Earth Science Unit 6
In 2015, the United States, on average, used 322 billion gallons of water per day on uses ranging from agricultural to municipal to industrial. That's the equivalent of 475,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools. The following are a few examples of how different industries use water:
- Industries use water to manufacture products such as food, paper, pharmaceuticals, and glass. - Thermoelectric power plants use water to generate electricity with steam-driven turbine generators. - Mining industries use water to dislodge minerals from rocks or to extract various metals (such as copper or iron) from their ores. -
How does saltwater intrusion impact the water supply? Select the two correct answers.
- It decreases the amount of usable drinking water. - It causes saltwater to mix with freshwater.
As humans consume more water than can be recharged, changes to Earth's surface and water supply occur. Some major impacts are as follows:
- lowering of the water table - land subsidence - saltwater intrusion
Which of the following are controversies over water usage in the United States? Select the three correct answers.
- whether people should drink bottled or tap water - whether people should build dams on rivers - whether water treatment should be privatized
The International Renewable Energy Agency determined that the cost of generating power from onshore wind fell by about
25% between 2010 and 2017. The cost of solar electricity fell by 73% in that same time period. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory projects that costs associated with solar energy will decline 60% by 2050. Costs could decline as much as 80% assuming industry growth and technological advances. Similarly, wind energy costs are projected to decline by 30% by 2050, but could potentially decline as much as 64%.
The independent financial think tank Carbon Tracker recently released a report stating that
42% of global coal capacity is already unprofitable because of high fuel costs. By 2040, this could reach 72% as current environmental regulations or taxes such as carbon taxes drive up costs. The report also stated that by 2030, building new renewable-energy power plants will be cheaper than continuing to operate 96% of today's existing and planned coal plants. The United States could save $78 billion by closing coal-fired power plants. China and the European Union could save $389 billion and $89 billion respectively.
Why are energy projects using renewable energy sources predicted to have lower LCOEs in the future?
Advances in technology are expected to lower production costs for generating electricity from renewable energy sources. Economies of scale will also result in lower costs since lessons learned from smaller projects can be utilized when building larger projects. The availability of the energy sources both now and in the future keeps prices steady and low.
What is one impact that processing all fossil fuels has on the environment?
All processing of fossil fuels requires disposal of wastewater that could cause contamination if leaked into the water system.
What happens as snow cover and glaciers disappear?
As snow cover and glaciers disappear, they reflect less light and atmospheric temperatures increase.
Which of the following agreements allocated 7.5 million acre-feet of water to each basin of the Colorado River?
Colorado River Compact
What would contribute to a lower LCOE?
Lower costs, higher total production, or both
List three ways that water resources were important to Richmond's development.
The James River helped the colonists explore the region, it was crucial to transporting goods to and from Richmond, and the canal helped to make Richmond an economic center.
What is the definition of artesian well ?
a well under sufficient pressure such that water flows upward to the surface
Earth's water supply is depleted by
agriculture and farming, industrial uses (e.g., manufacturing and power plant operation), and human consumption (e.g., daily drinking). How humans use water is an important connection to water quality and quantity. Knowing how water is used can help to lessen the impacts on the supply and the environment.
Currently, 70% of freshwater consumption is used for
agriculture. The increasing demands by crops and livestock production for fresh water along with many other uses, such as producing energy, are adding stress on water sources. In addition, food production impacts the quality of freshwater sources by introducing contaminants to existing supplies. Agricultural runoff adds fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste into surface water and groundwater. This results in algal blooms (or overgrowth of algae in water) which lowers the oxygen level, creating dead zones in bodies of water. This impacts aquatic life and fishing industries.
Solar energy is
an alternative resource that captures energy from the sun. Ultimately, the sun is the source for all on energy on earth, including the energy contained in fossil fuels. However, solar energy refers to energy obtained directly from the sun..
What is the definition of aquifer ?
an area of rock that absorbs and holds water that exists below the water table
Carbon dioxide's effects are not a one-time event, but the start of
an ongoing process. When levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase due to burning fossil fuels, feedback loops form.
The human population is also at risk. About 40% of the world's population lives within 100 kilometers (62 miles) of a coast and 10% live less than 9 meters (29.5 feet) above sea level. This means that,
as the oceans rise, over 600 million people worldwide could be displaced. Not only will this endanger human life, but it will also have dramatic economic impacts as houses, businesses, and infrastructure will need to be replaced.
Like all of Earth's systems, the atmosphere is closely connected to other systems. Changes in the atmosphere affect the habitats of living things on Earth, both on land and in water. The impact of fossil fuels does not end with the atmosphere; people must also consider the effects on the
biosphere and hydrosphere .
Power-generating systems or facilities have varying costs, depending on the source of energy used. However, regardless of the type of energy, there are two main categories of costs:
capital costs and operating costs. Capital costs are fixed costs and include things like infrastructure, land, buildings, and equipment. Operating costs are costs that vary over time and include the cost of fuel, labor, and maintenance.
What is the definition of climate change ?
changes in regional and global climate patterns, particularly marked by a warming of average global temperatures caused by the release of greenhouse gases due to the burning of fossil fuels
Worldwide increases in human population affects Earth's water supply. As the population increases, worldwide demand for water increases. This causes a
decline in Earth's water resources. Areas that are already suffering water shortages and gaining access to clean water continue to be greatly impacted. Currently, humans are withdrawing water from Earth's aquifers at a faster rate than it can be recharged .
To ensure equitable allocation of water, the Colorado River Compact agreement was made in 1922 and
divided the river basin into an upper and lower basin. The compact allocated 7.5 million acre-feet of water to each basin annually. In addition, a water treaty between the U.S. and Mexico was made during World War II agreeing to give 1.5 million acre-feet to Mexico. The river has been running low since the 2000s, and drought has gripped the southwestern U.S. Read about the decreasing water levels at Lake Mead.
