EPSY Study Guides 1-15

Sensorimotor

Age 0-2, act on the environment, learn object permanence, learn through reflexes, senses, movement, imitation. Operations: actions a person carries out by thinking about them instead of literally performing the actions. Object permanence: objects have separate, permanent existence, beginning to construct mental representations. Goal-directed actions: Deliberate actions towards a goal. Able to develop a scheme for containers with lid and toys inside, learning to reverse actions is a basic accomplishment.

Information processing skills

Attention, memory capacity, learning strategies, children's brain develop and they are better able to do so.

*Glial cells

Fill spaces between neurons White matter of the brain, fight infections, control blood flow, communication among neurons, provide myelin coating

Executive functioning Skills

Focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive response, planning, using memory to hold and manipulate information.

Longitudinal studies

Happen over months or years. Very difficult to collect data like this. Ex. study of cognitive development- involves keeping up with students for years. Ex. Harvard's child health study- following children into adulthood and focusing on health and behavior outcomes. Puts observed behaviors under the microscope.

Role of learning and Development

Piaget's Views: development is active construction of knowledge, learning is passive formation of associations, must wait for readiness, cognitive development has to come before learning, child has to be ready to learn. Vygtoskys views: learning is an active process, tool, does not have to wait for readiness, pulls development levels higher, sets in motion development processes, other people play a significant role in cognitive development.

*Myelination

Process of coating axon neuron fibers Myelin coating: Fatty glial covering, insulating sheath, makes message transmission faster, more efficient Happens quickly in early years, continues gradually into adolescence, with a child's brain doubles in volume first year, and doubles again around puberty.

Dealing with physical differences

avoid seating arrangements that are obviously based on height, don't use nicknames based on traits, help students obtain factual information on physical development, accept that concerns about appearance and the opposite sex will occupy time for early adolescents.

Limitations of Vygotsky's theory

humans are likely born with more cognitive tools than both researchers recognized, young children make sense of aspects of their world before having a chance to learn from culture or teachers, and his theories consist of pretty general ideas, he dies at age 37 and did not get to expand his ideas, no time to detail the applications of his theories for teaching, applications of his ideas constructed by others after his death, but misrepresented at times.

Teaching works national project

identifies 19 high-leverage teaching practices/actions

How the brain works

All experiences sculpt the brain, the brain is always changing, educational applications of neuroscience can increase the understanding of learning and development if applied correctly. Advances understanding about learning disabilities, explains why certain strategies work effectively.

Sensitive vs. critical periods

Critical time when specific abilities must develop especially for social, emotional, and cognitive development. Later experiences are powerful too, sensitive periods of readiness for certain experiences, and there are times when people are more ready for certain experiences. Age 3-4 is the critical time to speak a language but is not the only time.

Adolescent development and the brain

During adolescence, increase abilities to control behavior in low and high stress situations Abilities are not fully developed until the early 20's, adolescent brains are not mature, they have trouble avoiding risk and controlling impulsive behavior. Explanation: limbic system and prefrontal cortex: limbic system develops earlier, is involved in emotions, novelty, risk taking and pleasure seeking, prefrontal lobe takes more time and is involved with judgement, decision making, but there are individual differences and some adolescents are more prone to engage in risk.

*Sociocultural theory

Emphasis on interactions and cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Knowledge is co-constructed during social interactions. Co-constructed processes: Social process of interacting to create understanding, solve a problem.

Physical Development: Young Children

Gross motor skill development: Growth of large muscles, age 2 through 4-5, muscles grow stronger, develop ability to integrate information about movements, improve balance, run, jump, climb, hop, change from toddling (age 2) to walking which is not totally well controlled until 4-5, movements develop naturally for the most part. Fine motor skills: coordination of small movement, work with larger tools and soft things like playdough, develop hand preference, 90% pick the right hand and 10% pick the left hand, mostly boys. Left handed children are more likely to develop advanced verbal and math skills.

The role of language

Language is critical for cognitive development, ways to express ideas, ask questions, categorize concepts, link to past and future, etc. Vygotsky placed more on this than piaget. Believed that language in the form of private speech guides cognitive development

Vygotsky's Sociocultural practices

Russian psychologist, believed human activities take place in cultural settings, social interactions shape cognitive development, major influence of his ideas in psychology and education.

