ECON 2100 Unit 2
Used in certain nonattainment areas, the cleaner fuel that emits less hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and toxics than conventional gasoline is called oxygenated fuel. -True -False
False
Who was the first US president to explicitly refer to the efficiency criterion (maximizing net benefits) as part of the regulatory review process? -George W Bush -Obama -Clinton -Reagan
Reagan
Incremental cost assessment involves -Valuing Total Social Cost (TSC) at a single level of abatement -Subtracting baseline TSC prior to undertaking policy from post-policy TSC -Summing baseline TSC and post-policy TSC -Finding the ratio of TSC to MSC at a given abatement level -None of the above
Subtracting baseline TSC prior to undertaking policy from post-policy TSC
When estimating incremental environmental costs, the survey approach: -Suffers from inherent biases associated with polluting sources -Finds the level of abatement expenditures based on least-cost technology -Is a less direct means of gathering abatement cost data than the engineering approach
Suffers from inherent biases associated with polluting sources
Geographic areas in which pollution is greater than what is allowed by national ambient air quality standards are referred to as -over-attainment areas -non-attainment areas -air quality control regions -prevention of significant deterioration areas
non-attainment areas
A benefit-based standard is one that -considers the benefits balanced with the costs of that standard -maximizes the present value of net benefits -is set to the point at which marginal social cost is zero -none of the above
none of the above
Uniform standards -do not apply to mobile sources -refer to standards that remain the same over time -overregulate "clean" areas and under regulate "dirty" areas -achieve an efficient abatement level in all regions
over regulate "clean" areas and under regulate "dirty" areas
If the value of an environmental benefit realized two years ago from today is $242, and the annual rate of return (discount rate) is 10 percent, then its present value is: -$193.60 -$220 -$242 -$200
$200
Which of the following sentences accurately describe tax credits for clean fuel vehicles? (a) Tax credits act like a subsidy, shifting up the MPB curve by the amount of the credit. (b) An efficient equilibrium can be achieved if the credit is set equal to the amount of the marginal external benefit at the efficient quantity. (c) Tax credits for clean fuel vehicles create a bias against newer, and hence cleaner, motor vehicles. All of the above (a) and (b) only
(a) and (b) only
EPA regulations to address greenhouse gas pollutants include: (a) emissions standards (b) ambient standards (c) permitting and reporting requirements all of the above (a) and (c)
(a) and (c)
The contingent valuation method uses surveys about hypothetical market conditions to estimate willingness to pay (WTP) for environmental quality. Which of the following are common drawbacks to using a survey approach? (a) Survey participants may be unwilling to reveal WTP because of the free rider problem. (b) Survey participants may have difficulty assigning a dollar value to environmental quality. (c) Survey participants' WTP for an improvement in environmental quality can differ from their WTA (willingness to accept) compensation for a reduction in environmental quality. (d) A survey approach cannot capture existence value. All of the above. (a), (b), and (c)
(a), (b), and (c)
A disadvantage of the travel cost method is (a) it cannot determine user value (b) it cannot determine existence value (c) it focuses on recreational use making it ineffective for commercial use all of the above (b) and (c) only
(b) and (c) only
In a benefit-cost analysis, an option is determined to be feasible if: (a) the benefit-cost ratio (PVB / PVC) is greater than 0 (b) the benefit-cost ratio is greater than 1 (c) the present value of net benefits (PVNB) is greater than 0 (a) or (c) (b) or (c)
(b) or (c)
Suppose that LA is plagued by urban smog and several ground-level ozone-reducing policy options are being evaluated. To determine which policy option is the most efficient, economists could: (a) rank order the various policy options according to their benefit-cost ratios (b) rank order the various policy options according to present value of net benefits Use either of the approaches in (a) and (b) None of the above
(b) rank order the various policy options according to present value of net benefits
Assume the Clean Air Act requires an increase in sulfur dioxide SO2 abatement A from 50 to 60 percent, and that the new relevant MSC (in millions) is MSC = 12 + 0.8A, where A is measured in percent. Then the incremental cost of this policy change is -$8 million -$60 million -$560 million -None of the above
-$560 million
Willingness to ______ is not constrained by income
Accept
Willingness to ______ estimates are usually higher than Willingness to ______, especially for large (non-marginal) changes
