Disasters

Two Types of Disasters

Natural and Technological

Examples

Aloha Airlines Flight 243 Explosive caused by metal fatigue - direct impact of aircraft on land ValuJet Airlines Flight 592 1996 110 dead Crashed in Florida Everglades Cause: Incorrect stowage of flammable materials Air France Flight 447 2009 228 dead Crashed in sea 550 nautical miles off coast of Brazil Pieces of plane and bodies recovered from surface and at depth by ROVs Cause: not known for sure, possibly faulty air speed indicators (Pitot Tubes) TWA Flight 800 1996 230 dead Cause: Air/Fuel Explosion in the centre wing fuel tank Pan Am Flight 103 Lockerbie, Scotland 1988 259 dead in aircraft 11 dead on the ground Cause: Bomb Plane debris rained down on village Human bodies, body parts and luggage also rained down on village

Can also fragment remains

An Example: Tooth fragments and partial denture from bushfire victim. Used by Forensic Odontologist to aid identification.

Example One

Beichuan county, Sichuan province, China, 2008 Magnitude 7.8 earthquake Thousands dead Bodies sprayed with disinfectant Mass burials

Example One

Bubonic plague mass grave, Martigues, France, 1720-1721. Yersinia pestis DNA successfully extracted from teeth. Found to be a variety of the "orientalis" strain, still extant. East Smithfield bubonic plague mass grave, 1348-1350. Yersinia pestis DNA successfully extracted from bones and teeth. Disease strain no longer extant.

Is it human?

Building materials which mimic human bones and teeth after exposure to fire Aids to identification: Bilateral hip replacement Aids to identification: Watch, ring, mobile phone. Underwire bra. Separation of co- mingled remains Determination of age, sex, ancestry, stature

High temperatures 870-980°C

Burning while flesh still covered bones. • Warping • Transverse fractures • Irregular lengthwise splitting Burning of dry bones (no flesh). • Cracking • Longitudinal splitting

Crime: Tri- State Cemetery

Discovered 2002 Bogus cremations- bodies dumped on site. May have been going on since 1996. 339 un-cremated bodies discovered, but possibly up to 1000 dumped on site. Crime: Tokyo subway gas attack 1995 Sarin gas Aum Shinrikyo Group 13 dead, 1000 injured

Studying Influenza genome

Dr Johan Hultin 1951 Gained permission from Inuit elders to excavate a mass grave from the Spanish Influenza pandemic at Brevig Mission. Aim was to sample infected tissue and culture it in the lab. Unsuccessful. His samples are among those used in 2005 to sequence the Spanish Flu genome. Further attempts to excavate victims from frozen graves in the 1990s and 2000s Sir Mark Sykes d. 1919 Permission to exhume and sample granted 2008 2005 Spanish Flu virus "resurrected" from exhumed arctic tissue. Found to be much more virulent than modern flu. Concerns terrorists will use the virus as a bioweapon.

Industrial Disasters

Faversham Marshes, Kent Ammunition factory explosion 106 dead (workers + spectators) Bhopal Gas Disaster 1984 3 000 deaths instantly + 25 000 later Methyl Isocyanate gas released by Union Carbide pesticide factory.

Pugilistic Position

Heat shrinkage of muscles cause arms, legs, fingers and toes to bend.

Examples

Hiroshima 1945 90 000 - 166 000 dead Atomic bomb blast aftermath "Shadows" of people vaporised near blast epicentre + shadows of built structures Fukushima, Japan 2011 Earthquake, Tsunami and nuclear accident

examples

London bus bombing. Part of terrorist attacks of 2005 Madrid train bombing 2004 Pakistan Mosque bombing Israel bus bombing

Taphonomic Factors

Primary Factors • Explosion fragmentation • G-force impact fragmentation • Burning • Crushing • Dismemberment (eg from flying/moving debris) Secondary Factors • Burning • Temperature and humidity • Water effects (T°C, salinity) • Decomposition effects • Crushing • Carnivore/ rodent activity • Freefall injuries • Ground impact injuries

More Info

Primary- Pressure injuries eg burst eardrum, "blast lung", injury to hollow organs, brain injury. Secondary- Debris injuries eg multiple penetrating injuries, tissue devastation, traumatic amputations. Tertiary- multiple blunt injuries, crush syndromes, crush asphyxiation Quaternary- burns, particle inhalation. • Aim of the bomber is to cause massive numbers of deaths in a horrific manner.

