DOMAIN 5

What are the critical elements of the district and school infrastructure that must be in place to implement and sustain MTSS?

1. Highly effective personnel deliver scientific research-based instruction and evidence-based practices. 2. Curriculum and instructional approaches have a high probability of success for most students. 3. Instruction is differentiated to meet individual learning needs. 4. Reliable, valid, and instructionally relevant assessments include the following: Screening Measures: Assessment tools designed to collect data for the purpose of measuring the effectiveness of core instruction and identifying students needing more intensive interventions and support Diagnostic Measures: Formal or informal assessment tools that measure skill strengths and weaknesses, identify skills in need of improvement, and assist in determining why a problem is occurring Progress Monitoring Measures: Ongoing assessment conducted for the purposes of guiding instruction, monitoring student progress, and evaluating instruction/intervention effectiveness Formative Measures: Ongoing assessment embedded within effective teaching to guide instructional decisions Summative (Outcome) Measures: Typically administered near the end of the school year to give an overall perspective of the effectiveness of the instructional program 5. Ongoing, systematic problem solving is consistently used, from enrollment to graduation for all students, to make decisions across a continuum of student needs. 6. Student data are used to guide meaningful decision making. 7. Professional development and follow-up coaching with modeling are provided to ensure effective instruction at all levels. 8. Actively engaged administrative leadership for data-based decision making is inherent to the school culture. 9. All students and their parent(s) are part of one proactive and seamless educational system.

Describe five different strategies for establishing a productive classroom—one in which students are working consistently toward achieving instructional objectives. Describe each of these strategies in a short paragraph, being specific and concrete as to what the teacher should do to enhance student outcomes

A) Classroom organization- Have materials ready. Develop procedures to pass out materials. Develop routines to deal with non-instructional tasks, such as attendance, lunch count, or book money. Develop procedures to deal with interruptions. Develop "withitness," an atmosphere in which the students feel that you are on top of the situation in the classroom. Teachers who are "withit" are aware of what is going on and deal with situations in a timely manner. Manage your lessons well, so you are keeping things moving smoothly from one part of a lesson to the next Clarify expectations with the students. Clarifying expectations with the students rather than to the students creates a situation where you and your students are working together. B) Emphasize Student Accountability Design your accountability procedures with bringing about student success in learning as the main goal. Manage student work: Set standards to guide students in succeeding Post assignments Collect and hand back student work Keep track of completed assignments Help students keep track of their own work in progress Hold students accountable for missing work Inform students who have been absent about assignments Give feedback Have students self manage C) Provide Choices Student involvement in curriculum choices. Having students involved in appropriate curriculum choices is a great way to get students actively engaged in the learning process. For example, "appropriate" can be choosing the order in a list of topics in social studies or choosing which activities students will like to do in the process of meeting standards. Structured choices in assignments. Giving students choices in how they do their assignments is another critical strategy for preventing classroom problems. When students have a choice of two or three ways in which they can do their assignments, they are much less apt to choose not to do their assignments. D) Conducive Classroom Climate Pre-planned Constructed jointly between teacher and students, adopted and taught. Rules or code of conduct that establish a learning environment. Guidelines include: • Three to eight rules • Focus on the positive • Understandable, reasonable, and attainable • Posted in classroom • Student involvement • Consistency with school rules • Support of effective learning principles Effective managers have procedures for the following: • Entering and leaving the room • Beginning and ending the day or period • Getting students' attention • Student interaction • Using areas of the room: drinking fountain, pencil sharpener, supply shelves, and centers • Bathroom use • Working individually and together Move around interacting with students and monitor what they are doing. The more you use proximity in this way, the more on top of the situation you will be, and the more "withitness" you will have. E) Maximize Engaged Time Progressing from allocated time, or the amount of time a teacher designates for a content area or topic, to academic learning time, or the amount of time students are actively involved in learning activities during which they're successful, represents a stronger correlation with learning. In classrooms where students are engaged and successful, achievement is high, learners feel a sense of competence and self-efficacy, and interest in the topic increases. For example teachers can have students complete review exercises during non-instructional time (i.e. handing back work, taking attendance). This activates students prior knowledge,, focuses their attention, and eliminated non-instructional time when disruptions are most common. This maximizes student time for learning.