Climatic conditions of a region can impact the availability of water. Arid regions with low precipitation levels are more likely to suffer from
drought . When drought occurs, the flow of streams and rivers declines, and water levels in lakes, wells, and reservoirs fall. Read and take notes on other climate factors that affect the availability of water.
Natural gas is another fossil fuel that has influenced human activity. Natural gas is formed
far below Earth's surface and is extracted by drilling underground. It is a cleaner-burning fossil fuel than coal. It emits less carbon dioxide and other harmful emissions into the atmosphere.
Rapid urban growth, water pollution, climate change, and incompetent management of water and wastewater infrastructures in cities can lead to
flooding, water scarcity, and negative health effects. Cities can be categorized water-wise cities and wasteful cities based on their citizens' environmental awareness and how they integrate water management and urban planning.
While capital costs are lower for
fossil fuel plants, the fuel cost tends to dominate the total cost of operations and is highly dependent on the fluctuating cost of fuel. As a result, operating costs are generally higher for coal and natural gas plants.
Farms rely heavily on
fossil fuels. Before the Industrial Revolution, muscle power and horses were required for planting and harvesting. As the availability of fossil fuels increased, farmers were able to use them to power new farm machinery. This led to faster harvesting and less crop loss. In addition, new irrigation techniques were enabled by the use of fossil fuels. Availability of fossil fuels helped automate the irrigation process and ultimately helped increase agricultural production. More production means more food available to people. This availability means that fewer people grow their own food.
About 71 percent of Earth is covered in water; however, only 2.5 percent of that water is
freshwater that humans could consume. Roughly 68.7 percent of fresh water is trapped in glaciers and ice caps, leaving less than 1 percent of all Earth's water available for human use.
What is the definition of greenhouse gases ?
gases that trap heat from the sun in Earth's atmosphere
According to the United States Geological Survey, about 30 percent of Earth's fresh water is stored as
ground water. The availability of ground water depends on the surface and the climate. The permeability of rocks determines how much water an aquifer will hold. As rainfall reaches the ground, permeable rocks allow the water to flow through them and form aquifers. Permeable rocks on the ground can lead to more ground water and less surface water. Impermeable rocks can lead to less ground water and more surface water.
Approximately 60% of Texas's water needs are met by
groundwater aquifers. In 2010, the amount of groundwater available in a year in Texas was 13 million acre-feet. It is projected that by 2060 that amount will go down to 10 million acre-feet, while the population of Texas is expected to increase from 25 million to 50 million. As the demand increases and the supplies decrease, groundwater availability is a critical concern and a challenge that needs to be solved. Groundwater in Texas is used for agricultural use, oil and gas production, and municipal uses. Understanding the interconnection between water, food, and energy resources can help reduce the competing demands, and can help reduce the risk of a predicted water gap.
In Earth's water cycle, water molecules on Earth evaporate and transpire to the atmosphere, condense into clouds, come back to Earth through precipitation, and then make their way back to bodies of water through runoff and infiltration. The human water cycle describes how
humans get, use, and reuse water. Both Earth's water cycle and the human water cycle are interconnected and vital for sustaining life.
Dams block and harness rivers for many different purposes. The creation of a dam provides many benefits, such as
hydropower , irrigation, flood control, and water storage. However, a dam can have negative impacts on the river's water quality, water supply, aquatic organisms, and the surrounding ecosystem. Dams negatively impact water quality because they can lead to algal blooms and increase the salt level of the water.
According to the UN World Meteorological Organization, 14 of the 15 hottest years on record have occurred since the year 2000. The trends show that Earth'sglobal average temperatures are continuing to
increase. The reason for this increase is the addition of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, in the atmosphere. The effects are far-reaching and are already having an effect on the water cycle and water resources.
As the ocean levels rise, coastal ecosystems are in danger. Rising tides cause
increased erosion. They also infiltrate coastal fresh water with salt water. The salt water reduces plant life which needs fresh water to survive; this affects the entire food web. Salt water also makes the water unusable for household, agricultural, and industrial needs.
Earth's fresh water supply is the same as it was millions of years ago. However, the demand for fresh water has
increased with the increase in population. Many regions around the world face water scarcity, or lack of sufficient water resources to meet demand.
Ground-level ozone is another pollutant that can
injure plants. Affected leaves may turn brown or red or develop spots. For crops that are sensitive to ozone, like soybeans and cotton, high concentrations of ozone in the atmosphere can significantly reduce crop yield.
As a result, economists often use a measure known as the
levelized cost of energy (LCOE) to compare different methods of energy generation. The LCOE is the average total cost to build and operate a power-generating asset over its lifetime, also called the total cost of ownership, divided by the total energy output of that asset over its lifetime. This metric provides the price of energy per unit or per kWh (kilowatt hour). It is the minimum price at which the electricity must be sold in order to break even over the lifetime of the project.
Which describes how precipitation falls in mountainous regions?
more on the windward side of mountains
Which fossil fuel is extracted by fracturing rocks?
natural gas
Currently a small amount of renewable energy generation can be easily integrated into existing grids, but about 30% of renewable energy generation will require
new ways to extend and operate the grid. Collecting energy over large areas tends to offset variability of individual locations; however, challenges remain. Changes to the grid would need to accommodate large-scale storage of energy and long-distance transmission of energy.
When resources like water are limited, people and groups must compete for access. Over 1.2 billion people worldwide have limited access to water supplies, which is a problem known as
physical water scarcity . Even more people live in areas with a lack of money and resources to use existing sources of water, which is a problem known as economic water scarcity . Competition for water resources happens all around the world.
