids Figure 6.1

Each of these fatty acids has 18 carbines, but they differ in the number of double bonds. (a) A saturated fatty acid has single bonds between the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain. (b) An unsaturated fatty acid has at least two neighboring carbons within the chain that are missing two hydrogen atoms with a double bond holding those particular carbons together. Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid because it has one double bond. (c) A polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain. Linoleum acid has two double bonds. (d) Alpha-linolenic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid with these double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.

Barry is making a cake for his friend's birthday. Which of the following common ingredients in cake recipes should Barry be sure to add since the ingredient acts as an emulsifier?

Egg

Identify each of the amino aids as either essential or nonessential for a healthy adult

Essential amino acids: Valine, Phenylalanine, and Lysine Nonessential amino acids: Serine, Cytesine, and Alanine

Weight Loss and Physical Activity

Excess body fat, especially around the midsection of the body is associated with unhealthy blood LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Physical inacitivity and excess energy consumption contribute to weight gain. Engaging in moderate-intensity physical activity at least 150 minutes a week and consuming amount of a variety of healthy foods can help people achieve and maintain healthy body weights

T/F Carbohydrate absorption occurs almost exclusively in the stomach

False

T/F Soluble fiber is broken down completely by bacteria in the small intestine

False

T/F The Human Genome Project was established to identify the amino acids in human protein.

False

Which of the following statements is true?

Fat contributes to the flavor of foods

omega 6 fatty acids

Fatty acids that promote blood clotting and cell membrane formation.

After morning class with your stomach growling you go to the cafeteria and devour a large pasta entree for lunch. Following this meal, you blood sugar rises and the pancreas releases ? In an attempt to shuttle blood sugar into your cells

Insulin

Duncan's diet contains high amounts of protein and fat, but it is very low in carbohydrates. As a result of following this diet, Duncan's body forms more __________ than normal.

Ketone bodies

Oxidized _______ is preferentially taken up by macrophages to form foam cells, leading to the formation of arterial plaques

LDL

Small, dense ________ particles tend to promote atherosclerosis

LDL

oxidized LDL

LDL that has been damaged by free radicals

In order for lactose to be digested properly, there must be sufficient___________, the enzyme responsible for breaking the disaccharide lactose into the monosaccharide glucose and galactose.

Lactase

Which of the following statements about lipids is true?

Lipids dissolve in organic solvents, such as alcohol and acetone

Which monosaccharide is added to a glucose molecule to make the disaccharide in the right-hand column?

Maltose-Glucose Sucrose-Fructose Lactose-Galactose

Determine whether each individual has metabolic syndrome or does not have metabolic syndrome.

Metabolic Syndrome: -female, waist circumference 42 inches, fasting blood sugar 145 mg/dL, triglycerides 200 mg/dL, HDL 65 mg/dL, blood pressure 132/92mmHg. -Male, waist circumference 44 inches, fasting blood sugar 95 mg/dL, triglycerides 135 mg/dL, HDL 30 mg/dL, blood pressure 120/80mmHg. Not Metabolic Syndrome: -Female, waist circumference 34 inches, fasting blood sugar 110 mg/dL, triglycerides 100 mg/dL HDL 45 mg/dL, blood pressure 135/90mmHg. -Male, waist circumference 29 inches, fasting blood sugar 78 mg/dL, triglycerides 105 mg/dL, HDL 35 mg/dL, blood pressure 110/90mmHg

Rory recently had his fasting blood lipid levels checked. The results of the blood lipid test are shown below. Indicate where this LDL-cholesterol level is considered optimal, near/above optimal, borderline high, high, or very high

Near optimal/above optimal

For each of the following nutrients, indicate whether that nutrient tends to be consumed in great or lesser amounts in a plant-based diet as compared to a typical American Diet.

Nutrients that tend to be consumed in GREATER amounts in plant-based diets: Fiber, Potassium, and Vitamin C. Nutrients that tend to be consumed in LESSER amounts in plant-based diets: Vitamin B-12, Iron, and Saturated fatty acids.

Which of the following statements is true?

The human digestive tract does not produce enzymes that digest dietary fiber

Is there a connection between regular consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and excess body weight?