Define primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention and then explain how these services are implemented to promote prosocial development in middle school.

At a primary prevention level, Social Skills can be taught to all students focusing on practical skills that help all students to be successful in most situations and settings. Among these skills are: Listening, Following Directions, Asking for Help, Ignoring Distractions, Dealing with Teasing, Accepting a Consequence, Dealing with an Accusation, Setting a Goal, and Understanding Your Own or Someone Else's Feelings. These skills would benefit all students and can be integrated into any school curriculum. At the secondary and tertiary prevention levels, Social Skills Programs are used more strategically, and are connected to other needed behavioral interventions. For the secondary level, small groups can work on more specific strategies, and behavior therapy interventions. For example, for situations where students display anger control issues, social skills groups could focus on pro social behaviors, emotional control skills (e.g., Understanding your Feelings, Dealing with Anger, Avoiding Trouble), and Consequence/ Response skills (e.g., Dealing with Fear, Failure, and Accusations). At the tertiary level individual intervention plans should be implemented. All of the above skills should be focused on with a high degree of intensity and frequency and with individualized attention.

Demonstrate your understanding of one major theoretical system of learning by: (A) explaining the major concepts and principles of this theory, and (B) describing a hypothetical learning situation in which you use these principles in effective intervention techniques to promote learning.

Behaviorism, as a learning theory, is based on a change in knowledge through controlled stimulus/response conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an instructor for acquisition of knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate factual knowledge, then observe, measure, and modify behavioral changes in specified direction. This type of learning is a conditioned response or memorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors. According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. Classical Conditioning is the process of learning in which a neutral stimulus (a stimulus which does not elicit a response), is repeatedly paired with with a stimulus that naturally elicits a responses. In turn the once neutral stimulus now elicits the particular response. Operant Conditioning is increasing or decreasing a person's behavior (in form, frequency or strength) by systematically changing its consequence ( reinforcing or punishing). It is different from classical conditioning, because it deals with VOLUNTARY behavior. * Reinforcement (consequence that causes behavior to occur with greater intensity) * Punishment (consequence that causes behavior to occur less often) * Extinction (lack of consequence following a behavior results in that behavior declining and eventually stopping altogether) Discriminative Stimulus- signals reinforcement or punishment is available; behavior occurs, reinforcement or punishment is presented Positive Reinforcement- The presentation of a stimulus (consequence), following a behavior, which increases the frequency of that behavior in the future. Example- Inserting a dollar into a soda machine (behavior), a soda pops out (consequence-presentation of stimulus), person will continue and be more likely to insert dollar into soda machine in the future (increase in frequency of behavior) Negative Reinforcement- The removal of a stimulus, following a behavior, which increases the frequency of that behavior in the future. Example- A person puts on a jacket when cold (behavior), they are no longer cold (consequence- removal of stimulus), the person will continue and be more likely to put on a jacket when cold Positive Punishment- The presentation of a stimulus, following a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. Example- A child unknowingly touches a hot stove, the child burns his or her finger (consequence- presentation of stimulus), the child is less likely to touch the stove in the future Negative Punishment- The removal of stimulus, following a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. Example- A child fails to complete all of their assigned chores for the week, the parent takes away their allowance (consequence- removal of stimulus), the child is less likely to fail to complete their assigned chores in the future. b) Example: A student who has a difficult time meeting behavioral expectations during certain times of the day, which is impacting his or her learning, may benefit from a token economy. The student is given a schedule of activities that he/she will be engaged in throughout the day. For every activity, the student can earn a smiley face. During the last 10 minutes of the day, if the student earns a specified amount of smiley faces he/she can have a desired activity, such as playing on the iPad. This uses positive reinforcement to increase desired behavior. The child's positive behavior should increase and negative behavior should decrease because positive behavior is being reinforced through tokens and eventually a preferred activity.

Compare and contrast the following behavioral learning theories: A) Pavlov's Classical Conditioning, (B) Skinner's Operant Conditioning, and (C) Bandura's Social Learning.

Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is a kind of learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the CS is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the US is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the US is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated (some learning may occur already after only one pairing), the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the CS when the CS is presented alone. The CR is usually similar to the UR (see below), but unlike the UR, it must be acquired through experience and is relatively impermanent.[1] Classical conditioning differs from operant or instrumental conditioning, in which a behavior is strengthened or weakened, depending on its consequences (i.e., reward or punishment).[2] Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its antecedents and consequences. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (or respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the reinforcement and punishment to change behavior. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by its antecedents and consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviors which are also elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned through a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences. Some key concepts in operant conditioning: Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers: Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. Negative Reinforcement involves the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases. Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment: Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases. Social learning theory posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.[1] In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.[2] Social learning theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963[1] and further detailed in 1977,[11] key tenets of social learning theory are as follows:[12] Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context. Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement). Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior. Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning. The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).

Mr. Smart's assignment is to design a treatment program for Danny, a child diagnosed with ASD in Mrs. Smith's room. Help Mr. Smart recall as many of the guidelines for creating an appropriate and effective program as possible.

Educational planning for students with autism often addresses a wide range of skill development, including academics, communication and language skills, social skills, self-help skills, behavioral issues, self-advocacy and leisure skills. School-age children with autism respond well to highly structured, specialized education programs designed to meet individual needs. Social skill development, sensory integration, communication, and behavior are the main areas to examine when creating a treatment program. Many programs will encompass all of those areas but the plan should be individualized to the student's needs. Open communication between school staff and parents can lead to better evaluation of a student's progress and goal-setting. Teachers should have some understanding of the child's behavior and communication skills at home, and parents should let educators know about their expectations, as well as techniques that work at home. Community goals, such as purchasing meals and grocery shopping, can be reinforced through job assignments in the classroom, and activities of daily living goals, such as appropriate hygiene each day, can also be practiced in both settings. Academic goals need to be tailored to the student's intellectual ability and functioning level. http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/specialedjournal/MarderandFraser

You have been asked to assess a suspected gifted underachiever. The youngster has been described as immature, passive and unmotivated. How should you proceed?

First you should review all of the student's school records, inclusive of school grades and previous testing. It is important to interview the student's teachers as well. Make sure to interview the teacher where the student is having the greatest difficulty. You should also \ Since details of the referral include social emotional concerns, behavior rating scales should be completed for the student. For example the BASC behavior rating scales can be completed by a parent, teachers, and the student. A clinical interview of the student should also be conducted by the school psychologist to gauge student interests, likes, dislikes, and overall functioning. A standardized cognitive assessment should also be administered to obtain current cognitive functioning (ie the WISC if the student is in the appropriate age range). Based on the results of these assessments the team should consider implementing interventions which increase student motivation and account for any social emotional issues the student might be exhibiting.

Describe a program you would develop to prevention peer bullying in middle school. Provide support to show why and how the program would be appropriate and effective.

I would develop a program similar to the Olweus Program, is it is one of the most used and researched bullying prevention programs in the world and is specifically targeted towards elementary and middle school students. The goals of the program are to reduce existing bullying problems among students, to prevent the development of new bullying problems, to achieve better peer relations at school. All students participate in most aspects of the program, while students identified as bullying others, or as targets of bullying, should receive additional individualized interventions. It addresses bullying on a whole-school, systems-change program at four different levels. SCHOOL-LEVEL COMPONENTS • Establish a Bullying Prevention Coordinating Committee. • Conduct committee and staff trainings. • Administer Bullying Questionnaire schoolwide. • Hold staff discussion group meetings. • Introduce the school rules against bullying. • Review and refine the school's supervisory system. • Hold a school kick-off event to launch the program. • Involve parents. CLASSROOM-LEVEL COMPONENTS • Post and enforce schoolwide rules against bullying. • Hold regular class meetings. • Hold meetings with students' parents. INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL COMPONENTS • Supervise students' activities. • Ensure that all staff intervene on the spot when bullying occurs. • Hold meetings with students involved in bullying. • Hold meetings with parents of involved students. • Develop individual intervention plans for involved students. COMMUNITY-LEVEL COMPONENTS • Involve community members on the Bullying Prevention Coordinating Committee. • Develop partnerships with community members to support your school's program. • Help to spread anti-bullying messages and principles of best practice in the community. A program that includes the above components shows that average reductions of 20 to 70 percent in student reports of being bullied and bullying others. Peer and teacher ratings of bullying problems have yielded roughly similar results. Marked reductions in student reports of general antisocial behavior, such as vandalism, fighting, theft, and truancy. Clear improvements in the classroom social climate, as reflected in students' reports of improved order and discipline, more positive social relationships, and more positive attitudes toward schoolwork and school. For middle school specifically this program should be implemented for the entire year to truly be effective.