The region around the Rio Grande River faces both physical and economic water scarcity. Arid regions most often face
physical water scarcity ; however, physical scarcity can also be human-made. The Rio Grande River basin in the U.S. is one of the examples of how an abundant source of water was overused and overmanaged, leading to physical water scarcity downstream. Economic water scarcity refers to situations where proper infrastructure in water distribution, water recycling and treatment, and sanitation are lacking, leading to inadequate water supply.
What is the definition of hydropower ?
power produced by capturing the energy of flowing water
What is the definition of agricultural runoff ?
precipitation or irrigation water from farm fields that reaches streams, rivers, lakes, or the ocean, often carrying pollutants
Energy is used in every aspect of human life, from homes and businesses to transportation and manufacturing. Currently, fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas are the
primary sources of energy, but these resources are nonrenewable, which means that they cannot be replenished or recreated in a short period of time. As these nonrenewable resources are depleted, the availability of these resources will become scarce, so there is a large and growing need for alternative energy resources.
What is the definition of permeability of rocks ?
the ease with which rocks allow liquids to pass through
Offshore drilling can have many impacts on
the ocean environment. Drilling under the ocean floor produces waste that can enter the surrounding ocean. The waste materials can harm animals and destroy marine habitats. In addition, mishaps with offshore drilling, such as oil spills, can result in devastating consequences to marine life.
What is the definition of biosphere ?
the parts of Earth that serve as habitats for living things
What is the definition of hydrosphere ?
water that is on or under Earth's surface
What is the definition of direct water ?
water that is used or consumed by an individual or group of individuals
According to the United States Geological Survey, about 71 percent of Earth's surface is covered with
water. However, only 2.5 percent is fresh water; the rest is salt water. Much of the fresh water is trapped in glaciers and ice caps. Only 1.2 percent of fresh water is surface or other water, which is used for industrial and domestic purposes and irrigation. Due to geology, climate, geography, and other factors, some regions have an abundant supply of fresh water, while others face drought or a shortage of water resources.
What is the definition of economic water scarcity ?
when there is a lack of money and resources to utilize adequate sources of water
What is the definition of physical water scarcity ?
when there is limited access to water supply
Some benefits of producing power with renewable resources do not factor into the LCOE. For example,
while the burning of fossil fuels to produce energy also produces harmful greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, producing power through the use of renewable energy sources produces little to no greenhouse gases. The exception to this is biomass energy. However, the amount of carbon dioxide released when burning biomass is about equal to the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the plants that comprise the biomass as the plants grew. - Solar energy has the advantage of being collectible even in densely populated urban environments, where solar panels can be positioned on rooftops. Solar panels added to a single residence can add value to the home. - Wind energy, unlike solar energy, can be collected day or night. Wind turbines can be installed in agricultural areas without disruption to crops or livestock. - Solar and wind energy require essentially no water in their operations and therefore do not contribute to water pollution.
What happens when carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in seawater?
Ocean waters become more acidic.
What is the definition of smog ?
a severe type of air pollution, originally named for a mixture of smoke and fog
What is the definition of resource ?
a source or supply that a country has and can use to increase its wealth
Which strategy will most decrease the number of people sickened by water-borne diseases?
better sanitation systems
Direct water includes
drinking water and water used to water lawns or flush toilets.
What is the definition of algal bloom ?
rapid growth in the algae population in a body of water
What is the definition of recharge ?
restore or refill
What is the definition of saltwater intrusion ?
the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers
What is one benefit of using solar and wind energy over fossil fuels?
One benefit of using solar and wind energy is that neither source produces air pollution.
Why was the canal ultimately abandoned?
The canal was abandoned when railroads were able to be built faster and more cheaply.
How did the colonists rely on the James River?
The colonists relied on the James River for bringing in supplies from England and for sending out tobacco to trade.
How does excess salt in water effect the crops?
The excess salt in water stops the crops from taking in water and nutrients.
What is the definition of aquitard ?
a layer of rock that allows a small amount of liquid to pass through
What is the definition of fall line ?
a narrow zone between an elevated region and a plain where rivers form falls and rapids
Humans have devised ways to
harness the sun's energy to produce electricity. Using solar cells that convert sunlight directly into electricity, energy is channeled to power objects as small as watches or as large as skyscrapers. Photovoltaic, or solar, cells can be placed on roofs to capture energy and provide electricity to homes. They can also be placed on large areas of land and used to power large buildings and even, as in the case of Babcock Ranch, FL, a town.
What is one effect that burning fossil fuels has on the atmosphere?
increases levels of greenhouse gases
While everyone needs water, billions of people worldwide face shortages of clean water or lack adequate
sanitation . These issues are not just unpleasant, but often have long-term effects on people's health, education, and economic well-being.
What is the definition of land subsidence ?
sinking of land
Given enough time, water cuts through
stone and wears deep grooves through mountains, creating features like the Grand Canyon. Likewise, water has carved its way through time and shaped the history and development of the United States. Water determines how people move and where people live. Without fresh water, land is uninhabitable. With fresh water, land can be fertile and people can thrive. Water is used for much more than drinking; it irrigates farms, transports goods, and is a source of power. It is a key part of a thriving ecosystem.
Upstream from the fall line, rivers move
swiftly through narrow valleys. Downstream from the fall line, the rivers of the coastal plains are large, relatively calm, and navigable by large boats. This feature had a notable effect on the establishment of cities and colonies. Its effects are still seen today.
Currently in most major U.S. cities, the treatment, distribution, and recycling of water is funded by
taxpayers. But as municipalities struggle with weakened infrastructures, many are considering privatizing all or part of this process. As cities consider water privatization , they must think about the advantages and disadvantages of such a move.
