English IV Final

This kind of introduction works particularly well in a paper that acquaints the reader with an unfamiliar topic.

A definition (intro)

This is a common type of opening orienting the reader to what will follow.

A directly stated thesis(intro)

On the second reading, which will take more time than the first, carefully absorb the writer's ideas.

Additional Readings

Instead of targeting a particular length, ask yourself what the reader needs to know. Supply enough information to make your point clearly. The details you supply can include facts, figures, thoughts, observations, steps, lists, examples, and personal experiences.

Adequate Development

Can lure readers into the rest of the paper. Should bear on what comes afterward.

An anecdote or personal experience (intro)

Sometimes you can jolt the reader into attention, using content, language, or both, particularly if your essay develops an unusual or extreme position

An arresting statement (intro)

Arouses an emotional response by playing on the irrational fears and prejudices of the audience.

Appeal to the Crowd

sidetracks an issue by introducing irrelevant information.

Arguing off the point

Asserts the truth of some unproved statement.

Begging the Question

The writer presents only part of the available evidence on a topic, deliberately omitting essential information that would alter the picture considerably.

Card Stacking

First cousin to begging the question, supports a position merely by restating it.

Circular Argument

Capitalizing on the essay's topic, end by exaggerating the fault being criticized.

Clever or Lighthearted Ending (conclusion)

_____ writing flows smoothly and easily from one sentence and paragraph to another, clarifying the relationships and thus allowing the reader to grasp connections.

Coherence

Connecting words and phrases Repeated key words Pronouns and demonstrative adjectives Parallelism

Coherence transition words

1. Don't introduce new material. Draw together, round out, but don't take off in a new direction. 2. Don't track on an ending in desperation when the hour is late and the paper is due tomorrow-- the so-called midnight special. 3. Don't apologize. Saying that you could have done a better job make a reader wonder why you didn't 4. Don't moralize.

Conclusion

Rounds out a paper and signals that the discussion has been completed.

Conclusion

clarify relationships between sentences

Connecting words and phrases

Develop the habit of asking questions about facts, reasons, ideas-- practically anything in the essay.

Consider Reading As a Kind of Conversation with the Text

A process of argumentation that demonstrates how a specific conclusion follows logically from some initial premises about which people might agree.

Deduction

Paper should follow a pattern

Effective Organization (The qualities of good writing)

Asserts that only two choices exist when, in fact, several options are possible.

Either/Or Fallacy

Can lend powerful reinforcement.

Emotional Appeal (pathos)

Provide strong backup for argumentative propositions

Establishing Truths

Historical fact, scientific fact, geographical fact. ____ ____ are not arguable themselves but do provide strong backup for argumentative propositions.

Establishing Truths (facts)

Ex. The western part of the US has tremendous reserves of coal.

Establishing Truths (geographical facts)

Ex. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits Congress from abridging freedom of the press

Establishing Truths (historical facts)

Ex. The layer of ozone in the earth's upper atmosphere protects us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation

Establishing Truths (scientific facts)

Write with genuine concern for your topic, a commitment to the truth, and a sincere respect for others, you will probably come across reasonably well.

Ethical Appeal (ethos)

Appeals to the character and expertise of the writer or speaker

Ethos

Error of assuming that two circumstances or things are similar in all important respects, when in fact they are not.

Faulty Analogy

Freshen your writing by exploring personal insights and perceptions. Using your own slant, you might show a connection between seemingly unrelated items.

Fresh thinking (The qualities of good writing)

Points out some similarity or connections between one person or group and another.

Guilt by Association

Results when someone bases a conclusion on too little evidence.

Hasty Generalization

Restate points already made in the essay or suggest actions to take in order to arrive at a solution.

Hope or Recommendation (conclusion)

When a general claim is supported by specific evidence, whether direct observations, statistical data, or scientific studies.

Induction

Announces the essay's topic and may directly state the thesis. Sets the tone of what will follow

Introduction

Appeals based on logic, reasoning, and evidence concerning the subject

Logos

When you have finished skimming the essay, and before you reread the essay, think about what you have learned and then, either by saying it to yourself or jotting it down, express it in your own words.

Make Connections with What You Have Read

Do your reading at the time of day when you are most alert. Be sure you are in an environment that lets you concentrate and that is well lit (not loud)

Mastering the Problems That Interfere with Reading

Draw unwarranted conclusions from seemingly ample evidence

Non Sequitur

Climactic order creates a crescendo patter starting with least emphatic detail and progressing to the most emphatic. (hide the weak evidence in the middle)

Order of Climax

An effective paragraph unfolds in a clear pattern of organization so that the reader can easily follow the flow of ideas.

Organization

Scan any accompanying biographical sketch and try to determine the writer's expertise and views on the topic.

Orient Yourself to the Background of the Essay

Reading for information, for solid understanding, or to critique the writing calls for a more methodical approach.

Orienting Your Reading

Uses repetition of grammatical form to express a series of equivalent ideas.

Parallelism

Appeals to the believes values of the audience

Pathos

A challenge often prompts the reader to take some action.

