ESS Final/IB Exam

3.1.3 Analyze age/sex pyramids and diagrams showing demographic transition models.

Any measurable characteristic of the population o I.e. Age, sex, ethnicity, language, religion, occupation

3.8.2 Calculate from appropriate data the ecological footprint of a given population, stating the approximations and assumptions involved.

• (Equation 1) For food production: o (per capita food consumption (kg yr-1)) / (mean food production of local arable land (kg ha-1 yr-1) o Calculated in terms of grain equivalents • (Equation 2) For absorbing waste carbon dioxide: o (per capita carbon emissions (kg Cyr-1)) / (net carbon fixation of local natural vegetation (kg Cha-1 yr-1) • Total footprint is equation 1 + equation 2 • Factors that are used in a full ecological footprint calculation: o Bioproductive land- land used for food and materials o Bioproductive sea- sea area used for human consumption (often just coastal) o Energy land - An equivalent amount of land that would be required to support renewable energy instead of non-renewable energy. o Built (consumed) land - Land that is used for development such as roads and buildings. o Biodiversity land -Land required to support all of the non-human species. o Non-productive land - Land such as deserts is subtracted from the total land availability. • Simplified calculations involved: o The land or water required to provide any aquatic and atmospheric resources o Land or water needed to assimilate wastes other than carbon dioxide o Land used to produce materials imported into the country to subsidize arable and increase yields. o Replacement of productive land lost through urbanization

4.2.3 Discuss current estimates of numbers of species and past and present rates of species extinction.

• In 6th mass extinction, first caused by human/biotic factors • Development of agriculture and clearing native species • Over-population • Invasive species • Global warming also accelerating extinctions for organisms that cannot adapt quickly enough to changing conditions or migrate.

5.8.3 Explain why the effect of acid deposition is regional rather than global.

• Some areas are far more industrialized than others, causing more acid rain in that surrounding area • Thinner soils are more easily affected • Essentially differences in circumstances depending on where you are decide how intense and common acid rain is

2.1.6 Define the terms species, population, habitat, niche, community, and ecosystems with reference to local examples

• Species: A population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed and produce viable offspring • Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same areas at the same time and which are capable of interbreeding • Habitat: Place or type of place where an organism or population normally lives • Niche: A species' share of a habitat and the resources in it. Its "role" in the ecosystem. • Community: A group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat • Ecosystem: communities of different species interacting with each other and their physical environment

4.3.3 State and explain the criteria used to define protected areas.

• State: larger space allows for larger populations and gene pools, and a wider variety of species. Single Large or Several Small (SLOSS) • Shape: round is best, because it reduces the edge effect. o Edge effect: Edges create an area where two habitats meet, which influences what may successfully live there. • Corridors: provide safe passage between protected areas • Proximity: if protected areas are close to other protected areas, they are more effective than isolated islands

3.5.2 Compare and contrast the efficiency of terrestrial and aquatic food production systems.

• Terrestrial agriculture: o Food is harvested from lower trophic levels (producers and primary consumers) o Methods: Cash cropping: growing crops to sell at market instead of personal consumption. Pastoral farming: raising animals on land not suitable for crops; generally a form of subsistence farming Mixed farming: combination of food crops and animals raised in the same area. • Aquatic Agriculture (Aquaculture): o Food is harvested from higher trophic levels. I.e. Salmon (high level consumers) o 90% of predatory fish disappeared in past 50 years (tuna, swordfish, cod, halibut, flounder, etc) o Bycatch: fish caught in the process of the commercial fishing that are not marketable. 20-25% of all fish caught; most killed and dumped back in to the ocean.

3.5.1 Outline the issues involved in the imbalance in global food supply.

• The problem is not production, it is the distribution of food. • MEDC's produce more than they can consume, resulting in a over-fed country • LEDC's will export food/resources to generate money/capital. o Less stable because countries that rely more on export are more easily affected than those that are self-sufficient. MEDC's provide large domestic support (export-subsidies) to make LEDC's less competitive. • MEDC's have better food, more healthcare, more people living longer, so they require more food but have more resources to manufacture it.

4.1.4 Explain how plate activity has influenced evolution and biodiversity.

• The separating of the tectonic plates separated gene pools and formed physical barriers and land bridges. • Generates new, diverse habitats, promoting biodiversity

3.7.1 Explain the difficulties in applying the concept of carrying capacity to local human populations.

• Things that limit global human population growth: o Population o Natural resources o Pollution o Agriculture production o Industrial production • Over-population: occurs when there are too many people relative to the resources and technology locally available to maintain an adequate standard of living. • Under-population: occurs when there are far more resources in an area than can be used by the people living there.

1.1.7 Describe transfer and transformation processes

• Transfer: Movement of matter or energy through a system that does not involve a change of form or state. • Transformation: Movement of matter or energy through a system that does involve a change of form or state. • Both types of movement use energy. Transfers require less energy and are more efficient than transformations. • Transfers normally flow through a system and involve a change in location. • Transformations either lead to an interaction within a system, the formation of a new end product, or they involve a change of state. o Ex. Transfers: Movement of material through living organisms, Movement of material in a nonliving process, Movement of energy. o Ex. Transformations: Matter Transformations, energy transformations, Energy to matter transformations, Matter to energy transformations.

5.2.3 Describe and explain an indirect method of measuring pollution levels using a biotic index.

• Trent Biotic Index: based on disappearance of indicator species o Uses presence or absence of 6 key organisms, various larval forms of insects and some invertebrates) to indicate the relative level of pollution in a body of water • Advantages: Easy to use, especially for moderately or heavily polluted sites • Disadvantages: Not specific enough, doesn't fully account for habitat quality o Indicator species: Those are present either only in polluted areas or unpolluted areas o Involves levels of tolerance and abundance of organisms.

