Drugs, Deviance and Social Control Exam 1

Effective dose

effective dose: - "active dose", dose needed to produce a given effect -ED followed by a subscript (number) - percentage of the population for which that dose produces the desired effect. Ex. Ed(50) = given does --> effect in 50% of the population

Chapter 2

explaining drug use and abuse

prevalence rates

prevalence rates: The number or percentage of people in the population who use a given drug during a designated time period - more of a snapshot ex. % of the population reported using marijuana in the past 6 months

Purity

refers to the fact that batches vary in percentage of drug contained

Drug addiction; indicators of severity?

- Chronic, often relapsing brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking - despite the harmful consequences - initial use is typically a voluntary decision; over time, brain changes impede self control

Diagnosing substance abuse and addiction: Comorbidity

- If a person shows multiple signs of one issue then is can heighten the risk factors - the simultaneous presence of two chronic diseases or conditions in a patient Ex. " the comorbidity of anxiety and depression in Parkinson's disease"

Models of addiction (approach for understanding why people become addicted):

- Moral - Medical/Disease - Psychological - Sociocultural - Bio-psychosocial Recognize risk factors, how they present Take away: it is very rate that on model would paint the whole picture

ED/LD ratio

- Some drugs with an ED/LD drug that are extremely safe = high ED/LD range: *marijuana -Drugs with small ED/LD range: *fentanyl and heroin -More specifically, the ED/LD ratio is a measure of TOXICITY which = MARGIN OF SAFETY - large ratio= more safe -small ratio = more dangerous

Sociology perspective of abuse - define and understand the significance objective shapes subjective!

- The sociological perspective: societal conditions help define drugs, drug use, drug abuse, and the social ramifications

Factors impacting views on drug use: Attitude change (views aren't stagnant)

- View points aren't stagnant - changes in attitudes toward drug use (acceptance or rejection) are influential Important: very few viewpoints on drugs are shaped by concrete or empirical facts, they are social constructions!

Potency

- amount fo drug necessary to cause an effect -quantity of a drug taken to produce a given action

other elements that influence drug initiation and continued abuse:

- aside from the biological component, these factors align with those that shape attitudes and opinions on drugs - attitudes = experimentation/ onset of use/ initiation - attitudes + experiences = continued use

Social/ economical cost of drug use: sources of cost

- cost: this is clear. cost of controlling the drugs - governmental cost: taxes, providing needles and open access to safely using drugs saves us cost wise in the future) - Health cost: emergent medial attention, police coming, ambulance, drug addict sticking an officer - productivity cost: getting the supplies - rehabilitation costs: very expensive $6,120 per second = estimated cost of drug use to the US. society in lost productivity, healthcare, etc.

Impact of media presentation: attitude and behaviors

- depending on where you live and how it is presented in the media makes a certain drug seem more or less okay to use - studies show that the majority of young users come from home in which drug are liberally used - some social scientists believe that everyday consumption of legal drugs - caffeine, prescription and OTC drugs, and alcohol -- is fueled by the pace of modern lifestyles and greatly accelerated by the influence of todays increasingly sophisticated mass media

Sociocultural model of addiction:

- familial, peers and cultural influences plays a primary role in substance abuse - need to examine the addict in relation to their environment Advantages: promotes responsibility for some societal norms; focus on prevention as key; help identify at-risk populations Disadvantages: -counseling with more people becomes more complex; places blame on culture rather than the individual, may promote cultural stereotypes other perspectives: - Characterological or personality disposition model: drug addition is something that went wrong within your own personality system; understand addiction as a "career"

illicit/illegal drug examples

- heroin - methamphetamine - prescription medication - marijuana

General findings from Prevalence rates:

- huge difference in the use of legal and illegal drugs - alcohol is the most popular of all psychoactive substances - marijuana is the illicit drug used by the greatest number of people - the drugs used by a small percentage of people generate enormous social and personal disruption

biopsychosocial model of addiction

- many factors including biological, psychological and sociological together con influence or cause addiction Advantages: it captures "everything"; promotes a multifaceted approach to treatment Disadvantage: can be too complex; may lead to "where does one start" syndrome

Drug effect

- occurs after the drug action takes place; is the resulting human response or behavior (breathing/heart rate) non specific, highly variable - at chemical level, the drug does the same exact thing (alcohol level) Action + personal characteristics + environment = effect ** taking the same drug in various different locations with a different effect

Drug action:

- outcome of the chemical interaction with the body's neurochemical system -takes place at the molecular level -the key to the lock, narcotics have the strongest potency (master key) cant feel another Drugs mimic or block the neurotransmitters that communicate with one another, they HIJACK certain functions of neurodermatitis Ex. you drink alcohol, the chemical level will be a depressant and increase dopamine specific, not highly variable

Pharmacological perspective or abuse - define and understand significance

- the diagnosed individual may take the substance in larger amounts or over a longer period of time than was originally intended. - the pharmacological perspective: the properties of drugs dictate drug - related behaviors eg. marijuana use automatically "leads to" use and abuse of harder drugs Pharmacological effects = social effects - mind altering/psychoactive properties set of a chain of events that lead to interest of society (and social scientists) - pharmacological effects --> individual reaction (of interest)

Drug abuse

- the habitual taking or misuse of addictive or illegal drugs - outside of the prescribed recommendations - drug abuse and addiction is an equal opportunity and affliction

Licit/legal drug examples

-Alcohol -Tobacco -Prescription Medication -Marijuana

Tolerance vs. repression

-society is okay with drug use = tolerance -society is not okay with drug use = repression

diagnosis of substance use disorders:

1.) Pharmacological: The diagnosed individual may take the substance in larger amounts or over a longer period of time that was originally intended 2.) Excessive Time Spent Obtaining the Substance: The individual may spend an excessive amount of time obtaining, and or/recovering from the drug(s) and its effects; in severe cases, nearly all of the individual's daily activities revolve around the substance 3.) Craving: The user has an intense desire or urge for the drug (cannot think of anything other than securing and using the drug) 4.) Social Impairment: The individual fails to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused by the effects of the substance; this includes withdrawal from personal and/or family obligations and/or hobbies or interests 5.) Risky Use of the Substance: The individual may continue substance use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem. He or she is unable to abstain from using the substance despite difficulties in using 6.) Tolerance: The individual needs increased amounts or else experiences a diminished effect when using the same amount of substance 7.) Withdrawal: "Withdrawal... is a syndrome that occurs when blood or tissue concentrations of a substance decline in an individual who had maintained prolonged heavy use of substance." Often after developing withdrawal symptoms, the individual is likely to resume consuming the substance to relieve the symptoms of withdrawal.

Contributing factors to individual variability in drug responses:

Adaptive Processes and the Developmental of Drug Dependence: -Adaptive processes by the body = tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal -These are consequences of adaptation by the body and its' systems to the presence of psychoactive substances Recall the two forms of dependence: 1.) Physical Dependence - Need the drug in order to function 2.) Psychological Dependence- Craving the drug, the psychological preoccupation of it -What elements influence dependence beyond those that impact how a person experiences a drug? -Hereditary Factors -Drug Craving -Acute Craving: Desire for the drug itself -Chronic Craving: Triggered by environmental cues and positive memories

Factors impacting views on drug use: Age of initial exposure

Age of initial exposure: things we are exposed to early in life leading to increased likelihood of acceptance and engagements

Key demographic correlates of drug use: (5) A.G.R.E.E.R

Age: - age if initiation: most people use drugs fro the first time when they are in high school - (2012) 2.8 million new users of illicit drugs, 52% were under the age of 18 - innate drug of choice = marijuana - alcohol use: drinking under age has declined, highest drug use is from those in late teens and year 20s - drug use and the age: increasing in ages 50 and older Gender: - Drug use is higher for males than females - the rate is almost twice as likely to engage in illicit drug use - rates are similar amongst males and females ages 12-17 Ethnicity/race: - Highest to lowest percentage of use: *black/African American *white *hispanic *asian Education level: - Drug use is lower among higher education users - highest among those who do not graduate high school - does not hold for alcohol - for drinking, those who graduate college have reported drinking much more within the past moth - alcohol is unique Employment: - employees who begin to use drugs often begin to not perform as well - among adults are age 18 or older, the rate of illicit drug was higher for employed full time (8%) or part time (11.6%) than unemployed (17.2%) - most drug users are employed Relationship between use and crime: - a high amount of drug users are either in jail or on probation