Suicide Bombers

Religious or ideological motivation. Bomb often packed with explosives + ball bearings (shrapnell) + rat poison (anti- coagulant) to increase number of dead and wounded. If bomb worn around waist, bomber cut in half by blast. Often only the head is recognisable. Warning- graphic pictures next

Example Two

San Francisco Earthquake 1906 • Groundfissures. • Liquefaction. • Objectsthrownin the air. • Underground pipes ruptured. Draws in water around building and buildings sink • Brokengaspipes ignited. • Widespreadcityfire. • Madeworsebyuseof dynamite. Refugee camp 1906 San Francisco earthquake

Example Two

Spanish Influenza • Pandemic of 1918 - 1920. • Killed 20 million - 50 million people worldwide. • Spread of disease assisted by large population movements at the end of World War I. • Even spread to the Arctic and Pacific Islands. • Geographic origin not known. • Most victims healthy young adults (unlike usual type of flu victims- juvenile, old, infirm). • Now known to be an avian flu of the H1N1 type. • Kills by creating a "cytokine storm" ie over-reaction of the immune system.

More Info

The recovery and clean up operation begins at Fresh Kills Landfill Personal effects found during sorting Sorted rubble dumped in landfill Area given a final inspection before moving on to the next pile of debris

Shipwrecks

Titanic 1912, 1514 dead costa concordia shipwreck 2012 4242 passengers and crew 32 dead, 2 missing Difficult search conditions inside ship

Natural Disasters

can involve: Water: - flash floods, floods, tsunamis Air: - tornadoes, hurricanes, cyclones Earth: - earthquakes, landslides, mudslides Biological: - diseases pandemics

Floods, Flash Floods, Tsunamis

• 90% of flood deaths due to drowning. • Debris in flood water, and impact with stationary objects, causes trauma and dismemberment of bodies. • Get large body sections with multiple fractures, loss of extremities, bruises, abrasions. • Fragmentation of body into small pieces is rare. • Bodies often camouflaged by mud and silt. • Bodies found by helicopter search, field walking and cadaver dog searches. Dry and wet drowning: Dry - no air or water in Wet - water in

Hurricanes and Tornadoes

• 90% of hurricane deaths are due to drowning. • Damage to bodies similar to flood damage- large body pieces with some dismemberment. • Damage depends on amount of debris the body has impacted with. Other effects of flood and hurricanes - cemetery washouts --- 1993 - Hardin Cemetery, Hardin, Missouri - over half the town cemetery washed away by flood - more than 800 graves - burials dating to 1880s to 1993 - some remains still in coffin others washed out of coffins - search area 34,000 acres - degree of preservation variable - Hurricane Katrina cemetery washout in tree- Merrick Cemetery, coastal town affected by storm surge from Hurricane Katrina - 8-10m high

Fires

• A primary cause of death or secondary to another event such as aircraft crash, gas explosion etc • Death toll worse in modern fires due to fumes from burning plastics and synthetic materials which cause poisoning or asphyxiation. Kings Cross Station Fire 1987 32 dead Cause: Lit match discarded and lodged in old wooden escalator built in WWII. Ignited grease and fibres stuck on escalator. Mont Blanc Tunnel Fire 1999 39 dead Cause: Truck carrying flour and margarine caught fire in tunnel. Stops traffic. People die of suffocation and heat in shelter areas.

Aircraft Crashes

• Aircraft crashes involve impact, freefall, fire and environmental effects. • Impact G-forces cause fragmentation- greater the force, the greater the fragmentation. • Intensity and duration of subsequent fire determines the degree of burning of the remains. • Water and low temperature alter decomp. rates.• Characteristics of de-celerative crash force effect on human bone --- Vertebral body compression 20-30 g- force Fracture dislocation of c1/ c2 20-40 g- force Mandible fractures 40 g- force skull fractures 50 + g- force Pelvic fractures 100-200 g- force Total body fragmentation 350+ g- force

3. Taphonomy of Disasters

• Analysis of the degree of preservation of human remains in a Mass Fatality Incident. • Taphonomic factors are unique to each disaster and depend on the nature and sequence of the events.

4. Role of Forensic Archaeologist and Anthropologist

• At the Scene - - - - - Set up grid system for search, recording and recovery of remains Set up a search criteria appropriate for the circumstances Recognise human remains Document position of remains on grid system Recover remains • At the Morgue - Determine human vs animal remains - Describe condition of remains and incomplete or fragmentary remains - Analyse remains for age, sex, ancestry, stature - Separate co-mingled remains - Re-associate body parts - Determine Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) - Collect samples for identification- tissue, implants, DNA - Analyse trauma pattern and disaster related injuries - Liaise with Radiologists, Odontologists, Investigators

Landslide, Mudslide, Avalanche

• Bodies show similar features to flood victims ie large body sections with multiple fractures, loss of extremities, bruises, abrasions. • Degree of damage depends upon force of event distance travelled and amount of debris encountered during transport. • Large volumes of dirt/mud/snow can preserve bodies from decay by excluding oxygen and insects.