Neuroscience, learning, and teaching

Teaching CAN change organization and structure of the brain, help rehabilitate stroke victims to regain function, helps with adaptation in children with one hemisphere removed. Brain research by ERP can explain why strategies for teaching and reading are effective, teachers should use multiple approaches for teaching. Anxiety interferes with learning, disinterest and lack of challenge affects learning, learning improves when students learn emotional self-regulation

Quantitative research methods

Use numbers, measurements, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables and differences between groups. Try to be as objective and remove bias, study results can be generalized and applied to other similar situations or people.

Parenting styles

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, rejecting/neglecting/uninvolved

rejecting/neglecting/uninvolved

low warmth, low control, indifferent about expectations and autonomy. They don't care at all to teach, control, communicate, no love for children, they feel neglected and have all types of behavioral problems, these children don't do well in school.

Families

only 26% of U.S. households made up of married husband/wife and their biological children, 65% of children in the U.S. will grow up with two parents that stay married, increased numbers of blended families. Asian, latin american and african Americans are more likely to grow up in extended families. 6,000,000 children in the U.S. have a gay or lesbian parent. Speak of "your family"instead of "your parents"

Research Cycle

-State hypothesis or research questions on current understandings of theories -Gather and analyze data about the questions -Interpret and analyze data gathered -Modify and improve explanatory theories based on results of analyses -Formulate new, better questions based on improved theories.

General principles of development

1)People develop at different rates. These are the individual differences. 2) Development is relatively orderly. Abilities tend to develop in logical order. 3)Development takes place gradually. Not overnight but over time. Development of different components may take different amounts of time.

Learning for educators: General principles

1)There are multiple ways to both teach and learn a skill. 2)Many cognitive functions are differentiated 3)The brain is relatively plastic 4)Changing the brain takes time 5)Some learning disorders have a neurological basis 6)Real life problems and concrete experiences help with learning 7)The brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks. 8)Feedback is critical 9)It takes a long time and extensive practice to build up and consolidate knowledge. 10)Large general concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts 11)Stories can be used in teachings as stories engage many areas of the brain 12)Emotions and health affect learning 13)Students are responsible for their own learning and doing.

Diversity in K-12 schools in the U.S

25% of U.S. students are from immigrant families, 20% speak another language at home, 60% of students with disabilities spent most of the day in general education, 16 million children live in poverty, ⅙ have a mild to severe developmental disability

Divorce

40-50% of first time marriages will end in the US. Stressful event for all participants, likely preceded by periods of conflict. First two years=most difficult for children, may have problems in school, lose/gain weight, trouble sleeping. Changes disrupt the child's life, others may increase in responsibility and maturity really young. A single parent environment with no conflict is better than a two parent family with conflict. How can we help children of divorce? "With-ness" let the child know that you are present and willing to talk to them if they need help.Need to be able to note sudden changes and problems like weight gain, headaches, sleepiness, talk to students about attitude/behavior changes, avoid stereotypes about happy homes. Help them maintain self-esteem, find out resources the school provides, be sensitive to both parents rights to information, be aware of long-term problems about moving back and forth between homes.

*Experimental studies

: Look at cause and effect by changing some aspect of the situation to see if this change has an expected effect Participants: people being studied. Random:subjects randomly grouped for study. The participants have an equal chance to be assigned to each group. Quasi-experimental studies: using naturally existing groupings such as classes or schools as the subjects. An experimental and control group and we compare the results of each group, and we look for statistically significant differences, which are not likely to occur by chance and we look for a p-value less than .05 to mean than the result is significant, and less than .01 it is extremely significant. Active control group: students generally show some change after group work, so this is still in the group form, but is not related to the intervention they are actually doing. Field experiment: The study takes place in classrooms and not in a simulated laboratory situation.

Preoperational

Ages 2-7, develop language, use symbols, think logically in one direction. -stage before a child masters logical mental operations, ability to see actions carried out and reversed mentally. - semiotic function: use of symbols to represent actions/objects mentally. Early use is pretending, using language to represent objects or actions. -Reversible thinking: thinking backward, from the end to the beginning. Conversation of matter is difficult for a preoperational child. -Conservation: the principle that the amount or number of something remains the same when arrangement or appearance is changed. -Decentering: focusing on more than one aspect of an object or situation at a time. -Egocentric: assume others experience the world the way you do. Does not mean selfish. -Theory of mind: Children begin to understand that people are different from themselves. -Helping families: families should use concrete props, visual aids, make instructions short, ask children to try, model, help children see the world from another's point of view, provide hands on practice for more complex skills, provide a wide range of experiences.