5.6.6 Describe and evaluate the role of NGO's and IGO's in reducing the emissions of ozone-depleting substances.

• UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) forges agreements on: o International Trade in Harmful Chemicals (ITIHC) o Air pollution o Contamination of international waterways o Inform nations and public about the disadvantages of pollution • 1987 Montreal Protocol: international agreement on the emissions of ozone-depleting substances o Froze production and consumption of CFC's with a goal of zero production by 2000 o LEDC's granted a longer time to implement the treaty o China and India have not met their quotas due to rapid economic growth and high demand of products containing CFC's o Good example of successful international cooperative effort to alter human impact on the environment

2.6.6 Explain the changes in energy flows, gross and net productivity, diversity and mineral cycling in different stages of succession

Climax communities as compared to earlier community: o Greater biomass o Higher levels of species diversity o More favorable soil conditions o Better soil structure o Lower Ph o Taller and longer-living plant species o More K-strategists o Greater community complexity and stability o Greater habitat diversity o Steady-state equilibrium

2.7.2 Describe and evaluate methods for measuring changes in abiotic and biotic components due to specific human activity in an ecosystem.

Contamination levels following Chernobyl's nuclear meltdown. Satellite imaging shows change over time of landscape in a visual nature. Mining and excavating.

3.1.2 Calculate and explain, from given data, the values of crude birth rate, crude death rate, fertility, doubling time and natural increase rate.

Crude Birth Rate: # of births per 100 individuals / year Crude Death Rate: # of deaths per 1000 individuals / year Fertility: Number of children born to a women during her lifetime. Total Fertility Rate: # births/1000 women of child-bearing ages General Fertility Rate: # births/1000 women (ages 15-49) Age-Specific Birth Rate: # births/1000 women (at any age) MEDC's have lower rates than the LEDC's Factors that make a difference: o More educated shows o Fewer children o Poor people have limited resources/ambition and tend to have larger families o More affluent people tend to have a smaller families to continue their standard of living. Natural Increase: (CBR - CDR)/ 10 Doubling Time: 70/(Rate of Natural Increase)

2.6.3 Describe the role of density dependent and density independent factors and internal and external factors in the regulation of populations.

Density Dependent: Population limiting whose effects intensify as the population increases in size. May increase death or birth rates. o I.e. Disease Density Independent: Forces that limit population growth, regardless of population density. o I.e. Natural Disasters Internal Factors: Factors within population i.e. Fertility or size of breeding territory External Factors: Outside of population i.e. Predation or Disease

2.7.3 Describe and evaluate the use of environmental impact assessments (EIA's)

EIA: An investigation to determine to the impact of a certain action. They examine potential future implications of a planned action, specific to the local area around the project. Such as the building of a dam.

2.6.5 Describe the concept and processes of succession in a named habitat

Ecological Succession: A series of community changes that usually occur after a disturbance, i.e. Mt. Saint Helens. Transition in species composition over time. Primary Succession: Begins in virtually lifeless area without soil o First Bacteria -> lichens/moss -> grass -> shrubs -> trees o The death of the organisms progressively develops the soil from their decomposing biomass. Secondary Succession: An existing community is cleared, but the base soil is intact. o I.e. forest fires, eruptions, landslides etc Climax Forest: o Stable community o Dominated by trees o Will remain unchanged until a disturbance o Trees in a climax community: Birch, beech, maple, hemlock, oak, hickory, pine

2.7.1 Describe and evaluate methods for measuring changes in abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem along an environmental gradient.

Environmental gradients are where two ecosystems such as where the water meets the beach or where an ecosystem end like a forests edge. Methods of measuring changes: Field surveys, monitoring, modeling, agency guidelines, literature searches, workshops, interviews with specialists, and public opinion polls.

3.1.1 Describe the nature and explain the implications of exponential growth in human populations.

Exponential Growth: A growth rate that is increasing rapidly or an accelerating rate of growth. Human world population doubling more quickly and is estimated to peak at 9 billion then stabilize at around 8.5 billion Problems that humans face as the population grows: o Increase in global gas emissions Soil degradation: The deterioration of soil, not the erosion which is the movement of soil to somewhere else.

2.6.7 Describe factors affecting the nature of climax communities

Fertility and depth of soil Light exposure Rainfall Temperature

2.5.7 Define the terms and calculate the values of both gross secondary productivity (GSP) and Net Secondary Productivity (NSP) from given data

GSP: Total gain by consumers in energy per unit area per unit time through absorption. NSP: Gain of energy through absorption after respiration. NSP = GSP - R (GSP = food eaten - fecal loss)

2.5.6 Define the terms and calculate the values of both gross primary productivity (GPP) and Net primary Productivity (NPP) from given data.

Gross Primary Productivity: Total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time through photosynthesis in primary producers. Net Primary Productivity: The gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining after respiration of producers. NPP = GPP - R (R = Respiration)

3.2.4 Discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic value.

Intrinsic value: value in their own right, not just from an economic perspective. Forms of value: economic, scientific, ecological, cultural, or technological Natural resources can have recreational value, attracting tourism and generating revenue.