Volcanic Eruptions

• Causes of death include toxic gas poisoning, suffocation, heat stress, burning. • Bodies covered with layers of volcanic ash. • Bodies may be charred. • Bodies may be crushed by collapsed buildings. Examples : Mt Merapi, Indonesia, Monterrat Island, Lesser Antilles, Caribbean 1995 Town of Plymouth covered by pyroclastic flow, St Pierre, Martinique, eruption of Mt Pelee 1902 Body extremities may be burned away in severe fires. Mr Merapi, Indonesia

Doomsday Cults

• Charismatic leader with apocalyptic vision. • Can kill themselves or innocent civilians. • Cause of death varies- poison, gunshot Jonestown, Guyana 1978 People's Temple Sect c. 900 dead by poison Branch Davidian Compound Siege, Waco, Texas 1993 Siege lasted 50 days 76 dead Gunfights, explosions, tear gas Fire and damage made worse by stockpile of weapons and explosives and exploding propane gas tank Death by gunshot wound, fire

Structural Collapses

• Collapse of buildings and other structures (eg bridges) due to corrosion or faulty construction. • On land, bodies generally complete, but crushed. • In water, bodies resemble those of flood victims. • Continues to be a problem with ageing infrastructure and lack of building regulations in some parts of the world. Sampoong Department Store Collapse, Korea 1995 Over 500 dead Cause: Faulty Construction Hyatt Regency Hotel, Kansas "Skywalk" walkway collapse 1981 114 dead, 216 injured Cause: Faulty Construction

Mass Shootings

• Conducted by lone gunmen or terrorists. • Indiscriminate killing and wounding of civilians Mumbai, India 2008 11 co-ordinated shooting and bombing attacks c. 195 dead (incl 10 attackers)

More Info

• February 2005, efforts ended of identify victims. • All current DNA technology exhausted. • The remains of over 1 100 victims are still unidentified. • Approx. 10 000 tissue samples freeze dried and vacuum sealed for preservation. • Many unidentified victims were passengers on Flight 11 and Flight 175.

Pandemic Diseases

• From the Greek words "pan" = all; "demos" = people • Occurs when a contagious disease spreads through human populations on multiple continents, or worldwide, and kills many people. • eg Bubonic Plague ("Black Death") and Spanish Influenza. • Archaeologists excavate burials from pandemics to sample pathogen DNA. • Helps gather info on the evolution of the disease and provides material for future vaccines.

The effect of heat and burning on bodies

• Heat related shrinkage of muscles results in the "pugilistic position". • This often preserves the fingertips- so body can be fingerprinted for identification. • Very severe fires burn the ends of protruding long bones. • Blowout fractures of skull due to vapour pressure in cranial vault.

more info

• In some cases, bones too burned to yield DNA for identification. • In these cases, bone morphology/pathology and personal effects helped with identification. • Recovery time- 10 days • DNA and bone analysis- 40 days • Re-assembly of remains- 10 days • Return of remains to relatives- 60 days

More info

• Large joints (hip, knee, ankle) often recovered because these have many ligaments to hold these joints together. • Cranial bones fragment severely on impact leaving little of the cranium intact. • In crashes into the ocean, ribs always broken, skull fractured 96% of time, pelvis 88%, face and spine 83%, sternum 71%, lower leg 63%, thigh 58%, upper arm 56%. Controlled slow impact crashes show a wider range of injuries depending upon circumstances. • High impact crashes can flatten bodies like a pancake and damage tissue to the extent that victims are barely recognisable as human. + Mid- air beak- ups expose bodies to high winds, flying debris and impact + Falling aircraft debris can kill people on the ground as well

Earthquake

• Majority of deaths due to falling buildings, masonry or other structures. • Causes of death include skull injuries, multiple body trauma injuries, chest crushing injuries, heart attack. • Remains usually crushed but complete inside collapsed structures. • Subsequent fires may burn remains. • Earthquakes accompanied by aftershocks- danger for rescue workers & further damage to remains. • Earthquakes may spark subsequent landslides.