*Concrete Operational

Ages 6/7-11, understand conversation, organization of things, Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations. Need Identity, compensation and reversibility. Classification: Grouping objects into categories according to certain characteristics. Seriation: arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect such as size, weight and volume. How to teach: Use concrete props, visual aids, manipulate objects, use brief well organized presentations and readings, familiar examples to explain more complex ideas, present problems that allow logical and analytical thinking.

The developing brain: The Cerebral cortex

Almost 2/3rds of the brain, includes lots of different brain areas Brains outer ⅛ inch thick covering, thin sheets of neurons, 3 square feet area, 85% of the weight of the brain, crumpled with many folds to fit in the brain, the last part of the brain to develop, more susceptible to environmental influences. Different areas develop at different rates: First is physical motor movement, then complex senses, then frontal lobe that controls higher- order thinking processes, temporal lobes develop later (emotions, judgement, language) Most complex functions need to activate all kinds of areas

Play, recess, and physical activity: essential for development at all ages.

Babies: pound, shake, throw, suck, act on the environment. Preschoolers;: Make-believe, pretending, games with predictable rules. Elementary school: More complex games, sports learning cooperation, negotiation, fairness, and developing language. Adolescents: games, play, sports are still part of physical, social development. Cultural differences in playmates, toys, character forms, value of play, use what their culture provides you, exercise and recess may enhance academic performance, promote blood flow and neurotransmitters, improves mood and attention, reduced in US to allow more academic time, especially needed for ADHD students, must be provided for students with disabilities.

*Teachers Sense of Efficacy

Belief in their own abilities to reach even difficult students to help them learn. High self efficacy: characteristic to predict student achievement, show greater persistence when students are difficult to teach, lower rate of burnout, schools with high expectations have higher support from teachers, increases real success in students.

*Private speech

Children's self-directed talk, collective monologue is children talking in a group without interacting with one another, socialized speech is when they interact, vygotsky saw private speech as guiding children's thinking. This moves children in stages towards self-regulation, verbalized to whispered speech at age 7, private speech about age 9.

peers

Cliques: small friendship-based groups (between 3-12), usually same sex, interest, activities, serve emotional, security needs, stable social context Crowds: large, less intimate, loosely organized affiliations, shared interest, activities, attitudes, reputations, stereotypes, common in early and middle adolescence, less in late adolescence, viewed by many as stifling identity and self-expression. Students are assigned to crowds by others. Cultures: groups of children or adolescents with their own rules/norms, typically encourage conformity to group norms, values of parents often clash with those of peers because at this age peer influence matters more than parent influence, but not all aspects of peer culture are bad or cruel.

*Descriptive studies

Collect detailed information about specific situations using observations, surveys, interviews, or a combination of these methods. Often include reports of correlations.

Mixed methods research

Collecting, analyzing, and mixing both qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study or series of studies to understand a research problem. Quan+Qual= merge and integrate data (triangulation) Trying to figure out if the quantitative and qualitative can relate to each other. Quan to qual= with selected participants (explain or look for causes), look at the numbers and add a qualitative meaning behind it Qual to quan= explore the situation deeply or develop instruments. Add numbers to the events you have interviewed about. This is very common in educational psychology.

Bronfenbrenner: The social context for development

Context: The total situation that surrounds and interacts with one's thoughts, feelings, actions to shape development and learning. Internal context: hormone levels in the body, contexts for developing organs and self-concepts during puberty. External conflict: outside the person- families, school, languages, religion, group memberships, etc.

Continuity vs. discontinuity

Continuous, quantitative change compared to walking up a ramp to go higher, progress, is steady. Discontinuous: Qualitative change compared to walking up stairs, progress in stages.

Cognitive development: Lessons for teachers

Convergences of thought about cognitive development, involves mental, linguistic activity, students benefit from teaching, guidance, explanations, demonstrations, and challenges to their thinking. Provide challenges with support to keep students engaged but not fearful.

ABAB experimental design

Determine the effects of therapy, teaching method, or any kind of intervention, and establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Baseline period (a), intervention (b), baseline period (a), intervention (b).

Framework for Teaching

Domains of teacher responsibilities: planning and prep, classroom environment, instruction, professional.