How could Abraham Maslow's Theory of Motivation be used to help teachers motivate students in their classrooms?

Maslow developed a hierarchy reflecting the needs of the whole person. For instance we see the physical person in survival and safety needs, the social person in belonging needs, the emotional person in self-esteem needs, and the self-actualized person in growth needs. Growth needs are needs in intellectual achievement and aesthetic appreciation that increase as people have experiences with them. Deficiency needs belong to the bottom of the hierarchy (survival, safety, belonging, and self esteem) and energize people until those needs are met. They will not move to growth unless those needs are met. Once they are met the individual can focus on growth which can lead to self-actualization. Applications in the classroom seem to support its validity. Schools can provide free and reduced lunch because it makes if children are hungry their motivation to learn will be decreased. Teachers strive to make students feel safe, both physically (consistent rules/routines) and emotionally (role modeling, positive praise, encouragement), because those who don't feel physical/emotional safety and who do not have those needs met will have lower motivation to learn. Teacher's need to display their "human side" in order to maximize their student's motivation to learn.

Describe primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Explain how these types of preventions services are implemented to promote prosocial development in elementary school.

Primary prevention strategies focus on enhancing protective factors on a school- wide basis to keep minor problems and difficulties from developing into more serious ones and preventing children from ending up at greater risk. Interventions used to achieve primary prevention goals are applied to all students. Secondary prevention involves interventions that provide behavioral or academic support, mentoring, skill development, and assistance to more severely at-risk students. Students who do not respond to universal interventions, implemented on a schoolwide basis, become candidates for more intensive, individually tailored interventions that are more expensive. These interventions typically are applied on an individual or small group basis. Tertiary prevention is appropriate for severely at-risk students who are already identified as having chronic problems and who have displayed a life-course- persistent pattern of antisocial and related forms of destructive behavior. This behavior pattern may involve severe mental health problems, delinquent activities, violence, and/or vandalism. Successful interventions for this student population must be comprehensive, initiated early in the trajectory of risk development, be in evidence over the long term, and involve parents, teachers, and peers. For example: Social Skills Programs can designed to address pro social skills within the framework of RTI.

Give three examples of, and explain how, early identification of potentially handicapping conditions can lead to interventions and instructional support that will help a child develop normally.

Research has shown that early intervention with young children with disabilities or who are at-risk for developmental difficulties benefits both children and families and accrues long-term cost savings to both school districts and society. Research shows that early intervention has the potential to positively impact future academic success and deter children from substance abuse and juvenile delinquency. A comprehensive approach is required for appropriate care and support including: early identification; assessment and early intervention planning; provision of services; and monitoring and evaluation. Part C provides early intervention (EI) services to children aged birth to three who have a full range of developmental delays. overall outcomes for infants and toddlers participating in Part C included: increased motor, social, and cognitive functioning; the acquisition of age-appropriate skills; and reduced negative impacts of their disabilities medical condition likely to lead to a developmental delay. Early identification and intervention has been found to prevent some communication disorders from developing and to lessen the impact of other disorders • Infants with mild-to-profound hearing loss who receive appropriate early intervention in the first 6 months of life have been found to demonstrate significantly better vocabulary, receptive and expressive language, syntax, speech production, and social-emotional development than those identified later. • Children with hearing loss who receive EI within the first year of life have been shown to have language development within the normal range at 5 years of age.8 • Very young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders receiving intensive EI services have been found to demonstrate gains in communication, speech/language and social skills. Intervention beginning before age 3 appears to have the greatest impact. Identifying early those children most likely to encounter reading problems may constitute the first step in reducing the incidence or severity of a reading disability . Unless identified early on and taught by expert teachers using detailed and intensive approaches emphasizing teaching both in phonological awareness and phonics instruction, children who learn poorly in the third grade can be expected to learn poorly throughout middle- and high-school grades. Interventions for reading disability must consist of explicit instructional procedures in phonological awareness, sound-symbol relationships, and meaning and reading comprehension, and should be provided by expert teachers in the kindergarten and first-grade years. While early intervention is necessary, it should not be assumed to be sufficient to address the multiple manifestations of learning disability. Even those students who receive appropriate phonological instruction at a young age may require continuous and intensive support to deal with other co- occurring disorders. Examples of early intervention services | If an infant or toddler has a disability or a developmental delay in one or more of these developmental areas, that child will likely need early intervention services. Those services will be tailored to meet the child's individual needs and may include: Assistive technology (devices a child might need) Audiology or hearing services Speech and language services Counseling and training for a family Medical services Nursing services Nutrition services Occupational therapy Physical therapy Psychological services