2.6.2 Describe and explain S and J population curves.

J Curve: o Unrestricted o Exponential o The population will grow indefinitely with adequate resources. o Rate reproduction increases as population increases Positive feedback mechanism S Curve: o Restricted growth o Logistic o Kept in balance through negative feedback loop o Density dependent factors - increase in growth

2.6.1 Explain the concepts of limiting factors and carrying capacity in the concepts of population growth

Limiting Factors: Any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the number, reproduction or distribution of a population of the same species. Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of organisms an area can support for a long time. o Main Factors: Temperature, humidity, territory, water availability

3.2.1 Explain the concept of resources in terms of natural income.

Natural Capital: How we describe the resources we have available to us that we deem valuable. The "store or stock of the Earth" o Ores, timber, grains, fish, stocks or goods and services these raw materials. Natural Income: The yield gained from the natural capital we have. Can be in the form of harvests, or services our "capital" provides. By selling goods MEDC's add to their natural income; (LEDC's have unprocessed goods which can add to their value.) Value can be reduced if stocks are not maintained (no conservation measures).

3.2.2 Define the terms renewable, replenishable and non-renewable natural capital.

Renewable: Resources that can/will restock themselves by growing o I.e. trees, fruit, or crops Replenishable: Resources that may be replaceable, but usually the time needed to do so is slower than the consumption rate. o I.e. Water, ozone layer, or soil Non-renewable: Natural capital that exists in finite amounts. Once consumed, they are not replaced easily on a human timescale. Recycling: Makes it possible for humans to use some non-renewable resources for a longer period of time, maybe even indefinitely.

3.2.5 Explain the concept of sustainability in terms of natural capital and natural income.

Sustainability: Living within the means of nature, on the "interest" or sustainable income generated by natural capital. Resources are used at a rate that allows for natural regeneration. Society can support itself by depleting essential form of natural capital sustainable in the short term but not in the long term. Human well-being is dependent on the goods and services provided by certain forms of natural capital, long-term harvest (or pollution) rates should not exceed rates of capital revenue.

3.2.6 Discuss the concept of sustainable development.

Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. People need to be prepared to lower their standards of living of to maintain the environmental state. Technological progress will need to happen to continually combat growing demands for resources.

3.2.7 Calculate and explain sustainable yield from given data.

Sustainable Yield (SY): The rate of increase in natural capital that can be exploited without depleting the original stock or its potential for replenishment. SY = (annual growth and recruitment) - (annual death and emigration)

3.2.3 Explain the dynamic nature of the concept of a resource.

Value of a resource depends on time because of the way it's value is perceived. o I.e. Coconuts: new trend of coconut milk drinking. Hydrogen Cells: becoming more widely used.

1.1.1 Outline the concepts and characteristics of a system

Storages of matter or energy. Flows- inputs into the system and outputs from the system. Processes which transfer or transform energy or matter. System- An assemblage of parts and the relationships between them which together constitutes an entity or whole. They always must contain energy, matter, and information. • Feedback mechanisms that maintain feedback and equilibrium o Ex. Photosynthesis: Transforms carbon dioxide, water, and light into biomass and oxygen o Ex. Respiration: Transforms Biomass into Carbon dioxide and water o Ex. Diffusion: Allowing the movement of nutrients and water into the trees o Ex. Consumption: Transferring tissue from one trophic level to another

3.6.1 Describe the Earth's water budget.

• 70% Earth's surface covered by water o 97% salt water o 3% freshwater 69% in glaciers and ice caps 30% in groundwater 0.3% in lakes, streams, swamps 0.001% in atmosphere as vapor • Turnover time: Time needed for a molecule of water to enter and leave the system. Or time taken for water to completely replace itself in a system. • About 1% of water on Earth is usable. Used for: o Agriculture makes up largest percentage o Industrial usage, including agriculture, makes up 69% o Households make up the smallest percentage (~8%) • Problems affecting water availability: o Sedimentation: Development pushes sediment into the waterways. o Draining aquifers: Water is used faster than the rate of replenishment. o Pollution of surface water: Kills biodiversity o Extracting water from rivers: Removing more water than flows reduces water levels and flow rates. o Irrigation: Causes soil degradation and salinization o Hydroelectric Dams: Causes temperature changes from standing water. • Solutions: o Domestic Consumption: General appliances use more water than is necessary. More efficient plumbing should be implemented. o Irrigation: Better techniques such as drip irrigation, watering during evenings, or covering irrigation canals. o Agriculture; Reduce chemical usage o Industry: Treat waste water before releasing it into the system. o Dams: Use cooling towers in dam projects.

2.4.1 Define the term biome

• A collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions. o Ex: Desert, Tundra, Tropical Rainforest • Factors that influence biomes: Latitude/insolation, proximity to water, altitude, and rainfall.

1.1.10 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of models

• A model is a simplified description designs to show the structure or workings of an object, system, or concept • Advantages: Allow scientists to predict and simplify complex systems, Inputs can be changes and outcomes examined without having to wait for real events, results can be shown to other scientists and to the public • Disadvantages: They may not be accurate, they rely on the expertise of the people making them, different people may interpret them in different ways, vested interests may hijack them politically, any model is only as good as the data that goes in, different models may show different effects using the same data

2.1.1 Distinguish between biotic and Abiotic components of an ecosystem

• Abiotic: Nonliving components of an ecosystem o Ex. Light, temperature, humidity, water, landscape, and altitude • Biotic: Living components of an ecosystem o Ex. Plants, animals, decomposers

3.8.3 Describe and explain the differences between the ecological footprints of two human populations, one from an LEDC and one from an MEDC.

• About twice as much energy in the diet is provided by animal products in MEDC's versus LEDC's. • Populations more dependent on fossil fuels have higher carbon dioxide emissions have larger footprints. • Lower rates of carbon dioxide uptake in MEDC's compared to LEDC's, and higher rates of emissions, contribute to the higher ecological footprints in MEDC's.