*Ethnographic methods

Ethnography: A descriptive approach to study naturally occurring events in the life of a group and to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Borrowed from anthropology Not doing experiments, not intervening, just being a participant or observer of the events. Participant observation: Researcher becoming a participant in the group being studied. Teachers can do their own informal ethnographies in the classroom (come into the classroom and observe the students and yourself while teaching).

Eating disorder

Excessive concerns with body image can be a factor in eating disorders, 3rd most common chronic illness of adolescence. There is binge eating, bulimia, and anorexia nervosa, be aware that social media supports eating disorders by showing unhealthy weight loss, students usually require professional help, people are more than their bodies.

Overproduction and pruning process

Experience expectant: Await and expect stimulation. Oversee general development in brains large areas, in the absence of stimulation, they will start pruning. Experience dependent: form in response to experiences, stimulating environments, meaningful interactions likely support better brain development. Involved in individual learning.

Attachment

Forming an emotional bond with another person. First attachment between child and caregiver. Quality of bond has implications for forming relationships for the rest of their life. Secure attachment: children more confident to explore the world. Insecure attachment: avoidant, resistant, disorganized, the child is fearful, anxious, clinging, rejecting, confused or angry with caregivers. Implications for teachers: securely attached children are less dependent on teachers, interact with others appropriately, higher school achievement, lower dropout. Teachers are often able to identify children from secure and insecure families based on how they interact with people.

Nature vs. nurture

Heredity and genetics vs. education, environment, social policies, culture. Current views emphasize complex co-actions of both: heredity and environment influence each other. These debates are of less interest to educational psychologists.

Authoritative

High warmth, high control, high expectations, and support for autonomy. They set clear limits, enforce rules, less strict punishment, children are happier and do well in school.

Permissive

High warmth, low control, low expectations, high autonomy. Few rules or consequences, low behavior expectations, children likely to have trouble interacting with peers because things usually go their way. They also don't do as good in school

Learning and Teaching Today

Important for all educators in formal and informal settings (in a school vs. homeschool, conversations with others outside of a classroom) - children through adults, teachers of all subjects, increases their longevity of teaching, and increases students' learning and retention.

Neo-piagetian theories

Information processing, integrating findings about attention, memory, strategy with Piaget's insights about the construction of knowledge. Cognitive development stages are domain specific. Learning new skills goes through three tiers: Actions, representations, abstractions, for each skill level the brain reorganizes itself.

Agression

Instrumental aggression: strong action to claim an object, place, or privilege, not intended to harm but can cause harm Hostile aggression: direct action to hurt someone, intentional harm. Overt aggression is a physical attack, relational/social aggression is the emotional or verbal attacks. Cyber aggression: using email or social media to spread rumors, make threats, terrorize peers. People do this to get what they want, you cannot wait to let them outgrow it, early intervention helps, learn and teach them conflict management.

*Case studies

Investigation of one person or situation in depth. Interviewing family members, teachers, friends to identify students for a gifted program Can do a single case study or multiple case studies (allows us to compare and refer to other cases).

Authoritarian

Low warmth, high control, high expectations, low autonomy. Not openly affectionate, strict, controlling, children feel more guilty and depressed.

*Formal Operations

Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of multiple variables. Can think about thinking. This is not reached by all high school students. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning ability: Formal operations problem solving strategy. Deductive reasoning is forming a general assumption to specific implications, inductive reasoning is using specific observations to identify general principles. Adolescent egocentrism; focused on our own ideas and thoughts, sense of imaginary audience, peak is ages 14-15. Ability to imagine ideal worlds,utopias, political and social issues, ability to reason from general principles to specific actions and judge inconsistencies as hypocrisy. How to help students: use visual charts, illustrations, and more sophisticated graphs and diagrams, allow them to explore many hypothetical questions, allow them to solve problems and reason scientifically, teach broad concepts, not just facts.

Neurons

Nerve cells, store and transmit information in the form of electrical activity in the brain. Processing capacity of a small computer in each, makes up the gray matter, and a one pound infant brain contains billions of neurons. Neurogenesis: production of new neurons. Continues into adulthood, especially in the hippocampus. Axons and dendrites: Arm and branch-like fibers, dendrites bring the message to the neuron, and the axon sends the message to other neurons. Synapse: The space between neurons. Synaptic plasticity: The brain's dynamic tendency to remain adaptive/flexible. 2500 synapses at birth and increase in early life, age 2-3 about 15000. Used neurons survive, unused ones are pruned.