The role that sugar-sweetened beverage consumption plays in the development of obesity is controversial. Findings from some scientific studies suggest that people who drink sugar-sweetened beverages do not reduce their energy intake from solid food accordingly. As a result, consumers of sugar-sweetened beverages are more likely to overeat and have excessive energy intakes that contribute to weight gain. By contributing to unwanted weight gain, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages may increase the risk of chronic. disease and premature death.

T/F Fiber-rich diets contribute to weight loss by causing a person to feel full

True

T/F Individuals with diabetes are at a greater risk for COVID-19 and, if infected are more likely to experience severe symptoms associated with the virus

True

about 5-10% of people with diabetes have type 1; in the past this form of diabetes was called juvenile diabetes because it was diagnosed more often in children and young adults;

Type 1 diabetes, however can develop at any age

Gestational diabetes

Type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy

People may also reduce their risk of developing CVD by

making their dietary changes. Eating foods that are rich sources of fiber, particularly soluble fiber can reduce LDL cholesterol levels without lowering beneficial HDL cholesterol levels. When blood triglycerides levels are too high people should consider reducing their intakes of refined carbohydrates such as candy, pastries, and sugar-sweetened soft drinks. Alcohol intake also increases the concentration of triglycerides in the bloods consuming less alcohol may help reduce a person's blood level of their lipid.

protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)

malnutrition that occurs when the diet lacks sufficient protein and energy

Unsaturated fatty acids

may decrease blood levels of total and LDL-cholesterol; usually liquid at room temperature

Trans fatty acids

may increase blood levels of total and LDL-cholesterol; often made through hydrogenation process

Saturated fatty acids

may increase blood levels of total and LDL-cholesterol; usually solid at room temperature

blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

measure of the concentration of urea in blood

urine urea nitrogen (UUN)

measure of the concentration of urea in urine

The risk of heart disease increases as people grow older and

men are more likely to have heart attacks than women. Although a woman's risk of developing CVD increase after menopause her risk is still less than that of a man of the same age

ketone bodies

molecules formed from the metabolism of fat

Fructose

monosaccharide in fruits, honey, and certain vegetables; "fruit sugar"

Galactose

monosaccharide that is a component of lactose

Glucose

monosaccharide that is a primary fuel for muscles and other cells; "blood sugar"

In general, compared to grain-fed beef, grass-fed beef often has

more omega-3 fatty acids

Gaucher disease

most common lipid storage disease; caused by a deficiency of an enzyme involved in lipid metabolism

Type 2 diabetes

most common type of diabetes, beta cells of the pancreas produce insulin, but the hormone's target cells are insulin-resistant, leading to elevated blood glucose levels

to determine a person's RDA for protein

multiply their weight in kilograms by 0.8g

creatinine

nitrogen-containing waste produced by muscles

Although nearly all foods contain protein

no naturally occurring food is 100% protein

stachyose

non digestible oligosaccharide made of four monosaccharides

raffinose

non digestible oligosaccharide made of three monosaccharides

dietary fiber ("fiber")

non digestible plant material; most types are polysaccharides. complex carbohydrates comprised of monosaccharides connected by bonds that human enzymes cannot break

A healthy human body can make 11 of the 20 amino acids that are proteins. These compounds are the

nonessential amino acids

Registered Dietitian Nutritionist (RDN)

now face the opportunity and challenge to make genetically and physiologically driven dietary recommendations

A food that is gluten free is not necessarily

nutrient dense or a healthy addition to the diet. There are many gluten-free potato chips, cakes, and cookies that are high in simple sugars, fat, and sodium

Fructose tastes much sweeter than glucose and is easily

obtained from the processing of corn, a crop readily available in the United States.

high-protein diet

one that provides an amount of protein greater than the RDA, usually 20 to 35% of calories. For most people, the RDA (0.8g/kg body weight) constitutes 10-15% of the calories in a normal diet. However, in the United States the average protein intake is about 1.44 g/kg body weight across all ages and genders, which corresponds to approximately 15 to 18% of total calories. According to the AMDR for protein for healthy adults, protein intake should be less than 35% of calories.