Briefly describe and characterize the four stages in Piaget's Cognitive Theory. Remember to include the constructs of assimilation and accommodation. Indicate how understanding Piaget's cognitive stages will enhance principles of teaching and learning.

Sensorimotor Stage During the early stages, infants are only aware of what is immediately in front of them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate environment. Because they don't yet know how things react, they're constantly experimenting with activities such as shaking or throwing things, putting things in their mouths, and learning about the world through trial and error. The later stages include goal-oriented behavior which brings about a desired result. At about age 7 to 9 months, infants begin to realize that an object exists even if it can no longer be seen. This important milestone -- known as object permanence -- is a sign that memory is developing. After infants start crawling, standing, and walking, their increased physical mobility leads to increased cognitive development. Near the end of the sensorimotor stage, infants reach another important milestone -- early language development, a sign that they are developing some symbolic abilities. Preoperational Stage During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe. But their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical. They cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison. Concrete Operational Stage At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning. Children's thinking becomes less egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality. Children also develop operational thinking -- the ability to perform reversible mental actions. During this stage, however, most children still can't tackle a problem with several variables in a systematic way. Formal Operational Stage Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development are able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract relationships and concepts such as justice. Although Piaget believed in lifelong intellectual development, he insisted that the formal operational stage is the final stage of cognitive development, and that continued intellectual development in adults depends on the accumulation of knowledge. Discovery learning - the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen as central to the transformation of primary school curriculum. individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children's progress - teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.' Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages the notion of 'readiness' important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage cognitive development. Within the classroom learning should be student centered and accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore teachers should encourage the following within the classroom: Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths". Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other). Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child. Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set. Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema. Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Describe five behaviors characteristic of severely disturbed children and three criteria for judging a behavior as "disturbed." Finally, what types of interventions might help children with these behaviors achieve success in school?

Some of the characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have an emotional disturbance include: Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness); Aggression or self-injurious behavior (acting out, fighting); Withdrawal (not interacting socially with others, excessive fear or anxiety); Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills); and Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level). Characteristics per IDEA: means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance: (a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. (b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. (c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. (d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. (e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. Criteria per IDEA: ⦁ long period of time (length/frequency of occurrence) ⦁ marked degree (intensity) ⦁ adversely effects educational performance Children with the most serious emotional disturbances may exhibit distorted thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings. Many children who do not have emotional disturbance may display some of these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children have an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time. Their behavior signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers. Typically, educational programs for children with an emotional disturbance need to include attention to providing emotional and behavioral support as well as helping them to master academics, develop social skills, and increase self-awareness, self-control, and self-esteem. A large body of research exists regarding methods of providing students with positive behavioral support (PBS) in the school environment, so that problem behaviors are minimized and positive, appropriate behaviors are fostered. (See the resource section at the end of this fact sheet for more information on PBS.) Students eligible for special education services under the category of emotional disturbance may have IEPs that include psychological or counseling services. Behavioral Interventions: functional behavioral assessments (FBAs) with accompanying support plans. These are data-driven interventions that are tailored to the needs of specific students. FBAs are sometimes delivered as part of wider prevention programs such as School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports. Subcategories of behavioral interventions may focus on externalized behavioral concerns as well as internalized ones. Social Skills Training: Some interventions have a strong focus on improving social skills among target children. The general goal of such training is to help recipients recognize (often subtle) social signals and react appropriately. These interventions are often delivered in group sessions but could be offered in individual therapy or as a component of a wider support plan. Therapeutic Interventions and Consultation: Practically any form of school-based counseling directly provided to students, consulting services in which personnel train parents to provide home-based delivery of services, or teacher delivery of classroom-based programs.