*Microgenetic studies

Observation/analysis of changes in a cognitive process as it unfolds (days or weeks). Observe periods of change, make many observations, interviews, recordings, put observed behavior under a microscope and identify the underlying mechanisms of change.

Development

Orderly, adaptive changes that occur in humans between conception and death and remain for a long period of time. Not a temporary change caused by a brief illness/accident.

*Basic tendencies in thinking

Organization: arranging information and experiences into mental systems. - schemes: mental systems or categories of perception and experiences, basic building blocks of thinking. Adaptation: adjustment to environment. -assimilation: fit new information into existing schemes. - accomodation: alter existing schemes or create new ones in response to new information. - both of the processes require time, often they happen simultaneously. All assimilation involves some amount of accomodation. There are also times when neither of these processes are used maybe because the information is unfamiliar or unimportant to you. - organizing, assimilating and accommodating can be viewed as a complex balancing act. - equilibration: act of searching for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment. - disequilibrium: "out-of-balance" mental state when current schemes don't work to understand new information. Motivates searching for a solution through assimilating or accommodating, leads to changes in thinking. This level has to be just right or optimal, as most learning actually happens during disequilibrium.

*Brain Imaging Techniques

PET: localizing, measuring the brain under certain conditions. CAT: 3D image of the brain *EEG: measuring electronic patterns in the brain ERP: Using EEG data as people perform activities. *fMRI: measuring how blood flows within the brain *NIR- OT: using infrared light through the scalp to access brain activity.

*Cultural tools and cultural development

Phones, computers, huskyct, etc. Cultural tools: Tools that allow people to communicate, think, solve problems, create knowledge. Real tools or technical tools, psychological tools. Children develop cultural tool kits by exchanging signs, symbols, and explanations to make sense of their world. All higher-order mental processes such as reasoning, and problem solving are mediated by psychological tools. Comes from appropriating ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture or other members. Children transform tools as they construct their own representations, symbols, patterns and understandings.

*Types of development

Physical development: changes in the body structure. Personal development: Changes in individuals identity and personality. Social development: changes over time in ways of relating to others. Cognitive development: Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Maturation: Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time, relatively unaffected by the environment.

Two views of social interaction

Piaget: Creates disequilibrium, encourages development, cognitive conflict motivates change. The most helpful interactions were between peers because peers are on an equal basis. Vygotsky: Fosters development through social interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking.

Clinical interview

Pioneered by Jean Piajet, open-ending questioning to probe responses, follow up on answers, and the questions can go wherever the child's responses lead. Can expand the questions depending on their answers, some are very structured and some are semi-structured, unstructured ones are in clinical psychology interviews.

popularity

Popular prosocial or antisocial: prosocial is academically and socially competent, antisocial is often athletic, aggressive boys, bullies "cool". Rejected aggressive or withdrawn: aggressive is conflict, hyperactive, impulsive, poor self-control. Withdrawn is timid, socially awkward, often bullied, avoid social interaction Controversial: positive and negative social qualities, have friends but can be hostile or prosocial, status changes overtime Neglected: almost invisible, well adjusted, socially competent, shy but happy, don't experience extreme anxiety.

*Theories for teaching

Principle: An established relationship between factors when enough studies point to the same conclusions. Theory: Integrated statement of principles that attempt to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. Hypothesis: A prediction of what will happen in a research experiment. Empirical: Based on systematically collected data.

Physical development: Adolescent years

Puberty, beginning of sexual maturity, ability to reproduce, series of changes in the body, mostly for girls around 12-13, but a wide range of 10-16.5, boys around 12-14. Height differences: Girls reach final height around 14-16, boys at age 19, but some until the age of 25. Maximum height reached earlier for hispanics and african americans, and later for asians. disadvantages for early maturing girls. Emotional difficulties (depression, anxiety, high drug abuse, eating disorder, unplanned pregnancy, etc). May relate to life stresses as much as maturation, greater adult BMI. Later maturing girls have adult reassurance and support is important. Boys: early maturing in males is associated with popularity, disadvantages are more delinquent behavior, greater risk for depression, early sexual activity, drug use, victimization by bullies. Later maturing boys may be difficult initially, more creative, tolerant, perspective in adulthood, anxieties of maturing late teach boys to be better problem solvers, wide range of maturation, challenges for both early and late bloomers.