7.1.3 Discuss how these philosophies influence the decision-making process with respect to environmental issues covered in this course.

• Acid rain: Ecocentricism: Change personal lifestyle that will reduce the need for energy produced through processes that create acid rain. Technocentricism: Use alternative technology and encourage continued uninhibited economic growth because they trust humanity to know when to stop • Extensive use of fossil fuels: Technocentricism: Replace the environmentally damaging industry with a new one and/or develop technology to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. Ecocentricism: Reduce greenhouse gases by slowing existing gas-emitting industry, even if it inhibits economic growth

6.1.7 Evaluate contrasting human perception of the issue of global warming.

• Al Gore: Focused on spreading the idea that climate change is man-made • Bjorn Lamborg: Argues that global warming and over-population, among other things, are not supported by statistics Accepts that human activity affects global warming but points out uncertainties • Martin Durkini: Argues against consensus that global warming is caused by human's CO2 emissions • The Stern Report: Analyzed the financial implications of climate change. Similar view point to Al Gore.

5.6.2 Describe the role of ozone in the absorption of UV radiation

• Allows UVa and UVb, but blocks UVc o UVa- causes wrinkles o UVb - causes skin cancer o UVc - worst one, causes damage to tissues • O2 + O + UV -> O3

4.1.5 Explain the relationship among ecosystem stability, diversity, succession and habitat.

• An ecosystem becomes more stable and diverse as an ecosystem follows the path of succession. Thus that a climax community is the most stable and diverse. • Jump dispersal: Long-distance dispersal to remote areas by one or fewer individuals. This explains widely distributed species in geographically isolated areas. • Diffusion: Slower than jump dispersal and involves populations, rather than individuals. It describes the spread of species at the edge of their ranges in to new areas. Often follows dispersal events. • Secular migration: Dispersal over geological timescales. This is diffusion taking place so slowly that the diffusing species undergoes evolutionary changes during the process. It includes the diversification and spread of flowering plants. • Factors that determine the ability of ecosystems to recover following disturbance: o Inertia: resistance to being altered o Resilience: ability of a system to recover after a disturbance o Diversity: the number and proportions of species present Ex: A tropical rainforest has a high diversity and inertia, but if it undergoes catastrophic disturbance through logging or fires it has a low resilience.

5.2.2 Define the term biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and explain how this indirect method is used to assess pollution levels in water.

• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): the amount of oxygen required to support respiration by organisms living in a water sample o High BOD indicates there are many organisms using oxygen for respiration o Low BOD indicates there are relatively few organisms needing oxygen for respiration o High BOD = low DO = high pollutant levels (I.e. nitrate & phosphate) o Low BOD =high DO = low pollutant levels

4.1.1 Define the terms biodiversity, genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity.

• Biodiversity: the amount of biological or living diversity per unit area. It includes the concepts of species, habitat, and genetic diversity. • Genetic Diversity: The variety of genetic characteristics within a species. • Species Diversity: The number of species in an area and also their relative abundance. • Habitat Diversity: The variety of habitats available for organisms to inhabit.

6.1.3 Discuss qualitatively the potential effects of increased mean global temperature.

• Biome distribution is influenced by temperature patterns Ice caps retreat Shoreline would shrink due to increased sea level causing flooding Water shortages due to increased evaporation Disease would be more prevalent with increased temperature endangering human health • Weather patterns would be more subject to change and less predicatble

4.3.5 Discuss and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the species-based approach to conservation. .

• CITES: Intergovernmental agreement designed to protect species threatened by international trade; voluntary; each country is responsible for its own laws, territory, and enforcement.

6.1.2 Describe how human activities add to greenhouse gases.

• CO2 is released from: Burning fossil fuels Cattle ranching Rice farming Fertilizers

2.5.4 Describe and explain the transfer and transformation of materials as they cycle within an ecosystem.

• Carbon Cycle: Gas in the atmosphere cycling between respiration, photosynthesis and deposition of dead material. • Nitrogen Cycle: Decomposition of dead materials, excretion and feces cycling with atmospheric nitrogen and soil nitrates. Bacteria can make nitrates usable by plants and then animals. • Water Cycle: Stores-> evaporation -> condensation -> precipitation -> runoff

3.4.3 Outline the processes and consequences of soil degradation.

• Causes of soil degradation: o Overgrazing o Agriculture mining of soil nutrients o Urban conversion o Unsustainable irrigation o Pollution • Consequences of soil degradation: o Accelerated erosion by wind and water o Removal of nutrients o Acidity increase, salination and alkaliniation o Destruction of soil structure o Loss of organic matter

7.1.4 Outline key historical influences on the development of the modern environmental movement.

• Chernobyl • Greenpeace's Save the Whale campaign

2.1.7 Describe and explain population interactions using examples of explained species

• Competition: When two or more species compete over limited resources. o Ex: Elks battling over mates or land. • Herbivory: When an animal eats parts of a plant. o Ex: Caterpillars eating leaves, deer grazing • Predation: When one species kills and eats another. o Ex: Bear eats salmon, cat eating bird • Parasitism: Symbiotic relationship where one organism desires nourishment from another, harming the host. o Ex: Leeches, Ticks • Mutualism: Species work together to their benefit. o Ex: Pilot fish & shark, and hippo & bird

5.1.1 Define the term pollution

• Contamination of the Earth and atmosphere • Caused by human activities, worsened when it is produced faster than it can be removed, and affects organisms living in the area. • Types: air, water, light, sound, and heat

5.4.2 Evaluate the impacts of eutrophication.

• Depleted oxygen levels • Collapse of food chains leading to decreased biodiversity • Water contaminated with nitrites • Cloudy water caused by turbidity from the buildup of sediment

2.3.4 Define the term diversity

• Diversity examines how heterogeneous a habitat or population is • The number of different species and the number of individuals in each species.