Behavior modification is very popular approach to providing interventions and instructional support in schools. Some experts object to the strategy because it is a direct way of controlling people's actions and beliefs. Refute this criticism and provide support for behavior modification as an intervention and instructional tool.

The principles behind behavior modification and its corresponding results have been verified through scientific research. Educators that are aware of and adhere to the principles of operant conditioning, which is a main tenet of behavior modification, have been able to create positive and effective learning environments for their students. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by antecedents and consequences. The principles of operant conditioning have been thoroughly researched in the scientific community. It is a valid type of learning that all people are shaped by in their everyday lives. The behavior of students in a school is modified by its consequences, no matter if the educators intended those consequences or not. Behavior modification is a strategy that intends to identify consequences and antecedents in order to structure the environment and consequences to positively impact a student. The school climate, and individual teachers are constantly shaping the behavior of their students. Armed with the knowledge of the principles behind behavior modification, teachers are better able to positively impact their students' behavior. Part of all educators' professional standards is that they are to do what is best for their students and behavior modification is a tool that allows teachers to accomplish that.

Describe and explain Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and its implications for the role of education and student learning.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p86). Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky believed that when a student is at the ZPD for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) describes the area between a child's level of independent performance (what he/she can do alone) and the child's level of assisted performance (what he/she can do with support). According to Vygotsky, the most effective instruction is the kind that is aimed not at the child's level of independent performance but is instead aimed within the ZPD. This instruction does more than increase a child's repertoire of skills and understandings; it actually produces gains in child development. For most children, the transition from assisted to independent learning is a gradual process that involves moving from using a great deal of assistance to slowly taking over until eventually no assistance is needed. To facilitate this transition, a teacher needs to scaffold student learning by first designing and then following a plan for providing and withdrawing appropriate amounts of assistance at appropriate times. In the Vygotskian approach, instructional strategies used to scaffold include (but are not limited to) hints, prompts, and cues given and later removed by the teacher. Scaffolding can also involve orchestrating social contexts known to support children's learning, such as make-believe play or specifically designed group activities. Scaffolding may also involve introducing children to special tools (such as an alphabet chart) and behaviors (such as private speech or self-talk) that children can use to self-assist while mastering a new skill or concept.

Analyze the efficacy of using software programs to help teachers learn how to create graphs and charts as well as understand trend lines and aim lines.

Using software programs to help teachers learn how to create graphs and charts as well as understand trend and aim lines is an efficient use of time. It is an effective way to access data to make instructional decisions, to see which students needed interventions and where, and to monitor progress. Software programs such as AIMsweb provides multiple assessments to universally screen and progress monitor basic academic skills in reading, writing and math. It is an easy way to monitor student progress and use charts and trend lines to identify if the student is meeting class benchmarks. Personalized learning paths can be created for students in which interventions can be specifically tailored using the results (identified through charts and graphs) generated by software programs. Most software programs are web based so it can be accessed anywhere. At its core RTI is comprised of research based intervention, progress monitoring, and data based decision-making. Software programs used to create charts, graphs trend lines, and aim lines, are data driven and allow teachers to conveniently assess student progress and use allow them to use data as the basis for student intervention.

Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of school psychologists utilizing web-based (e.g., webinars) professional development to help teachers learn to engage in RtI (MTSS).