What is the definition of supply ?
the amount of a resource that is available to consumers
What is the definition of demand ?
the amount of a resource that is desired by consumers
What is the definition of albedo ?
the amount of radiation reflected from a surface
What is the definition of global average temperature ?
the average of thousands of temperature measurements in the atmosphere, oceans, and on land over a specific time period
Virtual water (also known as hidden water) appears in
the water used in foods you eat or products that you buy, the energy you consume, or the water you saved by recycling. Virtual water use makes up most of people's water footprint.
Which accounts for the highest water withdrawals in the United States?
thermoelectric power
Which of the following uses the largest amount of water per day?
thermoelectric power
Richmond, Virginia, is located on the fall line of the James River, and is one of the oldest major cities in the United States. Its history, like the history of most other cities, was shaped by the availability of
water resources.
What is the definition of virtual water ?
water used in production of services and goods that consumers need and enjoy
What is the definition of agricultural water ?
water used to grow fresh produce and raise livestock
Which of the following is an example of industrial water use?
water used to refine oil
What is the definition of water privatization ?
when private companies buy or operate public water utilities
Name the fossil fuel—natural gas, petroleum, or coal—that has impacted the human activity described in each example.
- Burning this fossil fuel to produce steam and, ultimately, electricity has allowed people to take advantage of many time-saving tools and appliances in the home. coal - This fossil fuel is an inexpensive source of fuel that allows people to travel great distances in short periods of time. petroleum - This fossil fuel is a popular source for heating schools and office buildings, allowing people to learn and work in comfort. natural gas
Which of the following describe a way climate change makes droughts more extreme? Choose the three correct answers.
- increased snowmelt - rain instead of snowfall - increased evaporation
The use of water in agriculture allows people to grow fresh fruits and vegetables and raise livestock. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 2015, irrigation and livestock combined used 120 billion gallons of water per day. The following are a few examples of how water is used in agriculture:
- irrigation - applying things such as fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides - cooling crops (light irrigation) - raising livestock - frost control
How is the demand for water related to worldwide population growth?
As the population increases worldwide, the demand for water increases.
Why are rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere harmful?
Carbon dioxide traps heat in Earth's atmosphere.
Climate change will _______________ water demand and will _________________ water supply.
Climate change will *increase* water demand and will *decrease* water supply.
Think about ways coal is used today. What is one way coal is used to produce or make something you encounter in everyday life?
Coal is used to produce steel. Many buildings you visit daily are made from steel frames, which are produced, in part, from coal.
Which of the following examples shows the influence coal has had on human activity?
Coal use in steam engines led to easier access to goods.
Why did George Washington support the construction of canals on the James River near Richmond?
He wanted to be able to ship goods to and from west of the Appalachian Mountains.
High-pressure membrane is a new technology. How can this technology help improve water quality?
High-pressure membranes can be used to remove very small contaminants in water. This technology can help remove all kinds of contaminants from the water making it safe for the environment.
Which of the following happens to water resources as the population grows?
The aquifers are not recharged as quickly.
What is the advantage of using satellites to get soil salinity data?
Using satellites to get soil salinity data can help retrieve high resolution measurements locally and globally.
How do warming temperatures affect storms?
Warming temperatures cause storms to be more severe and to produce more rain.
What is the definition of drought ?
a period of drier-than-normal conditions resulting from a decrease in precipitation levels over weeks, months, or years
What is the definition of emissions ?
gases that are released when fossil fuels are burned
Another way that natural gas can be extracted is through
hydraulic fracturing, or fracking.
Which is the most prevalent source of agricultural water pollution?
sedimentation
In 2017, the Texas Water Development Board predicted that by 2070 there will be a 41% gap between
water demand and supply . The 41% gap is the average across the state of Texas. This challenge will have varying effects on different parts of Texas because each region has its own distinct population, water demands, and water supplies. Variation in urban growth, resource distribution, and resource demands will result in some areas experiencing more serious challenges than others.
Is water a human right? This is one of the main debates that revolves around water usage and water management. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) predicts that by 2025, more than two-thirds of the world's population will face
water scarcity. Cities such as Los Angeles, Salt Lake City, Austin, and Miami are experiencing a steady decline in their water reserves. Is water privatization the solution? Is damming rivers the solution?
There are many debates over who has the right to use water—and how much. Some of these debates include the following:
- building dams on rivers - managing cities' water supplies - improving access to clean water and sanitation
How is coal extracted from the earth? Select the two correct answers.
- by surface mining - by underground mining
Which of the following activities contain hidden water usage? Select the three correct answers.
- growing cattle feed - processing and dying fabric - growing cotton to make fabric
Which of the following is a result of increased evaporation? Select the three correct answers.
- increased drought - increased agricultural irrigation - increased rainfall
Which of the following are considered fossil fuels? Select the three correct answers.
- natural gas - oil - coal
What did people rely on rivers for during the eighteenth century? Select the three correct answers.
- powering mills - transporting people and goods - collecting drinking water
There are many controversies over water usage. You will learn about three different types of controversies over water in the United States:
- privatization of water treatment - bottled vs. tap water - building dams on rivers
Given below are some virtual ways people use water:
- production of food, such as pizza or chocolate - production of other products, such as clothes, shoes, or cars - water used in electricity production and the use of electrical appliances - cooling of thermo-electric power plants - water used to produce electricity that runs water treatment plants
Which factors have contributed most to water shortages in cities such as Cape Town? Select the two correct answers.
- rapid population growth - drought conditions
As people pump water out of the ground, the water table can lower. Which of the following are possible consequences of a lower water table? Select the two correct answers.