Central Nervous System: key components impacted by psychoactive substances

Central nervous system: -Reticular activating system (RAS): controls the brains arousal (level of arousal) -Basal Ganglia: Control involuntary and finely tuned motor skills -When you take drugs that influence your motor coordination it is because the signals that are being sent are being interrupted -Limbic System: Regulates emotional activity, memory -Cerebral Cortex: receives sensory input, layer of gray matter under the skull -Insula: Linked to pleasure pathways, motivations -Hypothalamus: regulates other elements of the nervous system, makes you hungry -Synapse: Site of communication between a message-sending neuron and its message-receiving target cell -Synaptic Cleft: A minute gap between the neuron and target cell, across which neurotransmitters travel -Dendrites: Short branches of neurons that receive transmitter signals -Opiate Receptors: Receptors activated by opioid narcotic drugs such as heroin and morphine -Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that have narcotic-like effects -Anandamide: A naturally occurring fatty acid neurotransmitter that selectively activates cannabinoid receptors

Diagnosing substance abuse and addiction: Diagnostic form (eg. criteria, continuum of severity)

Continuum of severity: - mild = 2-3 -moderate = 4-5 -severe = 6+

Factors impacting views on drug use: Socialization

Socialization: lifelong social experience by which humans develop their potential and learn culture Key agents: - family - school - peer group - mass media

The link between culture and behavior (values/attitudes/beliefs and behaviors):

Cultural attitudes about drug use: - use generally regulated by informal customs, personal preference -easy steps to regulate certain substances - drug legislation: 19th and 20th century *driven by changing attitudes *swing between extremes: TOLERANCE vs. REPRESSION - the concept of tolerance references in the importance of cultural attitudes about drug use -there is a consistent "need" for psychoactive substances Drugs allow: -the ability to feel good -government officials to create villains and heroes; divert attention -criminal justice system to justify their role and use of resources - popular media to create moral panics and sell newspapers and advertising times Two major guidelines for controlling drug development and marketing today: 1. society has the right to protect itself from the damaging impacts of drug use 2. society has the right to demand safe and effective drugs

Direct and Indirect effects

Direct affects: Long terms health problems; heart problems, memory loss, kidney failure, cirrhosis of the liver Indirect effects: breakdown of the family, chronic effect second hand smoke, loss of jobs, HIV contraction

Psychoactive substances

Drug compounds that affect the central nervous system and alter consciousness and/or perceptions

Dependence - psychological - physical

Drug dependence: habitual, compulsive use over a prolonged period of time Psychological dependence: - emotional, mental preoccupation Physical dependence: - physical symptoms associated with use and discontinued use

Drug mixing effects: antagonistic, addictive, synergistic

Drug mixing influences drug effects: Antagonistic effects: - nullifying effects -effects created when drug cancel one another 1 + 1 = 0 heroin + narcan = sober Addictive effects: - if you take or mix then it amplifies greater outcomes -effects created when drugs are similar and actions are added together 1 + 1 = 2 marijuana and alcohol = crossed Synergistic effects: - multiplying effect - ability of one drug to enhance the effect of another; also called potentiation -when working together, they could have accomplished more than they could have alone 1 + 1 = 4 most dangerous oxy + adderall = intense high with no crash at the end

Medical need and general use of psychoactive substances: trends, classes of users, availability, how can we study this? why is it challenging?

Drug use in the 19th century America: abusers and addicts: - availability of dependency producing and addictive substances leading to large using addict population. What was the extent or the population? *low to 100,000 high to a million or more *hard to estimate -people who were ignored were medical or pseudo addicts Three distinct narcotic using populations: 1. medical/pseudo medical addicts (middle class, white, women) 2. Opium smokers (often chinese men, a natural part of their culture, brought it with them to the US) 3. The criminal underworld and less-than-respected morphine addicts -by far the biggest class of users = medical/pseudo medical addicts (middle class, white, women) -hard to study this because we aren't able to get the full population who are using. People lie or are underrepresented

Historical context and the rise of drug use/abuse:

Drug use int he 19th century: -19th century America = a dope fiend's paradise -opium, marijuana, cocaine - substances freely available -accounts suggest use was equal (possible more extensive) than today Key questions: - what stimulated such high levels of use? -How did the culture of tolerance emerge and what brought about the shifts in attitudes and more restrictive policies? What does history teach us about changes in drug laws? - perceptions of deviance -efforts to exact social control -early attitudes supporting drug use in America were extremely tolerant To understand use trends, need to consider the primitive state of medical progression in past centuries: - 19th century treatment for diseases was largely ineffective (and dangerous) -opium's pain killing properties were discovered roughly 6,000 years ago -physicians didn't have access -surgical practices = brutal, horrifying painful - huge number of surgical patients died -with increased availability of opium seemed like a godsend Opium was: -widely, indiscriminately administered -seemed to cure illness -reality = only masked painful symptoms -other medications containing morphine, marijuana, and cocaine were used freely - no prescriptions - low cost - variety of sources (doctors, Salem's, drug and general stores) - "cure all" drug drugs were rampant and unregulated in the 19th century Drug use in the 19th century America: cocaine-based products: - in addition to prescription drugs a wide variety of products (chiefly beverages) containing psychoactive substances were sold during this time period -coca wine -coca cola - extreme popularity until the early 20th century -push for regulation Drug use in 19th century America: key innovations: -medical needs + availability of products = tolerant attitudes about drug use -additionally, the technological, medical, and scientific innovations of the 1800s lead to high rates of drug use Innovations allowed for: -increased availability -purer forms -more efficient and effective administrative routes -by 1900 nearly all innovations that currently make highly potent drug available (in highly reinforcing forms) had taken place

Chapter 3

Drug use, regulation and the law

The Psychological model of addiction:

Drugs are a coping mechanism and addiction is driven by psychological stress Advantages: removes stigma, guilt, and shame; addresses underlying reason for using drugs; treating underlying issues lessen the chance of relapse Disadvantages: risk of labelling reliance on behavioral therapy may not work for all addicts; may encourage external blame intestate of personal responsibility Emotional Pain->Craving for Relief->Preoccupation with Substance or Behavior->Substance Use or Compulsive Behavior->Short-Term Pain Relief->Negative Consequences Resulting from Behavior->Depression, Guilt, or Shame->More Pain, Low Self-Esteem->Emotional Pain

Impacts reinforcement (understand relative strength):

Drugs usually exhibit a drug response curve: - heighten response that eventually stops because the person is no longer conscious to feel it - for all drugs there is a low barrier where it will have no effect

Prohibition

Efforts to Control Drug Use: the Movement to Prohibit Alcohol:- Toward the end of the 18th century, tolerant attitudes toward drugs shift Factors contributing to these shift: *Legislative attempts to control the use of psychoactive substances -The push to prohibit alcohol = one of the earliest attempts at regulation -Uncontrolled drinking came with a hefty price both socially, economically- Mostly to families of men who drank very heavily -The Temperance Movement aimed to control the consumption of alcohol targeted heavy drinkers -Went to the church for help because they have more power than general women do -The government/politicians and powerful people also got behind them -The bosses of the factories also got involved because they do not want people showing up to work drunk The Movement to Prohibit Alcohol: 1784-1920: -1820s-1830s: clergymen question whether a push for moderation is sufficient -Many argue for total abstinence -Employers stop supplying liquor, local governments refuse to renew tavern licenses, the Army no longer disturbed liquor rations -1840s: Prohibition sediment strengthens -Public and political support for statewide bans -Maine outlaws the manufacturing of alcohol in 1846 -Mid 1800s: Prohibition shadowed by conflict over the abolition of slavery Motivations for the push for prohibition: -Anti-immigrant sentiments -Most immigrants came from "wet" cultures and strongly opposed prohibition -Strengthens the us vs. them sentiment Women's entrance into organized political processing: -Women's christian temperance union (1874) -Controlling their husband's drinking = first step in establishing women's liberation and asserting their rights Big Business' involvement: -In the early 20th century -Abstinence aligns with work ideals -During this time, institutions of workman's compensation -1914-1931: "local" phase of prohibition -1930s: "national" phase of prohibition

Opium nad narcotic controls:

Efforts to control drug use: Anti opium legislation: -With the exception of alcohol, the earliest drug legislation in the US was aimed at opium use -Recall discussion of its importance and widespread use in the 19th century: *Crucial to medical practice *Widely available in other products Created (more or less) three classes of users: 1.) Medical/pseudo medical addicts 2.) Opium smokers 3.) The criminal underworld/morphine addicts *Which is the largest addicts?: Medical pseudo medical addicts = white middle class, middle age women- Medical Reliance: dangerous dependency -Early laws not aimed at medical addiction -Legislation directed at recreational users, namely opium smoking Chinese immigrants -Immigrated in great numbers -When jobs were plentiful, sentiment was welcoming -Opium smoking was an element of culture that immigrated with them -A changing job market -> changing attitudes-> legislation targeting this threatening class -Before 1870 the behavior was largely ignored -Racism = (mostly mutual) estrangement -Conservative white community promoted fear of the behavior -San Francisco passed the first anti-opium legislation (1875)