Beginning teachers: first day of teaching

Reality shock,only partially prepared, focus concerns on classroom discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences, ask how they're doing Can shift focus with experience to ask how the students are doing, focus on students' needs and get them to succeed.

Identity and Self concept

Self terms: Self concept, self esteem, self worth, etc. Identity: broad concept encompassing general sense of self and own beliefs, emotions, values, commitments, and attitudes. Psychosocial: Describing the relation of the individuals emotional needs to the social environment.

*Lateralization

Specialization of the 2 hemispheres of the brain cortex, each half controls the opposite side of the body. Left is more for language processing, right is for spatial, visual, nonverbal information, emotions. There is less hemisphere specialization for females in general, young children show more plasticity in lateralization. Specializations are NOT absolute, just more efficient Mental activities require parts of the brain to work together.

*Correlation studies

Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related. Positive: relationship between variables increase or decrease together. Negative: Relationship between variables show one increasing while the other decreases and vice versa. Correlations do NOT show causation.

Physical development: Elementary school years

Steady, physical development, tremendous variation, become taller, leaner, stronger, better able to master sports or play games. Girls may be as large or larger than boys, girls 11-14 are on average taller, heavier than same-age boys, advantage in physical activities, some girls may feel conflict over this size discrepancy and downplay their physical abilities.

Support student learning

Student personal factors: Student engagement and learning strategies School and social-contextual factors: School climate and social-familial issues.

Cross-sectional research

Study groups of students at different ages. Ex. study conceptions of numbers ages 3-16, interview students of different ages rather than following the same student for 14 years. Arguments on how correctly these can answer questions. This is not as good as longitudinal studies overall, but is better on time and money.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Swiss psychologist developed a model describing how humans make sense of the world by gathering, organizing information. Insightful descriptions of children's thinking, differences between adult and child thinking. Four factors influence cognitive development: maturation: genetically programmed biological changes, activity: acting on environment, learning from exploring, testing, observing, organizing information, social transmission: learning from others, equilibrium: mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment.

*Action research

Systematic observations, tests, methods conducted by teachers to improve teaching/learning. Often conducted by teachers in their own classroom or school. Focus on a specific teaching or learning problem. Uses the same observation, intervention, data gathering, and research tactics as large research projects, do problem solving investigations focused on a specific teaching or learning problem. Findings are often reported in journals

Applying Vygotsky's teaching

Tailor scaffolding to students needs, give students access to tools to support thinking, build on cultural funds of knowledge, capitalize on dialogue and group learning.

Key regions of the brain

Thalamus: Verbal information and our ability to learn it. Cerebellum; Coordinates balance, movement, motor learning, and higher cognitive function. Brain stem: Handles heart rate, breathing, Amygdala: directs emotion and aggression. Hippocampus: Recalls new information and recent events. Hypothalamus: releases hormones, regulates body temperature. Frontal lobe: enables process information for planning, remembering, decision making, problem solving and critical thinking.

The Zone of Proximal Development

The area between the child's current performance (the problems they can solve without any support), and the level of performance that the child could achieve with adult guidance or by working with more capable peers.

Problems with stages

The lack of consistency in children's thinking, the processes may be more continuous than they seem. Understanding children's abilities: Piaget may underestimate young children's cognitive abilities. Some things may be too easy, some innate understandings and knowledge may be there, cognitive development can be enhanced by instruction. It also overlooks cultural and social groups, western children move to stages earlier than non-western children, differences can depend on the subject being tested.

*What are the educational implications of Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?

Use imitation, modelling, instruction and collaboration Scaffold learning: support with clue, tips, and structures Assisted learning: first learning from the student what is needed, give information on prompts at the right time and right amount, and gradually allow students to do more on their own. Teach in "magic middle"

Qualitative research methods

Use words, dialogues, events, themes, and images as data. - Interviews, observations, and analysis of transcripts are key procedures - Goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and understand the meaning of the events to people -Assume that no process of understanding meaning can be completely objective.

Do teachers make a difference?

Yes! Quality teacher-student relationships predict academic and behavior outcomes grades 3-8, especially if teachers are sensitive and provide feedback, students in top quartile increase scores by 5% during the year students in lower quartile fall behind, students who have the most problems benefit from teaching.