2.3.3 Describe and evaluate methods for estimating the biomass of trophic levels in a community

• Dry weight measurements

7.1.2 Outline the range of environmental philosophies with reference to the evolution of environmentalist objectives and strategies in the seventies.

• Ecocentric: Holistic world view with minimum disturbance of natural processes, integration of spiritual, social and environmental dimensions. Sustainability for the whole Earth. Self-reliant communities within a framework of global citizenship. Self-imposed restraint on resource use • Antropocentric: People as environmental managers of sustainable global systems. Population control given equal weight to resource use. Strong regulation by independent authorities required. • Technocentric: Technology can keep pace with and provide solutions to environmental problems. Resource replacement saves resource depletion. Need to understand natural processes in order to control them. Strong emphasis on scientific analysis and prediction prior to policy-making. Importance of market and economic growth

3.8.1 Explain the concept of an ecological footprint as model for assessing the demands that human populations make on their environment.

• Ecological footprint: The hypothetical area of land required by a society, group or individual to fulfill all their resource needs and assimilate all wastes. • Increased in size by: o Greater reliance on fossil fuels o Increased use of energy consuming technology o High levels of imported resources (transport costs) o Large per capita production of carbon waste o Large per capita consumption of food/ meat-rich diet • Reduced in size by: o Reducing amounts of resources used o Recycling resources o Reusing resources o Improving efficiency of resource use o Reducing amount of pollution produced o Transporting waste to other countries to deal with o Improving technology to increase carrying capacity o Importing more resources from other countries o Reducing population to reduce resource use o Using technology to increase carrying capacity o Using technology to intensify land use

1.1.2 Apply the systems concept on a range of scales

• Ecosystem: Biologic community of interdependent organisms in the physical environment they inhabit • Gaia hypothesis: The Earth is a single living organism in which feedback mechanisms maintain equilibrium. o Ex. Population/energy of a vegetable garden o Ex. Population/energy of a tropical rainforest o Ex. Feedback, waste, and population of Gaia as a whole

2.1.5 Discuss how the pyramid structure affects the functioning of the ecosystem

• Energy is lost through food chains, so top carnivores are at risk for disturbance the further down the food chain • Biomagnification: concentration of the materials increases up the trophic levels or some toxins do not degrade and become concentrated in the food chain, leaving the top level consumer the most vulnerable o Ex. Eagles and DDT Pesticide

7.1.1 State what is meant by an environmental value system.

• Environmental value system (EVS): a particular worldview or set of paradigms that shape the way an individual, or group of people, perceive and evaluate environmental issues. Inputs: education, cultural influences, religious texts, or the media Outputs: Perspectives, decisions on how to act regarding environmental issues, and courses of action.

1.1.5 Explain the nature of equilibriam

• Equilibrium: The tenancy of a system to return to an original state following a disturbance. At equilibrium, a state of balance exists among the components of a system. There may be fluctuations but no sudden changes. • Steady State: continuous inputs and outputs, but the system remains constant. o Ex. Body Mass • Static State: There is no change over time. The static equilibrium can change o Ex. The location of a rock • Stable Equilibrium: Tends to return to the same state after a disturbance • Unstable Equilibrium: Does not tend to return to the same state after a disturbance

4.3.1 State the arguments for preserving and habitats.

• Ethics: To preserve the greatest good for the greatest number of people for the longest time. • Aesthetics: Nature has a value in its beauty • Commercial Resources: What if today's tree for lumber is tomorrow's economic boom? Unknown resources (medicinal or otherwise) found in nature • Genetics- Maintain a source of biodiversity in the gene pool for the future generations.

5.4.1 Outline the processes of eutrophication.

• Eutrophication: The addition of excess nutrients to a water system, which leads to the growth and subsequent death of algae, which reduces the dissolved oxygen available for other aquatic organisms. • Process: o Nutrients wash into a river or stream o Algae grows quickly in response to the added nutrients o The algae block sunlight to aquatic plants, so photosynthesis slows, and less oxygen is released into the water -Low DO levels o Decomposer populations increase because they have more food (the algae), and they use up all the oxygen for respiration - high BOD levels o Fish and other consumers die due to lack of oxygen and the lack of producers at the base of the food web • Nitrates and phosphates are the most common nutrients that cause eutrophication. They come from detergents, fertilizers, livestock waste, human sewage, and topsoil erosion.

6.1.5 Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies to address the issue of global warming.

• Examples of national and international methods: Controlling atmospheric pollution Stopping forest clearance Increasing forest cover Developing alternate renewable energy sources Setting national carbon emission limits Improving public transportation • Examples of individual methods: Grow your own food Use energy-efficient bulbs Reduce heating/ better insulation Use biofuels Be aware of water use • Kyoto protocol Intergovernmental panel on climate change that met in 1997 183 countries signed an agreement to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions Countries given set amounts of CO2 they can emit Encourages alternate sources of energy Carbon taxes: Taxes the burning of fossil fuels Carbon trading: Permits to emit CO2 can be traded globally Carbon offset schemes: Offset CO2 emissions by investing in projects that cut emissions elsewhere

1.1.4 Describe how the first and second laws of thermodynamics are relevant to environmental systems

• First Law: Energy is neither created or destroyed, but it can change forms • Second Law: In any isolated system, Entropy tends to increase spontaneously • Entropy: A measure of the amount of disorder, chaos, or randomness in a system. The greater the disorder, the higher the level of entropy. #Energyisneededtocreateorder

5.1.3 State the major sources of pollutants.

• Fossil fuels: release greenhouse gas and can contribute to respiratory problems and acid rain. • Domestic waste: food waste, sewage, rubbish (glass, plastic, paper, wood, or metal) • Industrial Waste: Heavy metals, heat of water or air, acids • Agricultural wastes: fertilizers, animal waste and pesticides can contaminate water sources.