Personal Challenge (conclusion)

Refers to the fallacy of assuming that because one event follows another

Post Hoc, ergo Propter Hoc

Documents or other materials produced by individuals directly involved with the issue or conclusions you reached by carrying out an investigation yourself.

Primary Source Information

Stand in for nouns that appear earlier in the sentence or in previous sentences.

Pronouns and Demonstrative Adjectives

Whenever you finish a major section of a lengthy essay, express your sense of what it means. Speak it out loud or write it down.

Pull the Entire Essay Together

Concludes an argument that running should not be elevated to a religion, that its other benefits are sufficient.

Question (conclusion)

Can entice the reader into the essay to find the answer

Question (intro)

Can capture the essence of your thought and end the essay with authority.

Quotation (conclusion)

Can be an effective springboard for the ideas that follow

Quotation (intro)

Read at a pace suitable to the material

Read Carefully and Actively

Express as thesis statement your view of how these ideas fit together.

Reading As a Writer

Knowledge of the principles of argumentation and various reasoning fallacies can help you critique a piece of writing.

Reading to Critique

Include three reasoning strategies: induction, deduction, and analogy.

Reasoning Strategies

Used to question a position by showing that its consequences are problematic if carried to their logical end.

Reduction ad Absurdum

Help convey a paragraphs central idea. Can smooth the readers path.

Repeated Key Words

Lets you expose the shortcomings of individuals, ideas, and institutions by poking fun at them (SNL)

Satire

Writing in a clear style and strengthen it with vivid, forceful words.

Sense of Style (The qualities of good writing)

Try to gain an idea of the essay's main thrust.

Skim to Get the Gist of the Article

Data showing how much, how many, or how often-- can also buttress your argument.

Statistical Findings

Attaches one or more supposed characteristics to a group or one of its members.

Stereotyping

Draws together and reinforces the main points of a paper

Summary (conclusion)

Includes are major premise, minor premise, and conclusion.

Syllogism

Sometimes a deductive argument is built around a categorical_____, a set of three statements that follow a fixed pattern to ensure sound reasoning.

Syllogism

When the ideas of a single section prove difficult, restate the points of those sections you do understand

Take Conscious Steps to Understand Difficult Material

Designate an argument that attacks an individual rather than that individual's opinions or qualifications.

The argument ad hominem

Purpose of all writing is to have an effect on a reader

The audience for your writing

Whenever you write, some clear purpose should guide your efforts. If you don't know why you are writing, neither will your reader.

The purpose of writing

Reasons are the key points or general ideas you'll use defend your conclusions. To convince readers, your reason must be sustained by evidence.

The rational appeal (logos)

Some writing merely entertains. A lighthearted approach can help your reader absorb dull or difficult material.

To entertain (the purposes of writing)

Creative writing includes personal essays, fiction, plays, and poetry, as well as journals and diaries.

To express yourself (the purposes of writing)

Presenting information is one of the most common writing purposes.

To inform (the purposes of writing)

Have strong views on many issues, and these feelings may sometimes impel you to try swaying your reader.

To persuade (the purposes of writing)

____ _______ states the main idea of the paragraph. Helps you gauge what information belongs in a paragraph, thus ensuring unity. At the same time, it informs your reader about the point you are making.

Topic Sentence

The writer reveals the central idea immediately and then builds from a solid base.

Topic Sentence Stated First

Some paragraphs lead with the main idea and then restate it it, usually in different words, at the end. This technique allows the writer to repeat an especially important idea.

Topic Sentence Stated First and Last

Emphasize the support and build gradually to a conclusion. Creates suspense as the reader anticipates the summarizing remark.

Topic Sentence Stated Last

All sentences point toward a main idea that readers must grasp for themselves.

Topic sentence implied

This arrangement allows the writer to shift the emphasis and at the same time preserve close ties between the two sets.

Topic sentence stated in the middle

Summarize previously explained ideas, repeat the thesis, or point to ideas the follow.

Transitional Paragraphs (intro)

A paragraph with unity develops one, and only one, key controlling idea. To ensure unit, edit out any stray ideas that don't belong and fight the urge to take interesting but irrelevant side trips.

Unity

Most titles identify the topic and often the viewpoint as well. Some titles signal the writer's primary strategy, whether it is a good comparison, definition, or argument.

Use the Title As a Clue

Time sequence(narration) Space sequence(description) Process analysis Illustration Classification Comparison Cause and effect Definition Argument

Writing Strategies(Organization)

Indicating where you agree and disagree with the author's position. A critique usually includes a context of the essay, an introduction to the author, a statement of the essay's thesis, the thesis for you critique, a summary of the essay, a statement of the points with which you agree, a statement with reasons and evidence for your disagreement, and a conclusion.

Writing a Critique

- Provide a context for the essay. - introduce the author of the essay -and state the thesis -then state the main points of the essay -and conclude by pulling the essay together

Writing a Summary

Pique curiosity and draw the reader into the paper

interesting details (intro)

writer or speaker audience subject

rhetorical triangle