Webinar: A webinar is a method of conducting a meeting, presentation or training session over the Internet. Instead of traveling to an office or business for formal meetings, your computer becomes the conference room. There are several advantages: Convenience and cost- School psychologists are able to disseminate a large amount of information, regarding RTI, to a large number of teachers without having to actually meet with them. There is no need for a specified meeting place. Teachers and SPs do not have to spend money traveling. The district does not have to spend money on physical materials usually associated with in person learning (photocopies, etc.). The meeting can be recorded for later viewing. School Psychologists and Teachers have very tight schedules with little free time during the day. Teachers can access it and learn it when it is convenient to them. Access: Webinars are usually archived and available to repeatedly download. RtI can be a complicated and in depth system at times. Teachers do not have to learn the material in real time. If they need to a view a lesson again for further clarification they can pause rewind or watch it as many times as they need to learn the material. Interaction- Interactive aspects can be included in the webinar. Teachers can post comments or ask questions of the school psychologists or digitally connect with many other teachers, even teachers outside of their school or district. There are several disadvantages: Technology is not always 100% reliable. Problems may persist with the learners internet connection or webinar software. In order to learn RtI effectively there needs to be a seamless connection. No face to face interaction- The instructor is limited in how much they gauge the understanding in the room. Since the SP can not see the teachers, he or she may not be able to appropriately assess their level of understanding. Brainstorming among participants can be very difficult as they are unable to fluidly ask questions and make comments in a live interactive situation. Team Based approach - Webinars severely limit the ability to practice and refine new skills together or to reinforce the subject with hands-on experience. RtI emphasizes a team approach and collaboration. In order to truly learn about RtI teachers need to have hands on experience. Webinars restrict this type of learning which could negatively affect the participants ability to learn and become familiar with the team approach inherent in RtI.

. Describe how to use the following resources during instruction and intervention, planning/problem solving: (A) Florida Center for Reading Research and (B) What Works Clearing House?

a) http://www.fcrr.org/ To identify information about research-based practices related to literacy instruction and assessment for children in pre-school through 12th grade. Includes a classroom activities search tool for use in kindergarten through fifth grade classrooms and pedagogical information (ie elements of effective and differentiated instruction, instructionals routines, etc.) for empowering teachers with the skills and knowledge for effective instruction in the classroom. The Florida Center for Reading Research is charged though Florida statute to collaborate with the Florida Department of Education and Florida public schools on reading instruction, intervention, and assessment. As part of this effort, FCRR continues to develop, host, and maintain the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network(PMRN), an unparalleled database of K-12 student demographic and reading assessment data. The Florida Assessments for Instruction of Reading (FAIR) is a state-wide reading assessment developed by FCRR and launched in 2009. Each year, more than 1.7 million K-12 Florida students participate in the FAIR. FAIR provides numerous instruction, intervention and planning/problem solving materials; including, score charts and breakdowns, and assessment/curriculum trees for reading improvement. It streamlines the ability to track and determine student reading ability and goals and provides information on relevant instruction based on those student needs. b) http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/default.aspx What Works...is a searchable database providing information on the effectiveness of interventions that addresses students' needs. You can search by academic area or weakness and grade level to identify which interventions have positive results and are researched based. For example, you can search for literacy interventions for 1st graders and be provided with a listing of programs/interventions and their improvement index, effectiveness rating, and extent of evidence. Based on this information you can recommend research based interventions based on the student's needs.

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) has been defined, described, and studied ever since its introduction in the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Act (1997). Explain how PBIS is used most effectively as part of Tier 1 in RtI/MTSS.

http://www.pbis.org/school/primary_level/default.aspx. The primary prevention of positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) consists of rules, routines, and physical arrangements that are developed and taught by school staff to prevent initial occurrences of behavior the school would like to target for change. PBIS is used most effectively as part of Tier 1 in RTI if there are a number of factors present. First the assumption that all children can exhibit appropriate behavior is necessary. This assumption leads to the practice of identifying environmental conditions that enable the exhibition of appropriate behavior. Intervening early is also essential to the effective use of PBIS at Tier1. Highly effective universal interventions in the early stages of implementation, which are informed by time sensitive continuous progress monitoring, enjoy strong empirical support for their effectiveness with at-risk students. PBIS only employs researched based and scientifically validated interventions. At the Tier 1 level, this ensures that students are exposed to curriculum and teaching that has demonstrated effectiveness for the type of student and the setting. Progress monitoring is also essential to the successful implementation of PBIS. The use of assessments that can be collected frequently and that are sensitive to small changes in student behavior is recommended. Determining the effectiveness (or lack of) an intervention early is important to maximize the impact of that intervention for the student. A data-based decision regarding student response to the interventions is central to PBIS practices. Decisions in PBIS practices are based on professional judgment informed directly by student office discipline referral data and performance data. Primary prevention is significant- in that it -moves the structural framework of each educational unit from reactive approaches to proactive systems change performance. This effort cohesively unites all the adults in using 1) common language, 2) common practices, and 3) consistent application of positive and negative reinforcement.