Endocrine system

Endocrine system: system consist of glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) directly into the bloodstream regulates: metabolism growth tissue repair sexual behavior Pituitary gland: master gland controls the other glands in the system

Factors impacting views on drug use: Environmental exposure

Environmental exposure: exposure to drug users and the drug themselves

Moral model of addiction:

Moral model of addiction: - people use and abuse drugs because they choose to - they had weak moral standings, are immoral - choose evil Advantages: advocates personal responsibility; empowers people to make good choices Disadvantages: judgement based; contributes to stigma, shame, and guilt, may prevent people from seeking help

Homeostasis

Homeostasis: - the human body is constantly affected by many things -homeostasis: process whereby the body maintains balance while adjusting for these things -property of a system that regulates its internal environment -trends to maintain a stable, relatively constant condition of properties -even while resting, the brain and body are hard at work an example of the process of homeostasis: - when your body gets too hot, it needs cooling down - when your body gets to cold, it needs warming up - your body operates to control temperature, fluid levels, salt levels, glucose levels, calcium etc. -adjustments = homeostatic regulation *receptor *control center *effector -internal and external change in the environment --> body regulates via the nervous system and endocrine system -> equilibrium/physiological and psychological balance -internal adjustments facilitated by the release of regulatory chemicals -many drugs affect these substances - overtime, the brain recognizes the signs of drug use and adjusts even before the substance enters the system

Chapter 4 & 5

How and Why drugs work?

Four types of drug use - list and define

Illegal instrumental: taking illicit drugs; prescription drugs that are not prescribed to you to help you focus on a specific task or goal (ie. aderall) Illegal recreational: taking illicit drug for fun or pleasure; (ie. Smoking weed because its relaxing or covers pain) legal instrumental: taking perception drugs prescribed to you and for their intended purpose (ie. wisdom teeth, meds) Legal recreational: Taking a legal drug in a recreational setting (beer in a bar, when of age)

New innovations and their impact on use/abuse

January 1919 congress authorizes the 19th amendment, the volstead act: - represents the triumph of powerful groups over less powerful (but threatening) groups - 1882 federal Chinese exclusion act = restriction on the population -1909 smoking opium exclusion act = nations first drug prohibition law The Sherley amendment and beyond: -laws did not regulate manufactures therapeutic claims -continual push spurred by the distribution of a cancer "remedy" = no laws broken -congress got the hint 1912 Sherley amendment: -prohibits labeling medicines with false claims, intended to defraud the purchaser - 1937 deadly description of Elixir of sulfanilamide --> increased attention 1951 Durham-Humphrey Amendment:- A drug is OTC if it does not fall into one of these categories: -Its habit forming -Drug is not safe for self medication because of its toxicity -The drug is relatively new and has not been shown to be relatively safe -As a result almost all drugs became prescription only because we didn't have enough information on them at that time yet 1962 Kefauver-Harris Amendment: -Sleeping pill that was deemed safe but not for pregnant women -Allows for the FDA to remove the approval of a drug -Strengthened the gov.'s regulation of both the introduction of new drugs and the production and sale of existing drugs -For the first time required that drug manufactures demonstrate the efficacy as well as the safety of the product International Affairs and U.S Drug Legislation: -International affairs were a strong influence in the eventual enactment of federal drug laws in the U.S The Harrison Act of 1914: -Similar to the Foster Bill -Drug Control backed by the American Medical Association + Change in political leadership = Harrison Narcotics Act signed on December 14, 1914 -Facilitated by the assumed association between recreational drug use and stigmatized minorities? -Track and tax all drugs that contain any of those elements -You could only utilize them in medically necessitated scenarios -This time period with the drugs that people began using recreationally ended up stigmatizing minorities -The goal was to limit or criminalize minority groups while still allowing people who needed it for medical use to get what they needed -Key Issue = How to deal with maintenance of addicts -"Prescribed in good-faith" -Supreme Court ruled interpretations -Ex: Pittsburgh doctor arrested for describing to addict, ruled in favor of the doctor. Year later a different doctor had the same thing but it was ruled in favor of the state *1919 the constitution of the Harrison Act upheld *1919 America was very different than 1914 The Impact of the Harrison Act: -Est. maintenance clinics to help deal with medical addicts -Clinics closed, physicians arrested, man serving jail or prison sentences -The Harrison Narcotics Act created a class of addict criminal -Pre-Harrison addicts = white, middle class, middle aged women -Post-Harrison addicts = predatory street criminals, inner city, minority males -Single most important piece of drug legislation ever enacted in the U.S