Accept; Pay
Among the chief concerns about the use of benefit-cost analysis is that: -Monetizing the benefits of a policy proposal is difficult -Identifying and estimating implicit costs is a major challenge -Equity might not be achieved if costs are distributed unevenly -All of the above -None of the above
All of the above
Which of the following sentences correctly describes photochemical smog? -The principal component of photochemical smog is ground-level ozone. -Photochemical smog is formed from a chemical reaction involving certain pollutants in the presence of sunlight. -The highest emitters of smog precursors among transportation sources are gas-powered cars. -All of the above -None of the above
All of the above
The social discount rate should be based on the rate of return that could be realized through: -Private spending on consumption -Private investment assuming the same amount of risk -Both of the above -None of the above
Both of the above
Which state currently has a waiver under the Clean Air Act that allows it to set its own air quality standards? -Georgia -New York -California -Texas -None of the above
California
The engineering approach to estimating incremental environmental costs -Is also known as the physical linkage approach -Depends on expert input and is based on least-cost available technology -Relies on surveys to find the implicit costs of pollution abatement -Obtains estimates of abatement costs directly from polluting sources
Depends on expert input and is based on least-cost available technology
Because the NAAQS are nationally-based and uniform, they necessarily achieve an efficient result at the regional level. -True -False
False
Reformulated fuel contains more oxygen to permit more complete combustion and to lower carbon monoxide emissions. -True -False
False
The approach that estimates benefits according to a technical relationship between a resource and a user of the resource is called the behavioral linkage approach. -True -False
False
Under what circumstances would it be efficient to impose a higher abatement standard for a PSD region than for a non-attainment region? -If marginal social benefit exceeds marginal social cost at the higher abatement level in the PSD region -If the marginal social cost of any level of abatement is higher in the PSD region than in the non-attainment region -If marginal social cost equals marginal social benefit at the higher abatement level in the PSD region -If marginal social cost exceeds marginal social benefit at the higher abatement level in the PSD region
If marginal social cost equals marginal social benefit at the higher abatement level in the PSD region.
The time cost incurred by consumers who must find substitute products after a ban is placed on some good or service is an example of an: -Operating expense -Explicit cost -Implicit cost -Capital cost -Fixed cost
Implicit cost
Which of the following sentences correctly describe the Air Quality Index (AQI)? -An AQI of 500 is considered to correspond to the standard set by the Clean Air Act. -The AQI signifies the best daily air quality in an urban area over a given time period. -AQI is reported as the average of five pollutant-specific index values. -All of the above -None of the above
None of the above
Variable spending arising as part of the operation and maintenance of abatement processes is known as -Fixed costs -Capital costs -Operating costs -Implicit costs
Operating costs
Assume there are two regions with the same marginal social cost curve for abatement of pollution by mobile sources. Assume that the marginal social benefit of abatement is higher in the "dirty" region than in the "clean" region. Compare the efficient level of abatement in the two regions. -The efficient level of abatement is higher in the "dirty" region than in the "clean" region -The efficient level of abatement is lower in the "dirty" region than in the "clean" region -The same level of abatement is efficient in both regions -There is not enough information to tell
The efficient level of abatement is higher in the "dirty" region than in the "clean" region
If for a given policy option PVNB = $1,200 and PVC = $800, then: -The policy option is not feasible because the value of PVB is $400 -The benefit-cost ratio is 1.5 -The policy option is feasible because (PVB - PVC) is greater than 0 -There is insufficient information to determine if the policy option is feasible
The policy option is feasible because (PVB - PVC) is greater than 0
If an individual enjoys swimming in the ocean, the ocean provides direct user value to the individual. -True -False
True
If an individual receives utility from enjoying the view of a mountain range, that mountain range is said to provide indirect user value to the individual. -True -False
True
Prior to the 1950s, all air quality laws in the United States had been enacted at the state and local levels of government. -True -False
True