- saltwater intrusion - land subsidence
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), since 1750, the sea level has risen an average of
20 centimeters. This is due to a combination of continental snow and ice melting and water expanding as the water gets warmer. In the same time span, the global average temperature has risen just under 1.5°C (2.7°F). As Earth warms, water levels will continue to rise, with most scientists predicting that ocean levels will rise between 0.5 and 2.0 meters (1.6 and 6.6 feet) by the end of the 21st century.
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, water use in the United States in 2015 was estimated to be about
322 billion gallons per day. Having a sense of how water is used can help people develop a better understanding of the connection between water, food, and energy. To calculate the water usage of an individual or a community, scientists include both direct and virtual ways that people use water.
How do these changes in ocean chemistry affect the organisms living in the ocean?
As the ocean becomes more acidic, the amount of carbonate that organisms can use to build their shells decreases. Threats to shelled organisms, like sea snails, affect animals that are further up the food chain, such as penguins and seals.
Which of the following describes the relationship between population growth and the underground water supply?
As the population grows, the water supply remains the same, thus increasing its demand.
Which statement describes a struggle over water rights between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Nile River?
Both countries want more control over the flow of the river for irrigation and electricity production.
What factors are used when calculating the levelized cost of energy (LCOE)?
Capital costs, operating costs, and total production for the lifetime of a project
What causes coral bleaching?
Coral bleaching is caused by rising ocean temperatures.
Crude oil is removed from the earth through ___________. It is then _________ into its different components by heating and boiling. After this step, gasoline is processed and delivered to central terminals via __________.
Crude oil is removed from the earth through drilling**. It is then separated** into its different components by heating and boiling. After this step, gasoline is processed and delivered to central terminals via underground pipes**.
How has the use of petroleum to create food storage containers influenced human activity?
Food can be preserved and stored for longer periods of time, freeing people from needing to purchase and consume foods in shorter time spans.
Why did George Washington want to build a canal?
George Washington wanted to find a way to connect the James and Ohio Rivers to enable goods to be shipped west of the Appalachian mountains.
How does the use of fossil fuels affect the cryosphere?
Higher levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause sea ice to melt.
Hypothesize what could happen to Earth's water supply if the population were to decrease.
If the population started to decrease, the water supply could start to recharge at a faster rate. Water could be replenished in the aquifer, making water more accessible to future generations. Less threat of land subsidence and saltwater intrusion could be an overall outcome.
How do the impacts on Earth's water supply affect future populations?
Impacts such as saltwater intrusion could cause less clean drinking water to be available for future generations. As the water table lowers and is not recharged as quickly, the supply of water could be much less for future populations. As land continues to sink, threats of increased saltwater intrusion are more likely.
A scientist observes that the shells of oysters this year are thinner than the shells of oysters several years ago. How could this trend be related to the use of fossil fuels?
Increasingly acidic ocean water makes building shells more difficult.
Why is LCOE used to compare different energy projects?
It provides a standardized metric for generating the cost per kWh over the lifetime of a project. It provides the break-even point, or the point above which a project becomes profitable.
To do a simple LCOE calculation, the total cost of ownership of the energy project is divided by its lifetime production of energy. In equation form, the LCOE is calculated as follows:
LCOE= (capital costs) + (average yearly operating costs) x (number of project years) / (total production)
What long-term effects did the oil spill have on the environment?
Long term, animal populations were drastically reduced. Marine animals exhibited adverse health effects such as organ failures. The cognitive functioning of fish was reduced, making them susceptible to predators. The population of bottlenose dolphins decreased by 50%.
One example of a controversy involving the privatization of water is taking place in
Michigan. On April 2, 2018, the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality approved a plan that would allow a bottled water company to pump 400 gallons of water a minute from White Pine Springs. That equates to over 210 billion gallons of water a year. The only requirement is that the company pay $200 a year to the state of Michigan for the permit fee.
What is a benefit and challenge of utilizing hydroelectric energy?
One benefit of hydroelectric energy is that it utilizes a clean resource. One challenge is that the dams used to collect the energy can harm natural habitats.
What is one major challenge of harnessing solar and wind energy?
One major challenge of harnessing solar energy is that adequate sunlight is not always available in all places. The amount of sunlight available and the intensity of the sun's energy varies from place to place. One challenge of harnessing wind energy is the noise pollution it creates.
A city has found that water from shallow-depth wells shows signs of contamination from heavy metals. What is most likely to happen next?
People will drill deeper into aquifers.
What effect do rising ocean levels have on coastal fresh water?
Rising ocean levels can infiltrate fresh water with salt water.
Which of the following describes how livestock can impact water quality?
Soil particles or sediments can run off into water supplies and cloud water.
What is soil salinization?
Soil salinization is the excess salt leftover after water evaporates or transpires.
How is solar energy collected and used?
Solar energy is harnessed through photovoltaic, or solar, cells. They capture the sun's energy and convert it to electricity that is used in homes and buildings.
What effect do clouds have on climate change?
Some types of clouds reflect light and cool the atmosphere while others hold onto heat like greenhouse gases.
Overall, how has the availability of fossil fuels changed the way in which humans produce goods and services?
The availability of fossil fuels has improved the efficiency of the ways in which humans travel, work, and produce goods.
What is the largest source of clean electric energy in the United States?
The largest source of clean electric energy in the United States is hydro power or hydroelectricity.
What made the Powhatan stop wanting to have a peaceful trading relationship with the English?
They were angered by the English continuing to encroach into their territory.
What are three sources of fresh water?
Three sources of fresh water are rivers, lakes, and groundwater aquifers.
Why is it important to understand the connections between food, water, and energy?
Understanding how water, food, and energy are interconnected can help create rules and management strategies and guide society's decision-making process.
What are some benefits of burning wood biomass?
Wood provides heating for many homes in the United States. It can also be burned to generate steam and electricity.