Theoretical explanations of addiction (specific mechanisms resulting in addiction): Biological

Major Theoretical Explanations: Biological - Biological explanations for addiction often focus on genetics and align with the disease model of addiction -"Those kinds of people" explanations -Specific physical mechanisms -> experimentation/ abuse -Most experts acknowledge the role of biological factors, but this is the core contributing factor according to biological theories -Drugs as positive reinforcers Exposure theories: -Like positive reinforcement theories, if you inject substance into body you will inevitably become addicted -Metabolic changes within the body -Not terribly well backed, getting there Biological Theories: The Role of Psychiatric Disorders-Comorbidity = 2+ disorders or illnesses occurring in the same person (at the same time or in succession) -Drug addiction is a mental illness -Changes the brain in fundamental ways -Changes the users hierarchy of needs (Bottom to Top): *Physiological *Safety *Love/Belonging *Esteem *Self-Actualization -Drug addict suffer from other mental disorders at a very high rate (high comorbidity) -About 90% of all addicts have a comorbidity disorders -Abuse <-> Mental Disorders -You can look at genetics by researching twin studies -Men are more susceptible to drug addiction with biological dispositions, this is due to environment

Theoretical explanations of addiction (specific mechanisms resulting in addiction): Psychological

Major theoretical explanations: Psychological theories relying on psychological factors fall into basic varieties: - those emphasizing the mechanism of reinforcement and - those focused on personality differences Reinforcement theories = maximize pleasure, minimize pain -underplay personality factors Personality theories = personality factors a strong catalyst in use and abuse - Factors of focus varies, depending on the theorist - common denominator is that these theories postulate certain people have a type of personality that more strongly propels them into use and abuse

Theoretical explanations of addiction (specific mechanisms resulting in addiction): Sociological

Major theoretical explanationsL Sociological - sociological explanations focus on how factors external to the drug user impact drug use -make broader, structural factors the focus - don't examine the characteristics of the individual but the situation, social relationships, or social structural position -Social structure: pieces of society that are long standing and very hard to change Key distinction between the Psychological and sociological approaches? - psychological theories focus on how internal states are impacted by social relationships leading to drug use - sociological theories focus on how factors external to the users leads to using Two types: social influences theories and structural influence theories

Medical/disease model of addiction:

Medical/disease model of addiction: - people abuse drugs because of some biological condition -prevailing model in the US - aligns with the concept of addiction as a chronic and progressive disease Assumes addiction is: - a progressive disease; advances through stages -chronic, long-term can be treated, not cured Advantages: - removes stigma, shame and guilt; clear treatment goal (abstinence) Disadvantage: -excludes those who don't fit the disease model concept; removes personal responsibility; ignores psychological variables

Cycle of addiction

Relief -> increased use -> preoccupation -> dependence -> withdrawal -> relief

Route of Administration

Route of administration: - methods of ingestion -crucial because it influences the drug effect -inhalation is the most efficient way of taking a drug -Alcohol is the only drug you can only take orally

Social influence theories

Social influence theories: - focus on the role of significant others -learning theories propose that people are "blank slates" and that behaviors, including drug use are learned -these theories draw from the world of Edwin Sutherland -Differential association theory (DAT): when people "differentially associate" with people who value deviance, they learn those attitudes and are more likely to engage in similar deviant behaviors Impact influences: priority, duration, frequency, intensity Social learning theory: - drug use is learned like other behaviors -imitation, trial and error, improvisation, rewarded behavior and mental association Learning occurs through interactions with primary and secondary groups: - primary groups: people you are emotionally attached to - Secondary groups: people outside of your immediate circle, mutually beneficial exchange Attitudes (the motivations) + techniques (the who, where, how, etc.) + meanings (learn to perceive the meaning attached to the behavior that you're doing) = Behaviors Parental influence and learning research: -lots of studies that link abuse in parents and adolescents that affect the learning process -peer influence and learning research Key critique: (chicken or egg?) - very difficult to figure out which comes first -is it the biology with parents or is it how the parents treat the child that influence -does the child use because their peer group uses or did the child choose the peer group because they themselves use Subculture leanring theories: - Highlights the role of socialization by others and group influence Subcultures: groups of people that hold patterns of norms and values that are. inn some way distinct from those held of the broader society - hold many similar values ** Drug subcultures have a normative code, even though it would be considered deviant in the broader society**