3.4.4 Outline soil conservation measures

• Function of planting longer grass or trees around a farming field is to break the wind and prevent the soil from being blown away. • Crop Rotation: Switching crops each year, one that requires high nutrient soil and one that does not. I.e Corn and soybeans o Helps to leave plant matter in the soil for the next year to reduce fertilizer use o Some plants (legumes) add nitrogen to the soil naturally. o Helps to prevent pest and disease naturally.

6.1.1 Describe the role of greenhouse gases in maintaining mean global temperature.

• Greenhouse gases from a "thermal blanket" regulating global temperature Account for ~1% of atmosphere • CO2 levels and temperature naturally fluctuate over time • Recent industrialization and deforestation are assisting in increasing greenhouse gas levels Unnatural increases are occurring unlike a volcanic eruption or increased solar activity

2.5.5 Define the terms gross productivity, net productivity, primary productivity, and secondary productivity

• Gross Productivity: The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time. (Energy trapped as biomass by photosynthesis) • Net Productivity: The amount of energy trapped in organic matter during a specified interval at a given trophic level minus that lost by respiration of the organisms at that level. • Primary Productivity: The gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time. • Secondary Productivity: The rate that biomass is gained by heterotrophic organisms, through feeding and absorption. o NSP = GSP - R o (Food eaten - energy in feces) - Respiration

4.1.3 State that isolation can lead to different species being produced that are unable to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

• Groups can be separated and cannot mate for a long time causing them to develop advantageous traits for their separate locations. • Temporal Isolation: Groups are reproductive at different times of the year • Behavioral Isolation: Different bird songs, for example • Geographic Isolation: A physical barrier divides a population • Ecological isolation: Prevention of mating between formally interbreeding groups • Gametic Isolation: Inability of groups to produce fertile offspring

5.6.3 Explain the interaction between ozone and halogenated organic gases (HOG's).

• HOG's are usually stable but break down into halogen atoms which are highly reactive. o CFC's, for example break down into Chlorine, Fluorine, and Carbon • How ozone is depleted by CFC's: o UV radiation breaks off chlorine from CFC molecule o Free chlorine atom reacts with O3, breaking it apart to form O2 and ClO o The free oxygen reacts with ClO, breaking it apart to form O2 and a free Cl atom. o The process repeats with the new free chlorine atom

4.2.7 Describe the case history of a natural area of biological significance that is threatened by human activities.

• I.e. Invasive goats on the Galapagos Islands: no natural predators, swift reproduction, and ate all vegetation on the island.

5.7.1 State the source and outline the effect of tropospheric ozone

• Incomplete combustion in engines may result in carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, nitrogen or sulphur oxides • Free radicals react with products such as nitrogen oxides • The produced dioxide is split by light energy • The resulting free oxygen atom reacts with O2 to form ozone • Can cause respiratory and cardiac problems

3.8.5 Describe and explain the relationship between population, resource consumption and technological development, and their influence on carrying capacity and material carry growth.

• Industrialization accelerates consumption of natural resources. Agricultural development results in destroyed habit and/or deforestation. Industrialization in general leads to deteriorated environmental conditions. • Subsistence farmers and hunter-gatherers manage the environment sustainably. • Increased population leads to increased consumption until it reaches a maximum carrying capacity. • Technological development can raise the carrying capacity by introducing an alternative to a current use of materials.

1.1.8 Distinguish between flows and storages in relation to systems

• Inputs and outputs (flows) are arrows • Storages are boxes • Longer arrow = Larger flow (More resource movement)

3.5.3 Compare and contrast the inputs and outputs of materials and energy, the system characteristics, and evaluate the relative environmental impacts for two named food production systems.

• Intensive farming: Using small amounts of land and pulling a high output. Uses a large input of capital and labor per unit area. • Extensive farming: Using a larger area, but cost is lower by comparison. Example: Few ranchers can take care of many heads of cattle. • Energy use and efficiency in farming is calculated by comparing inputs versus outputs. o Inputs: seed, fertilizer, fuel, labor, waster treatment, processing, packaging, transport, etc. o Outputs: Energy per gram of marketable food Meat and fish have more energy per gram than cereals Grain equivalent: one way to measure efficiency among different food types

4.3.2 Compare and contrast the role and activity of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations in preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity.

• Intergovernmental organizations (IGO's): Generally a part of multi-national organizations, especially the UN o Ex: United Nations Environmental Programme • Non-governmental organizations (NGO's): Groups that work independently from governments to protect threatened species and areas. o Ex: Greenpeace, WWF, Sierra Club

4.3.4 Evaluate the success of a named protected area.

• Kirtland's Warbler: o Threatened because of loss of habitat, brown-headed cowbird, and specific habitat (certain age Jack Pine tree) o Protected areas have developed and maintained acres of suitable nesting habitat. They rotate growth of trees, ensuring that there are always appropriate aged trees.