Typically, water used in agriculture comes from surface water (such as rivers and streams), groundwater, or rainwater. If the quality of agricultural water decreases, it has
a negative effect on crop yield. On the other hand, poor agricultural practices, mismanagement of farms, and animal waste can have a negative impact on water resources.
What is the definition of hydraulic fracturing , or fracking ?
a process of fracturing rocks by injecting liquid at high pressure to extract oil or gas
What is the definition of cryosphere ?
areas of ice and snow on Earth
Fossil fuels, like coal, oil, and natural gas, provide energy when they are
burned. However, they also release a variety of chemicals into the atmosphere. These gases are known as emissions
What is the definition of turbidity ?
cloudiness in water caused by stirred up sediments or by algae or other microscopic organisms
The LCOE considers all power-generating system costs. However, it does not necessarily include the cost of
delivering wind and solar power into the grid system that transmits electricity from the power system or facility to the end user. Two technical challenges faced by the grid in regard to renewable energy are the location and variability of renewable energy generation. Renewable energy resources are usually located far from urban cities, although increasing numbers of solar panels are being installed in some cities. Additionally, the unpredictability of weather can affect wind and sunlight conditions, creating variation in the amount of energy generated.
Note that the capital costs and average yearly operating costs are in
dollars and the total production is in kWh. This means that the LCOE is in units of dollars per kWh.
The Atlantic coastal plain is a large, mostly flat low area along the mid-Atlantic and southeast regions. Farther inland is an area where the land goes from low and flat to an elevated highland; this area is called the
fall line . The fall line marks the boundary between the Piedmont Plateau and the coastal plain. As the name suggests, the fall line is where waterfalls and rapids are found.
The costs of generating power from renewable sources have
fallen over recent years, and are expected to continue to fall in the future. By comparison, the costs of generating power from fossil fuel plants are either not falling, or are not falling as steeply.
Humans eat every day. Most people use some form of transportation to go to the grocery store and purchase their food. Fossil fuels power the vehicles that get people to stores, but they also play a role in the food industry itself. Starting on the farm, fossil fuels influence human activity in the following areas of food production:
harvesting transporting packaging
Perhaps the greatest challenge is keeping up with the
hiring growth of renewable energy industries. The number of jobs related to wind energy increased by 32% in 2016, while jobs related to solar energy increased by 25% that same year.
Scientists have determined that droughts , flooding, and wildfires are all being made more extreme by
human-made climate change . Sometimes, these disasters can take place in the same region.
As humans pump water out of the ground, the water table underneath the ground lowers. If the water table is not refilled at the rate that water is taken out,
land subsidence occurs. This subsidence of land can cause many other issues, such as saltwater intrusion , to occur. Ultimately, this impacts the overall water supply. In addition, it impacts the quality of the water to which humans have access.
Oil and natural gas formed in
oceans millions of years ago when marine plants and animals died and fell to the ocean floor where they were buried. Layers of sand, sediment, and water covered the remains. If the decaying matter was mostly animals, intense heat and pressure compressed the decaying animal matter into oil. If the decaying matter was mostly plants and there was an extreme amount of heat and pressure, the carbon bonds broke down into methane, producing natural gas.
Earth's atmosphere is made up
of 78 percent nitrogen; 21 percent oxygen; 0.9 percent argon; and 0.1 percent other gases, like carbon dioxide and methane. While the gases released by using fossil fuels make up a small percentage of the atmosphere as a whole, they have big, long-term impacts on the atmosphere.
Water, food, and energy are essential to sustain life on Earth. Around the globe, billions of people lack access to
one or more of these resources . According to the World Resources Institute, by 2030, water, food, and energy demands are expected to increase by 40-50%. It is important that you, a citizen of this dynamic global society, understand the limitations and constraints of these resources and how they are dependent on each other.
Better sustainable practices are needed to
reduce agricultural runoff and to capture and recycle nutrients before they reach water sources. Salt water poses a significant threat to freshwater supplies used for food production. Many of the widely used agricultural practices and technologies are energy intensive and expensive. Scientists and farmers must work together to create and implement new and sustainable practices or solutions to help reduce the impact on freshwater supplies.
The International Energy Agency estimates that people worldwide use 93 million barrels of oil every day. Burning fossil fuels provides billions of people with energy, but it also releases chemicals into the atmosphere, including the following:
sulfur dioxide nitrogen dioxide ozone carbon dioxide
What is the definition of sanitation ?
systems to treat and dispose of waste to prevent the spread of disease
What is the definition of water table ?
the boundary between unsaturated ground and saturated ground
Coal is
the most abundant fossil fuel in the world. It is a hydrocarbon, or compound of hydrogen and carbon, that can be found in every continent, with the largest reserves located in the United States, Russia, China, Australia, and India. It is the largest energy source for generating electricity worldwide.
How do changes in the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels affect plant life? Select the two correct answers.
- Increased ozone levels slow plant growth. - Acid rain removes nutrients from soil.
What happens during coal formation after plants die and fall to the bottom of a swamp?
Sediment and rock pile on top.
How have concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changed over time?
Since 1950 (the first year shown on the graph), carbon dioxide concentrations have steadily increased. Prior to the industrial era, carbon dioxide concentrations remained much lower.
Which statements accurately compare the environmental impact of acquiring natural gas and acquiring oil? Select the two correct answers.
- Both can impact groundwater supply. - Both involve drilling into the earth.
Renewable resources are resources that can be renewed or replaced. Renewable resources are becoming a more viable alternative to fossil fuels. Examples of renewable resources include:
- solar energy - wind energy - biomass energy - hydroelectric energy - other renewable energies, such as geothermal energy and hydrogen energy
Which of the following chemicals are pollutants released when people burn fossil fuels? Select the two correct answers.