Structural influence theories

Social structural theories: - focus on how elements of the organization of society that lead to motivation and drug use behavior Social Disorganization theory: - social factors adversely affect individuals Key question: What in the structure and organization of social order cause people to deviate? ** lack of integration is key - alienation --> lack of effective attachments --> deviance becomes an attractive alternative Major theoretical explanations: sociological social structure theories: - merton's anomie/strain theory: when societies are characterized by an imbalance in social order it created conditions favorable to crime and deviance - discrepancy between means and goals Goal = American dream Means = legitimate, high-paying jobs Robert K. Merton's Deviance Typology (IAT) - Look at lecture slide of image - Conformists = us, go through the institution to achieve American dream - Innovations = drug dealer, want the American dream but not through the institution, mostly because their structural position has a lot of blocked opportunities - Ritualist's = not that they don't want the American dream just know that they can never get there, however they are still going the traditional route, work hard, hold down several jobs -Retreats' = where the drug addicts come in, happens when you reject the conventional means as well as the goals, I'll never get the American dream but I can at least have pleasure, will never have monetary success but don't really want it. *Ruppert doesn't like this because it comes before the medical model and does not acknowledge addiction being a disease. Makes sense from a macro perspective - Rebellion = hold their own ideals, construct their own means to get there, cults, people who live off the grid, don't fit into these means of deviance -"Retreatism" is key to understanding use/abuse -Apply with caution Major Theoretical Explanations: Sociological: -Agnew's General Strain Theory Monetary strain matters but isn't everything: *Failure to achieve positively valued goals *Removal of positive stimuli *Presentation of negative stimuli -All Above Constitute "STRAIN" -Substance use = coping -Minimizes strain -related distress -Alleviates depression -Produces positive emotions -The availability of conventional recreation, entertainment, ands stress -coping resources ins essentials for limiting substance abuse and use

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Spinal cord: a column of nerves between the brain and peripheral nervous system Brain stem: connects the brain to the spinal cord Brain: divided into three major parts (Hindbrain/lower part, midbrain, forebrain)

Marijuana Laws

The Marijuana tac act of 1937: -use began along the US - Mexico border -users = working and lower class immigrants -diffusion across groups: *African Americans *musicians, intellectuals, gamblers, prostitutes, criminals, and jazz groups Three provisions: 1. occupational tax 2. transaction through written order forms 3. imposition of tax on transfers - remained law until 1970 with the passage of the comprehensive drug abuse prevention and control act.

Nervous system (key actors: drug receptors, the impact of drugs on the NS):

The Nervous system: - the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body -All nervous systems consist of Glia and neurons: - Gila: non-neuronal cells that help maintain homeostasis - Neurons: nerve cells that conduct the homeostatic functions of the brain and other parts of the nervous system -Synapse: point of communication between neurons -Neurotransmitters: the messengers sent by neurons

The comprehensive drug abuse prevention and control act of 1970 (including drug schedules):

The comprehensive Drug abuse prevention and control act of 1970: -"controlled substance act" - bit of legislation that replaces everything that came before it -primary impact: divided substances with abuse potential into categories based on the degree of their abuse potential and clinical usefulness Five schedules: Schedule 1: - High abuse potential + no medical utility = illegal -Crack cocaine, marijuana (because of the federal gov.), street meth, heroin, ecstasy, LSD, GHB, PCP Schedule II: - High abuse potential +medical utility = controlled - If you have or possess them in a non medical way they have the sam repercussions as Schedule I drugs; Amphetamines, cocaine, oxycontin Schedule III-V: - low abuse potential + medical utility = controlled with lesser penalties - punishment attached depends on where it is deemed on abuse potential and major class

Diagnosing substance abuse and addiction: Substance induced vs. substance use disorders

The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edition) DSM-5: - substance - related and addictive disorders - 2 disorders Substance-induced disorders: - immediate effects of use or discontinuation - immediately after you took it or about to with-drawl - much less common to diagnose Substance use disorders: - combines the previous categories of substance abuse and substance dependence - a major manual used by clinicians, psychiatrists, and most other mental health therapists and professions for diagnosing mental disorders