The averting expenditure method estimates benefits as the reduction in spending on goods that are substitutes for a cleaner environment -True -False
True
The hedonic price method uses regression analysis to obtain estimates of the implicit prices of individual attributes, including environmental quality. The hedonic price method requires complex empirical modeling, extensive data, and variation across data points. -True -False
True
The travel cost method estimates benefits as an increase in consumer surplus in the market for a complement to environmental quality as policy improves that quality. -True -False
True
The two manufacturing industries with the highest pollution abatement costs are (1) Chemical and (2) Petroleum and Coal Products -True -False
True
The value of reduced product variety due to an environmental policy initiative or regulation is an example of an implicit cost -True -False
True
Title II of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 strengthened regulations on motor vehicle emissions and fuels. -True -False
True
U.S. policy on mobile sources imposes more stringent controls on new vehicles, creating a bias against newer, and hence cleaner, motor vehicles and perversely encouraging use of older, higher-emitting cars. -True -False
True
When implementing environmental policy, explicit costs include administrative, monitoring, and enforcement expenses paid by the public sector plus the compliance costs paid by all economic sectors -True -False
True
Minimum amount you would be willing to accept to compensate you for degradation is also known as
Willingness to Accept
Maximum amount you would be willing to pay to avoid degradation is also known as
Willingness to Pay
Past and present market incentives for clean fuel vehicles include -credits to fleet owners who surpass requirements in the law -tax credits for hybrids -tax credits for fuel cell and alternative fuel vehicles -tax credits for plug-in hybrids -all of the above
all of the above
Standards set to control hazardous air pollutants in the United States -are known as NESHAP -are applicable to every major source of any identified -hazardous air pollutant -are intended to attain the maximum reduction achievable for each air toxic -all of the above
all of the above
In the United States, air quality standards set limits on -anthropogenic pollutants -natural pollutants -both of the above -none of the above
anthropogenic pollutants
The secondary NAAQS -are intended to protect public welfare from adverse non-health effects of air pollution -are established to protect public health from air pollution -control both criteria air pollutants and hazardous air pollutants -all of the above
are intended to protect public welfare from adverse non-health effects of air pollution
In the United States, the primary standards established for identified criteria air pollutants -are known as the NESHAP -are applicable only to mobile sources -are intended to protect public welfare -are motivated solely by expected benefits with no consideration of costs
are motivated solely by expected benefits with no consideration of costs
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments include tradable allowances programs for -sulfur dioxide emissions -stratospheric ozone-depleting substances -both of the above -none of the above
both of the above
If PVB / PVC > 1 then the policy option is
feasible
If PVNB > 0 then the policy option is
feasible
Asbestos is an example of a -criteria air pollutant -hazardous air pollutant -greenhouse gas air pollutant -none of the above
hazardous air pollutant
Which of the following is an example of a secondary environmental benefit? lower incidence of respiratory problems due to abatement of air pollution -more stable ecosystems -more prosperous fishing industry -higher worker productivity due to improved health -all of the above
higher worker productivity due to improved health
Vicarious consumption refers to the notion that -individuals have a sense of obligation to preserve the environment for future generations -people gain utility knowing that others receive gains from an environmental good -individuals gain from directly consuming the services generated by an environmental resource -natural resources have intrinsic value -none of the above
people gain utility knowing that others receive gains from an environmental good
If an area or region meets or exceeds the NAAQS, it is called a(n) -air quality control region -prevention of significant deterioration area -non-attainment region -none of the above
prevention of significant deterioration area
If the marginal social cost outweighs the marginal social benefit for a proposed air quality standard, then -the proposed standard would over-regulate society -the proposed standard would under-regulate society -the proposed standard would be efficient -there is not enough information to tell whether the proposed standard would be efficient
the proposed standard would over-regulate society