- sulfur dioxide - nitrogen dioxide
How do the environmental impacts of acquiring natural gas compare to the environmental impacts of acquiring oil?
Acquiring natural gas and oil requires drilling into the earth, which can disturb the surrounding land. Both natural gas and oil can be acquired through fracking. Impacts of fracking can include water contamination and earthquakes. Drilling for oil offshore has a risk of oil spills.
What is one benefit all alternative energy resources have in common?
All alternative energy resources help to reduce the use of fossil fuels, which are nonrenewable resources.
What are some limitations of using biomass energy?
Biomass produces carbon dioxide, which can be harmful to the environment. As a result, extra care must be taken to properly burn and control biomass.
Which sectors produce the greatest proportion of carbon dioxide emissions in the United States?
Electricity production and transportation produce the greatest proportion of carbon dioxide emissions, followed by industrial uses.
How has the farming industry been affected by the use of fossil fuels?
Fossil fuels have increased the amount of crops harvested.
Why might a company decide against using hydroelectric energy as an alternative energy resource?
Gathering it can have a negative effect on natural habitats.
What is one difference between the environmental impacts of processing coal and natural gas?
Natural gas emits less carbon dioxide than coal.
Which of the following example shows the influence natural gas has had on human activity?
Natural gas use to generate electricity has increased efficiencies for business owners.
How does carbon dioxide in the atmosphere affect ocean chemistry?
Oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which causes the ocean to become more acidic.
What immediate effect did the oil spill have on the environment?
The immediate effects included oil spilling into the ocean, making it hard for animals to feed and breath at the surface. Oil flowed onto beaches, damaging plants and vegetation as well as affecting the mating and reproductive habits of sea turtles and other animals.
How has the use of coal in steel production impacted human activity?
The production of steel has allowed people to construct sturdier buildings. People have developed ways to use steel to reinforce concrete, which has led to more secure dwellings.
What is the definition of particulate matter ?
a form of pollution consisting of solid or liquid particles in the air
What is the definition of a fossil fuel ?
a fuel (such as coal, crude oil, or natural gas) that is formed in the earth from dead plants or animals
Crude oil is
a liquid fossil fuel that is extracted from the ground by drilling deep into the earth. It can be acquired through drilling on land or drilling on the ocean floor. Oil is pumped from underground and transported to local refineries. Sometimes hydraulic fracturing is used to extract oil as well as natural gas from underground.
Oil, or crude oil, is a fossil fuel consisting of
a mixture of hydrocarbons. It exists in liquid form underground in reservoirs or in tiny spaces within sedimentary rocks. It is extracted from the ground through drilling. It is used to make petroleum products, which are fuels made from crude oil and natural gas. Oil's biggest use today is in the production of gasoline, which fuels the transportation industry.
Petroleum, or crude oil, is another fossil fuel that has had a significant influence on human activity. Petroleum is
a naturally occurring liquid found beneath Earth's surface. It can be mined or drilled and refined into different products including gasoline and diesel oil. It is the largest source for energy consumption in the United States. Petroleum accounts for 37% of energy consumption in the United States.
Biomass is
a renewable resource that comes from plant and animal material. Energy from biomass is extracted through direct burning or by converting the biomass to liquid biofuels, which are then burned. There are many examples of biomass, including wood, crops, garbage, and animal waste. Each can be burned to harness energy.
What is the definition of nonrenewable resource ?
a resource that cannot be renewed or replaced
Coal formation began
about 300 million years ago. On Earth, seas were wide and shallow, and forests were dense. The forest were overtaken with water, which trapped algae and plants at the bottom of swamp wetlands.
After sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (like nitrogen dioxide) enter the atmosphere, they react with other substances to form acids. These acids mix with water and return to the ground as
acid rain. (Other forms of precipitation, like snow and fog, can also become acidic.) Typical rain has a pH of 5.6, but acid rain's pH ranges from 4.2-4.4. The acidic water leaches aluminum from the soil, which affects the health of nearby waterways and the animals that live there. Acid rain strips soil of nutrients that plants need, and it can also damage the foliage on trees.
Underground mining involves
building mine shafts underground to access coal deep within the earth. Methane leaks are one environmental concern in and near mines. Methane leaks can cause air pollution as well as respiratory illnesses if uncontrolled. In addition, underground mines cause physical destruction to the land around them, which disrupts the surrounding habitats and biodiversity. Finally, mines have been known to collapse, causing sinkholes in the land above.
Wind energy is an alternative resource that
captures the energy of moving air. Wind turbines are used to collect energy from the wind. This energy is then converted to electricity and dispersed to surrounding towns and homes.
Over millions of years, the dead plants (mostly mosses) and algae were buried under layers of sediment and rocks. The high pressure and compression from these layers caused temperatures to increase. The high temperatures and acidic water prohibited plant matter from receiving oxygen. As a result, the plant matter
decayed slowly. As it decayed, it kept most of its carbon, its main energy source. Places underground where this matter was buried are known as peat bogs. Through this process, peat was changed to carbon-rich coal far below Earth's surface.
When fossil fuels are burned for energy, carbon dioxide is
emitted into the atmosphere. However, not all of the carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere; it also affects water on Earth, known as the hydrosphere.
Hydroelectric energy is
energy gathered from moving water. The force of water has long been used to generate mechanical energy; however, it was also one of the first energy sources to be used to produce electricity. The conversion of energy from moving water to electricity is called hydroelectric power, or hydropower.
Fossil fuels have influenced human activity throughout history. As the availability of fossil fuels has increased, humans have
found ways to use them to increase productivity in many industries.
For renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and geothermal, the fuel is mostly
free. Labor and maintenance costs comprise the bulk of the operating costs. However, capital costs for renewable power-generating systems and facilities tend to be much greater than for coal and natural gas plants. Capital costs can include equipment such as solar panels and wind turbines.
Fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) are
fuels formed in the earth from plant or animal remains. They take millions of years to form and are currently the world's main sources of energy. Fossil fuels are considered nonrenewable resources that will eventually run out.
Natural gas is a fossil fuel found deep underground that is comprised of many compounds, the largest of which is methane. Acquiring natural gas requires that
gas wells be drilled deep into the earth. In many instances, natural gas and oil are found together and extracted in similar ways.
Light and radiation from the sun pass through Earth's atmosphere, warming up land, air, and water. Some gases, known as
greenhouse gases , trap this heat from the sun. Carbon dioxide is one major greenhouse gas. The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warm enough to support plant and animal life. However, as more greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere, they trap more and more heat from the sun. Because carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, the increase in greenhouse gases causes global temperatures to rise over time.
Due to the availability of fossil fuels, energy consumption in the United States has
grown exponentially over the past 150 years. Measured in quadrillion BTU (which stands for British thermal unit, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit), the graph above shows fossil fuel consumption in the United States from 1850 through the projected consumption to 2040. Since 1850, coal, natural gas, and petroleum consumption have increased, contributing to the growth and expansion of industries throughout the United States. The availability of these fossil fuels has greatly impacted human activity and the ways that humans consume energy today.
Dams are used to
harness the energy from moving water. Dams provide a clean method of gathering energy, as they do not contribute to global warming, ozone depletion, or air pollution. The energy collected by dams can produce enough electricity to meet the needs of 8 to 12% of our nation's population. Currently, the Hoover Dam on the border of Nevada and Arizona provides power for utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California, reducing their reliance on fossil fuel energy.
While hydroelectric energy produces clean electricity, it also has
major impacts on the environment. The dams created to gather the energy can obstruct fish migration and change water temperatures and river flow. Plants and animals in the waterways can be negatively affected by this. Their habitats can be disrupted, which impacts their population. Efforts to mitigate and lessen these impacts are part of dam management plans.
Natural gas is a fossil fuel that is made up of
many compounds, the largest of which is methane. Most natural gas is found in spaces and cracks between rocks. It is extracted by either drilling or by hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking. Fracking consists of breaking the rocks to release the natural gas. Today, natural gas is used for electricity and fuel.
Acquiring oil from the ground can have major impacts on the environment. Like natural gas, extracting oil can result in
methane gas leaking into the air. Methane is considered to be more damaging to the environment than carbon dioxide because it locks in heat more efficiently and can accelerate global warming.
Coal is a fossil fuel that takes
millions of years to form. It is a nonrenewable resource that contains energy from plants that lived millions of years ago. It is extracted from the earth through mining and is used in many different industries worldwide.
Two common pollutants that are released when fossil fuels are burned include
nitrogen oxides, especially nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. When people inhale these gases, they may experience respiratory issues. Long-term exposure can increase the risk of asthma. Both gases can react with other chemicals to form particulate matter , or solid or liquid particles in the air that can be inhaled. Particulate matter can range from soot or smoke to particles less than 2.5 micrometers wide, and it contributes to breathing problems. Both nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide are common components of smog .
Which fossil fuel has had the most significant influence on human transportation over the last century?
petroleum
Much of our food is packaged in plastic. Plastic is derived from
petroleum and natural gas. It preserves food as it travels to local grocery stores and markets. The availability of fossil fuels has increased the ability to store food for longer periods of time. Longer product life means less waste, which ultimately saves money for consumers.
Because hydroelectric energy relies heavily on the water cycle, changes in weather patterns can
pose a challenge for harnessing its energy. If the amount of water in rivers, lakes, and oceans fluctuates, it impacts the production level of the dam. Weather patterns, such as drought, can have a huge impact on the ability of dams to harness energy and produce enough electricity for viable use.
Surface mining involves
removal of the topsoil through extensive digging. This dug-up material, or overburden, is sometimes dumped downhill, destroying land ecosystems. Contaminants from the overburden can get into the groundwater or local waterways. In addition, concentrations of chemicals from the mining process can have toxic effects in fish and birds and contaminate their habitats. These chemicals can also leak into waterways and aquifers, impacting drinking wells. Finally, large areas of forested land are lost during surface mining, which can lead to erosion and landslides as topsoil is removed and displaced.
Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is acquired from the earth through
surface and underground mining. With each of these methods, many factors ultimately affect the surrounding environment.
It is useful to look at capital costs versus operating costs of fossil fuel plants compared to
systems that generate power using renewable energy such as wind and solar. However, this method of cost comparison can get very complicated. Other factors that might need to be considered include capacity, number of turbines, waste disposal, taxes, interest rates, and price variability.
The use of natural gas to generate electricity has also impacted human activity. In 2017, natural gas was
the largest source of electricity generation in the United States. Commercially, in addition to heating buildings, natural gas is used to generate electricity for cooling equipment, refrigeration, cooking, and outdoor lighting. Business owners can power large refrigeration units more efficiently with natural gas than with other energy sources. This has changed the way business owners store and prepare their goods, creating efficiencies that save time and money.
Fossil fuels have influenced the way humans
transport food as well. In the past, food was shipped by horse-drawn wagons and boats. With the increased availability of fossil fuels, food can be transported by fuel-powered vehicles in quicker, more efficient ways. This results in less time people spend waiting for food products.
Most nitrogen dioxide in the air comes from
vehicle and power plant emissions, while sulfur dioxide is produced by power plants and industries. Both chemicals can contribute to the formation of acid rain, but sulfur dioxide is particularly damaging to plants and trees.