In a particular food such as olives or cheese, the unsaturated and saturated fats occur in different proportions, but

one type of fatty acid (SFA, MUFA, or PUFA) often predominates

People can modify their food selection and preparation practices to

reduce their intakes of dietary fat, especially unhealthy fats. Processed and cured meats should be limited in the diet because they contribute harmful fats and preservatives to the diet. In addition, certain preparations methods can increase the tenderness and flavor of leaner cuts of meat without adding fat. Moist cooking methods, such as pot roasting or tightly covering the baking dish with foil, help tenderize meats without added fat. After cooking avoid eating the visible fat that remains. For example trim away much of the fat from the meat and do not use pan drippings to make sauces or graives

Consumption of well-planned plant-based diets has been associated with

reduced risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and certain cancers. Furthermore, vegans tend to be leaner than non vegans.

High-fiber diets are associated with all of the following except

reduced secretion of intrinsic factor

Cells metabolize glucose to

release the energy stored in the molecule

carbon skeleton

remains of an amino acid following removal of the nitrogen-containing component (amino acid) of the amino acid

Deamination

removal of the nitrogen-containing group from an amino acid

Many common menu items can be converted into plant-based foods by

removing the meat, fish, or poultry. For example, pizza and lasagna can be prepared without meat and still provide adequate protein from the cheese swell as the crust or pasta.

Having one or more risk factors increases a person's chances of developing the condition. It is important to understand that a

risk factor is not the same as a cause of disease and that atherosclerosis is an extremely complex disease process

Each of the following foods often contains small amounts of plant sterols and/or stanols except

salmon

lipoprotein profile

series of blood tests to evaluate total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels

anaphylaxis

serious, life-threatening allergic reaction to food, an insect bite, a drug, or another substance such as latex

disaccharide

simple sugar that has two monosaccharides linked (bonded) together. Major dietary are maltose, sucrose, and lactose

monosaccharide

simple sugar that is the basic molecule of carbohydrates

The carbons in the fatty acid chain have

single bonds between them. Note that each carbon in the chain has two hydrogen atoms attached to it.

negative nitrogen balance

state in which the body loses more nitrogen than it retains

positive nitrogen balance

state in which the body retains more nitrogen than it loses

Millions of Americans take a class of prescription drugs called

statins to reduce their elevated blood lipid levels. Statins interfere with the liver's metabolism of cholesterol effectively reducing LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Statins are relatively safe when taken as directed and with regular monitoring by a healthcare provider

Which of the following is an example of a saturated fatty acid?

stearic acid

starch

storage polysaccharide in plants; composed of amylose and amylopectin

The trans configuration at the double bond enables the hydrocarbon chain to be relatively

straight, which is similar to an SFA molecule's structure. Fats that contain a high proportion of trans fatty acids are more solid at room temperature than those with a high proportion of cis fatty acids

quaternary structure

structure of protein that is comprised of two or more polypeptide chains arranged together in a complex manner

nutrigenetics

study of how inherited genetic variations influence the body's responses to specific nutrients and nutrient combinations

nutrigenomics

study of how nutrients affect the expression of a person's genome

nutritional genomics

study of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics

emulsifier

substance that helps water-soluble and water-insoluble compounds mix with each other

nutritive sweeteners

substances that sweeten and contribute energy to foods

Added sugars

such as sucrose and HFCS, which are chemically similar to sucrose, are widely incorporated into foods during processing or prepared.

MUFAs generally lower blood LDL cholesterol

without reducing HDL cholesterol levels. As with the action of MUFAs, diets containing high amounts of PUFAs may reduce blood levels of total cholesterol and blood LDL cholesterol. In some individuals however PUFAs also reduce beneficial HDL cholesterol. Nevertheless PUFAs tend to be healthful because they do not promote atherosclerosis. To reduce the risk of developing CVD, the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and American Heart Association guidelines recommend limiting saturated fat intake to less than 10% of total energy by replacing foods that are rich sources of long-chain saturated fat with foods that contain greater percentages of unsaturated fat. This can be accomplished by eating fewer solid fats, especially foods made with partially hydrogenated oils, such as stick margarine.