5.6.1 Outline the overall structure and composition of the atmosphere

• Layers: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere • Trophosphere contains all weather and the majority of all gases in the atmosphere • Stratosphere contains the jet streams and the ozone layer

2.2.2 Describe and evaluate methods for measuring at least three abiotic factors within an ecosystem.

• Light: Use light-meter to measure light in an ecosystem. o Weaknesses: Cloud cover and changes in light intensity during the day mean that values must be recorded at the same time of day and at the same atmospheric conditions. • Temperature: Electric thermometers and probes allow temperature to be measured in air, water, and soil. o Weaknesses: Problems arise if the thermometer is not buried deep enough. Depth must be checked when measurements are taken. • pH: Measured using a pH-meter or a data logging pH probe. o Weaknesses: The meter or probe must be cleaned between readings and reading must be taken from the same depth each time.

2.3.2 Describe and evaluate methods for estimating abundance of organisms

• Lincoln Index: Capture a group of a population, tag individual organisms, and recapture to mathematically determine total population. • • Quadrat: Is a sample size that can be scaled to the whole. Used for population density and diversity.

2.2.1 List the significance of abiotic factors of an ecosystem

• Marine: Salinity, temperature, sediment, light, and level of submersion • Freshwater: Light, sediment, salinity, level of submersion, temperature, and erosion • Terrestrial: Altitude, wind, erosion, temperature, light, and sediments.

3.6.2 Describe and evaluate the sustainability of freshwater resource usage with reference with reference to a case study.

• Middle East Water shortage: o Area contains only 0.5% of the world's freshwater supply and 5% of the world's population. o Major drought in 2008 in Israel. Forced to stop pumping from sea of Galilee and draw from aquifers instead. Did not restrict water supply to its neighbor Jordan. Israel has two desalination plants that supply one third of used water for households. Potential future conflict over water supplies.

5.4.3 Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies with respect to eutrophication.

• Minimize the amount of nutrients released into the system by limiting production/use of detergents containing phosphates or create buffer zones between agricultural land and water sources. • Prevent animal waste from leeching into groundwater and rivers/streams • Treat the polluted area by: o Pumping air into the water source o Divert or treat sewage properly o Dredge contaminated sediments o Remove algae blooms

3.3.3 Discuss the factors that affect the choice of energy sources adopted by different societies.

• Money is a huge factor because the green technologies are more expensive to develop • Biomass can be the leftover plant matter from agriculture processes

4.2.2 Discuss the perceived vulnerability of tropical rainforests and their relative value in contributing to global biodiversity.

• Most of the nutrients of the rainforest are stored in: o Not the soil, the soil has low-nutrient content o In the biomass, in the trees. Cutting or burning them down removes to nutrients from the system without replacing them. • Green Politics: o Advocates economic policies which safeguard the environment o Local political activism o Greater individual freedom o It opposes the influence of corporations in national and international policies o Often strong governmental regulation of perceived pollution o Rainforests are viewed as a source of many economically and ecologically valuable resources

7.1.5 Compare and contrast the environmental value systems of two named societies.

• Native Americans and European pioneers: Native Americans saw environment as communal and had subsistence based economy. They had low impact technology that allowed them to live in harmony with the environment, sometimes with religion that believed everything had a soul. The incoming pioneers operated under frontier economics that involved exploitation at the new resources that appeared to be unlimited. This led to environmental degradation through over-population, lack of connectivity to the environment, heavy and technologically advanced industry, and unchecked exploitation of natural resources.

4.1.2 Outline the mechanism of natural selection as a possible driving force for speciation.

• Natural Selection: A mechanism for change in populations that occurs when organisms with favorable variations for a particular environment survive, reproduce and pass these variations on to the next generation. o Not necessarily the strongest individual, just the best suited for its particular environment.

4.2.1 Identify the factors that lead to loss of diversity.

• Natural events: volcano, drought, meteor, ice age, etc • Agriculture: use of DDT • Pollution: Degrades environment, may interfere with reproduction or other functions of organisms • Introduction of non-native species: sea lamprey, asian carp, zebra mussles, etc • Hunting: Black Rhino

1.1.6 Define and explain the principles of positive feedback and negative feedback

• Negative: Self-regulating method of control leading to the maintenance of a steady state equilibrium. o Ex. Thermostat • Positive: Leads to an additional increasing change in a system. It accelerates deviation. o Ex. Greenhouse gasses leading to higher temperatures, leading to melting of permafrost, leading to more gasses

5.7.3 Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for urban air pollution.

• New fuel type that doesn't emit as many pollutants • New engine type that is more efficient • Catalytic converter that removes pollutants before they leave a car's exhaust • California regulations of exhaust emissions • 1985 Eastern Canada Acid Rain Program o Capped eastern Canada SO2 emissions at 2.3 million tons, to be met by 1994 and maintained until 2000 in the seven easternmost provinces o Provincial sulphur dioxide reduction targets for all provinces east of the Manitoba-Saskatchewan border. • Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000 planned to: o Reduce sulphur dioxide emissions in eastern Canada and the US o Protect clean areas from degradation o Maintain science and monitoring programs

6.1.6 Outline the arguments surrounding global warming.

• Non-human related factors: Greenhouse gases can be produced by volcanic activity, methane from animals or peat bogs, or sunspot activities Ocean currents can lead to warming or cooling Earth's tilt and variation in orbit around the Sun leads to seasonal regional changes in temperature Bush fires can release carbon in atmosphere • Complications: Large scale issue which includes everything on Earth The interactions between factors are a wide variety It includes natural and anthropogenic forces Not all feedback mechanisms are fully understood Many processes are long-term and many impacts are not fully understood

2.1.4 Explain the principles of pyramids of numbers, pyramids of biomass, and pyramids of productivity and construct such pyramids from given data.