As part of RtI/MTSS, the continuum of instruction and intervention, planning/problem solving is used to match instructional resources to educational need. Teams continue to engage in instructional planning and problem solving to ensure that student success is achieved and maintained. Identify the four critical parts of the ongoing problem-solving cycle and describe how they are used.

• Step I: Problem Identification - What exactly is the problem? • Step II: Problem Analysis - Why is the problem occurring? • Step III: Intervention Design and Implementation - What exactly are we going to do about it? • Step IV: Response to Instruction/Intervention - Is the plan working? The existence of a deficiency is defined, in part, by the discrepancy between expected and observed performance as opposed to any former discrepancies, such as the discrepancy between ability and achievement. Central to problem solving is an analysis of factors that impede performance beyond those that may (or may not) reside within the learner. As a result, all factors that impact learning (i.e., instruction, curriculum, environment, and learner variables) are considered through the analysis of student performance data when assessing effectiveness of instruction/intervention and determining students' instructional needs. 1. Problem ID- Teams are to consider curricular and behavioral expectations and data to determine peer performance. Consider the percentage of peers displaying similar problems, as the issue may be environmental, curricular, or instructional in nature. If more than 20% of students display problem it should be addressed at the group or systemic level. Conduct Gap analysis to identify the appropriate tier to intervene (depending on number of students effected). If the discrepancy between the benchmark and peer group performance is large and the discrepancy between peer group performance and the student's performance is minimal, it would not be appropriate to automatically determine that the student would benefit from special education. Nor would it be appropriate, in this example, to assume that we would only be focusing on an individual student. 2. Problem Analysis- Teams develop hypotheses to explain why the problem is occurring and predict what might prevent the problem from occurring in the future. Hypothesis statements are framed as "The problem is occurring because ___________." Subsequently, prediction statements are written as "If ______________ would occur, then the problem would be reduced. "During this phase, it is important to determine if the problem reflects a skill deficit (i.e., "can't do") or motivation deficit (i.e., "won't do"). 3. Intervention Planning and Implementation- Identify who is responsible for intervention plan implementation, what will be done, when will it occur, and where will it occur. Components of the comprehensive intervention plan also include a support plan, intervention documentation, and monitoring the plan for determining student rate of progress. Example: Who is the intervention plan being developed for? __Randy_ What is the replacement behavior/target skill? ___Reading Accuracy_ What is the expected level of performance? _95% Accuracy on grade-level material What is the current level of performance?__76% Accuracy on grade-level material_ For Intervention Plan, Support Plan, Monitoring Fidelity, and Monitoring Plan for Determining Student progress ask "Who, what, when, where and how (Monitoring only) See Appendix B in GTIPS pg 73 http://www.florida-rti.org/_docs/gtips.pdf 4. Response to Intervention/Instruction- Review and analysis of data are used to determine if the plan is working, determine if there has been a positive, questionable, or poor response to intervention. If Positive: Continue current instructional supports. Adjust goal upward. Fade supports. If Questionable: Was intervention/instruction implemented as planned? Yes__ No__ If no, what strategies will be utilized to increase implementation? If yes, should intervention intensity be increased? Yes___No____ If Poor: Was intervention/instruction implemented as planned? Yes___ No____ If no, what strategies will be utilized to increase implementation? If yes, was instruction/intervention aligned with the verified hypothesis, or is there other aligned instruction/intervention to consider? Are there other hypotheses to consider? Was the problem identified correctly? How to determine positive, questionable, or poor performance using gap- GTiPS?