Agonistic vs. Antagonistic effects

The nervous system: agonistic and antagonistic effects: -addictive drugs typically work in two definitive method of action - distinctions within how the drugs interact with neurotransmitters Agonistic effects: -interacts to produce some cellular response -direct-binding; indirect bonding -a type of substance that activates a receptor Antagonistic effects: - interacts and prevents or hinders a response -direct-acting; indirect-acting - a type of substance that blocks a receptor Direct: it's a direct key to the lock, it will act just like the neurotransmitter having a direct impact, (Ie., pain, illness) stronger more intense affect Indirect: It has an effect, but it takes more to get there, influence the system to get the process going

The Pure Food and Drug Act: significant amendment to this legislation (and driving factors):

The pure food and drug act of 1906: - prior to 1905: popular media attacked misleading labels and claims of patent medicines 1906: "the jungle" published by Upton Sinclair -Public outrage --> action by congress The pure food and drug act DID: -banned interstate commerce in tainted and misbranded food and drugs - created FDA DOES: require that you label and list what is in your drugs and created the FDA DID NOT: outlaw the sale of medications containing problematic drugs and didn't prohibit false claims "opium cures cancer"

Acute-Chronic Distinction

acute effects: short term effects that take place within the period of administration or immediately after - how people present when they are under the substance Ex. getting "high", dying of an OD Chronic effects: - long term effect that occur after continued usage - how quickly a person develops chronic effects depends on the individual Ex. heart problems, memory loss, kidney failure, cirrhosis of the liver

Drugs

any substances that modify mind and/or body functioning

what do prevalence rates tell us/ what can't we understand based on prevalence rates:

can: tell us how common a drug is at a specific time period, commonness can then be compared with other drugs can't tell us: - motivation, - continued use, - problematic use, - only shows experimental uses

Toxicity

capacity of one drug to damage or cause adverse effects in the body

Peripheral NS (PNS) vs Central Nervous system

central nervous system: brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system: all the nerves that are connected in the body and lead back into the spinal cord and brain Autonomic and somatic are functions that are used to send signals to the spinal cord and the brain. Autonomic (organ, involuntary movement): sympathetic: fight or flight, speeds your heart rate if someone attacks you heart rate and blood pressure increases parasympathetic: rest and digest, you are calm and body is digesting and organs are involuntarily digesting and working.

Continuance/loyalty rates

continuance rate: for a given drug, a figure calculated on the basis of comparing the proportion of a "at least one time" users who have also taken that drug within a more recent time period, usually either the past month or the past year. - legal drugs have a higher continuance rate - use this to demonstrate drug abuse and use - drug loyalty varies depending on person and drug - alcohol generates the strongest user loyalty - marijuana strongest for illegal drugs - general rule: legal drugs have greater continuance rate than illegal WHY? - stigma and risk - ease of obtaining - expense

Driving factors in drug legislation (US social change, worldwide context):

international affairs and US drug legislation: -international affairs were a strong influence in the eventual enactment of federal drug laws in the us Chinese and British - "opium wars": - Chinese ban of opium -British continued to smuggle opium into china - in-response Chinese authorities authorized to seize and destroy large shipments of opium leading to catalyst for the "opium wars" Key idea = American drug legislation as influenced by worldwide context Dr. Wright Hamilton = "father of American narcotics laws": -president over the international opium commission (shanghai commission) 1909 -13 countries convened - US presented evidence about the evils of narcotics BUT lack of American national drug bans = embarrassed the commission officials -proposed the foster bill *defeated in 1911 *designed to uncover and stop all drug trafficking such as opium, cocaine, and campus * did not have enough backing -international conference on opium (Haugue conference) 1911 - same circumstances -opened the door to domestic narcotics legislation -shift in political power during this time

Chapter 1

introduction

Lethal Dose

lethal dose: - the quantity of a given drug required to kill a specific population -refers to the drugs toxicity

tolerance (pharmacological, cross, behavioral) :

tolerance: repeated administration produces diminishing effects - will always develop with habitual use -when it develops varies Pharmacological tolerance: - refers to the effect on related neurons Cross tolerance: - refers to the fact that the same principle for diminishing affects applies across similar drug types - development of tolerance to one drug causes tolerance to related drug Behavioral tolerance: - reflects how an experienced user learns to compensate for drug effects -compensation for motor impairments through behavioral pattern modifications by chronic alcohol users.

Factors that shape user experiences:

viewpoints and behavior four principle factors that affect how a user experiences drugs: - biological factors - cultural factors - social factors - contextual factors