What are the educational implications of Piaget's theory of cognitive development

You can't just throw certain information at students and expect them to know it at any age, there is a limit. Teach how to learn, children construct their own knowledge, listen/observe to understand children's thinking to match teaching methods to children's abilities, keep disequilibrium just right to encourage growth, actively engage students in concrete experiences.

*Educational psychology today

a distinct discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems, techniques, applies to the methods and theories of psychology, research on learning and teaching, working to improve policy and practice. Do not spend the time researching the obvious, as it does not always support common sense practice, although it sometimes sounds like common sense.

Media, modeling and aggression

aggressive models found on tv, 82% of tv has violence, and 70% of it goes unpunished. Teachers need to stress 3 points: most people do not behave as aggressively as on tv, tv violence is not real, most people resolve conflict without violence, Playing violent video games increases aggressive behavior, but positive video games promote prosocial behavior. Teachers need to show genuine concern for their students, there should be both academic and personal caring. Need to protect students' welfare and intervene in cases of abuse.

Private speech and the ZPD

an adult uses verbal prompts/structuring (scaffolding), to help a child solve a problem or task. Adult support gradually reduced as children took over, often giving self-prompts as private speech/linear speech. Strategies to provide scaffolding: model thought process for students, use organizers and starters, do part of the problem with students, give hints, encourage small steps, connect new learning to interest and prior knowledge, graphic organizers, simplify the task, teach key vocabulary. Collective monologue: children talking in a group without interacting with one another Socialized speech: children learn to listen and exchange ideas

friendships

central to students' lives at every age, peer relationships influence motivation and achievement in school, you want them to be stable, supportive, socially competent, mature, enhance social development, and protect during emotional times. Negative friendships can affect school achievement and can bring them to peer pressure.

Obesity

defined as being more than 20% heavier than average, in 2012, 18% of children 6-11 were and 21% of children 12-19 are., 2004-2012 saw a decrease in this. Negative consequences, diabetes, strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, social bullying, teasing, can be caused by poor diet, genetic factors, lack of exercise, increased hours in front of screens.

*Every student succeeds act (2015)

drop requirements for proficiency by a certain date, states can set standards and develop interventions, have to test the same subjects in the same grades with 95% participation, gather data from different subgroups of children, states must intervene in bottom 5% and graduate less than 2/3 of students, encourage students to become career and college ready, states have to fund students for special services, gave increased access to early childhood education.

Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development

emphasizes emergence of self, search for identity, individuals relationships and roles of culture. Development is viewed as an interdependent series of stages. Each stage presents a developmental crisis, which can be resolved productively or unproductively. The resolution of a crisis influences the resolution of future crises and has a lasting effect on a person's identity.

Causes and consequences of rejection

experienced by 5-10% of children, new students with something different from others, students who are aggressive, withdrawn, and inattentive-hyperactive, classroom context matters, can result in physical, emotional, or behavioral problems, some rejection can turn into aggression.

The role of educational psychology

in the beginning issues were discussed by plato, aristotle and confucius. Discussed the roles of teachers, teaching methods, nature/order of learning, the role of emotion in learning. In the U.S. William James, Harvard, talked to teachers about psychology in a lecture, G Stanley Hall founded the APA John Dewey was the father of the progressive education movement, founder of laboratory school and university of chicago, E.L. Thorndike first educational psychologist and text in 1903, founded the journal of educational psychology (1910)

Culture and parenting

need for different models to describe parenting, because there's different cultural values affecting parenting styles. Research is mostly based on middle class european-american families. Asian families use a "training" parenting style: debated if this is good or bad. Latino families are characterized by the level of granting autonomy to children. Protective is high in warmth and control, but low in granting autonomy. Authoritative is high in warmth, control, and granting autonomy. They are less likely to grant autonomy to female children.

Piagets four stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

No Child Left Behind Act (2002)

standardized achievement tests in reading and math for grades 3-8, test science once in each grade span(elementary, middle, and high school), judge whether schools make yearly progress, have to reach proficiency by 2013-2014, can punish schools for missing the goals, criticized for negative consequences for schools.

Measures of effective teaching

students gain on tests, surveys of students perceptions of teachers, classroom observations.

Commonalities in K-12 schools in the US

students have technological literacy, and students are more technologically literate than most teachers.

What is good teaching?

teachers are confident and committed, make abstract concepts real and understandable, deal with lots of students, plan and teach procedures for living and learning, and being reflective on their work. Research in their classroom on themselves and their classrooms.