Case Study: Deagu Subway Disaster, Korea, 2003

• Male perpetrator spilled a bottle of paint thinner on the floor of #1079 train and lit it. • All passengers safely evacuated. • #1080 train arrived at the station opposite the burning train. • Fire shifted and ignited the #1080 train. • Train engulfed immediately. • Automatic door system on train not operational due to fire. • Passengers crowded into first two carriages. • Victims exposed to intense heat for c. 1 hour. • 142 dead. • Many burned beyond recognition, bodies highly fragmented, much of the extremities lost. • No passenger list (as in an air crash), so number of potential victims unknown. • Recovery effort notable for its excellent planning, record keeping and identifications. • In-situ photos taken of body positions in carriage. • Each body given a Ca ("cadaver") number plus number for the carriage section in which it was found. - eg A12Ca01-3 = body from carriage A sector 12, body number 1, third bag of remains. • Un-associated bone fragments placed in bags with Fr ("fragments") number. - eg. B03Fr02 = fragments from carriage B sector 3, second bag of fragments. #1080 train cars divided into sectors. Most of the victims found in cars A and B, so sectors smaller there.

What is a disaster?

• Mass Fatality Incident (MFI). • Disaster = a sudden great misfortune, or mishap, a calamity (OED). • Large number of deaths involved. • Large numbers of people killed + large numbers of people walk away. - Relatively few with moderate levels of injury. • First responders practice "Reverse Triage" where the less wounded are treated first, before the more seriously wounded. - This makes the maximum use of limited medical supplies and limited medical personnel.

Bombings

• Primary blast injury to the brain and body. - Organs containing air suffer most in primary blast- lungs, ears, sinuses, stomach, bowel. • Secondary blast injury by being hit with flying debris/shrapnell and pieces of buildings. • Tertiary blast injury by being thrown against walls/vehicles and building collapse. • People close to the blast may be dismembered or fragmented. • Degree of body damage depends upon distance from bomb and bomb construction

More on the effect of burning

• Secondary burning may occur after airplane crashes, bombings and explosions. • Intense heat may char, burn or calcine bone (calcine = totally burn away organic component and water in bone). • Long intense fires may result in loss of small bones- long bones and pelvis most often preserved. • Bone fragments sometimes mixed with collapsed building material fragments and other debris.

Bushfires

• Sections of vegetation ignited due to natural causes (eg lightning) or arson. • Causes of death include carbon monoxide poisoning, suffocation, heat stress, burning. • Bodies may be charred. • Bodies may be crushed by collapsed buildings. • Remains may be extremely fragmentary. Black Saturday victoria 2009

9/11 Terrorist Attacks

• Sept 11 2001, USA • 19 Al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked 4 passenger jets. • 2 aircraft flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center. • 1 aircraft flown into the Pentagon. • 1 aircraft crashed in a field after passengers fight back. • 2 996 dead, over 6 000 injured. American Airlines Flight 11 flown into North Tower 8:46am. United Airlines Flight 175 about to hit the South Tower 9:03am. American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into Pentagon 9:37am. United Airlines Flight 93 taken back by passengers but crashed in field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania 10:03am. First responders race to burning towers. At least 200 people jump to avoid fire. The Towers start to collapse within 2 hours of impact Building collapse also kills and injures first responders on the ground. Collapsed towers and surrounding buildings burn for days

Types of Disasters Natural vs Technological

• Technological (man made) - Transportation: ships, planes, trains, vehicles - Construction: structural collapses - Industrial: chemical spills - Radiation: nuclear accidents - Fire: building fires, tunnel fires, gas explosions - Bombs: terrorism - Mass shootings: lone gunman and terrorist attacks - Doomsday cults: mass suicide and terrorist attacks - Crime: Tri State Crematory, Tokyo subway gas attacks

Initial Stages of Identification

• Used photographs, Xrays, dental records, fingerprints, tattoos, scars etc. • Families provided personal samples to create a DNA profile. • Genetically related individuals provided a DNA sample for comparison. • Only 293 intact bodies were recovered for identification. • Over 26 000 biological samples were recovered with as many as 200 samples belonging to one individual. • 18 refrigerated trucks used to store samples. • 1000th victim identified April 29, 2002. • Excavation of site closed May 2002. • By late 2004, more than 1 500 WTC victims identified by DNA analysis.

Nuclear Blasts & Accidents

• Vaporisation of bodies at epicentre. • Severe burning/charring of bodies close to blast. • Extensive radiation exposure. • Causes of death include percussion injuries, suffocation, dust inhalation, smoke inhalation, skin burns, radiation sickness.

9/11 Terrorist Attacks

• Worst terrorist attack in recorded history. • Worst building disaster in recorded history. • Multipledisastersallinone-aircrashes,building collapses, fires, dust. • 2,996 people died. • >350 fire and emergency responders were among those killed. • 1.8 million tons of debris was removed from the disaster site. The Freedom Tower is the planned centerpiece building of the new WTC complex. Construction began 2006. The WTC Memorial, Reflecting Absence, began construction in 2006. Two 10 metre deep pools with waterfalls in the footprints of the two towers. Names of the victims inscribed on the wall