• Numbers: Illustrates quantity of organisms found at each trophic level. Represents energy stored at each level. • Biomass: Illustrates how much energy is available in each trophic level. Represents energy stores at each level. Units: dry weight, grams per meter squared, or Joules per meter squared. • Productivity: Illustrates the rate at which energy flows through an ecosystem. Units: Joules per meter squared per year.

1.1.3 Define the terms open system, closed system and isolated system

• Open system: Exchanges in matter and energy o Ex. Forest, Most common • Closed system: Exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings o Ex. Fish tank, the Earth • An Isolated system: Exchanges neither energy or matter with its surroundings o Ex: The Universe

5.6.5 Describe three methods of reducing the manufacture and release of ozone-depleting substances.

• Ozone-depleting substances in question: CFC's Reduce-Regulate-Restore model o Reduce: Replace gas-blown plastics Replace CFC's with CO2, propane, or air Replace aerosol propellants Don't use aerosol hair products or deodorant o Regulate: Recover and recycle CFC's from refrigerators and AC units HCFC's don't persist as long in the atmosphere making them a better alternative Legislate to have refrigerators returned to manufacturers in order to recover materials Capture CFC's from scrap car AC units o Restore: Remove chlorine from the stratosphere or add ozone (not really feasible or practical) Ozone layer is slowly replenishing itself as long as we continue the ban

2.5.2 Describe photosynthesis and respiration in terms of inputs, outputs, and energy transformations

• Photosynthesis: o Input: Carbon Dioxide, water, energy o Output: Glucose, Oxygen o Energy Transformations: Light energy -> Chemical Energy • Respiration: o Inputs: Glucose, Oxygen o Output: Carbon Dioxide, water, and energy o Energy Transformations: Chemical energy -> Heat, ATP

5.1.2 Distinguish between the terms "point source pollution" and "non-point source pollution", and outline the challenges they present for management.

• Point Source: Contamination from a single source or point on a map. I.e. Chernobyl • Non-point source: Sources that are dispersed or mobile. I.e. Car exhaust • Point source are more easily managed because the impact is more localized, making it easier to control, locate, and take legal action.

4.2.5 Outline the factors used to determine a species' Red List status.

• Population size • Reduction in population size • Numbers of mature individuals • Geographic range • Quality of habitat • Area of occupancy • Probability of extinction

2.1.2 Define the term trophic level

• Position where an organism is found in a food chain • "Feeding level"

6.1.4 Discuss the feedback mechanisms that would be associated with an increase in mean global temperature.

• Positive feedback: Melting ice caps results in less reflective surface leading to more melted ice Tropical deforestation increases warming and drying killing more rainforest • Negative feedback: Increased evaporation will lead to increased snowfall reducing global temperature Deforestation leads to less aerosols being absorbed and therefore less solar radiation and heat

5.8.4 Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for acid deposition.

• Prevention options: Burn less fossil fuels (requires government initiative in order to switch to renewable energy) Reduce the amount of private vehicles on the road, make public transit more viable Switch to low sulfur fuel (more expensive for consumers) Remove sulfur before combustion (expensive for coal, cheaper for oil)

2.5.1 Explain the role of producers, consumers, and decomposers in the ecosystem

• Producers: The base of the food chain. Captures energy from the sun and converts it to usable forms. Autotrophs • Consumers: Organisms that must obtain their energy from the chemical bonds in the nutrients they eat. Heterotrophs • Decomposers: An organism that absorbs nutrients from nonliving organic material such as corpses, fallen plants, etc. Detritovores

3.8.4 Discuss how national and international development policies and cultural influences can affect human population dynamics and growth.

• Pronatalist: Policies are in favor of increasing the birth rate. • Anti-natalist: Attempt to limit the birth rate. • National: Such as One Child Policy in China

3.7.2 Explain how absolute reductions in energy and material use, reuse and recycling can affect human carrying capacity.

• Re-use: The multiple use of a product by returning it to the manufacturer or processor each time. Re-use is usually both more energy-efficient and more resource-efficient than recycling. • Reduce: Using less energy. • Substitution: Using one resource rather another - the use of renewable resources rather than non-renewable resources, for example.

5.6.4 State the effects of ultraviolet radiation on living tissues and biological productivity.

• Reacts with melanin in skin to cause sunburn and/or skin cancer • Degrades immune system after prolonged exposure • Required for producing Vitamin D • Interferes with photosynthesis in producers • Zooplankton gain less energy from phytoplankton and the food chain as a whole suffers, productivity decreases

5.5.2 Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for solid domestic waste.

• Reduce: Producing less waste; cheapest strategy • Reuse: Use something again; requires less energy than recycling; simple to implement on a household level • Recycle: Materials are collected, separated, and processed. Success depends on how much energy and raw materials are required to produce the material in the first place. Used for: o Plastics o Glass; can be melted and re-shaped indefinitely, requiring less energy than making new products o Paper o Metals; Aluminum is most common and cost-effective, steel also common • Incineration: o SDW burned at high temperature o Can be used to produce electricity o May produce dioxins and heavy metals o Takes up much less space than landfills o Ash can be used to build rods • Composting: o Nutrients returned to soils in agriculture, parks, or home gardens o Already used on large-scale basis in many MEDC farming systems o Composting human waste from sewage is difficult • Landfill: primary method o May have every category of SDW including hazardous materials o Initially cheap, but becomes more expensive as site fills up o Good sites are hard to find o Must be lined to prevent leachate infiltrating ground or surface water sources o Methane from decomposition may be captured for energy production

5.7.2 Outline the formation of photochemical smog.

• Requires: o Bright, Sunny Conditions o Thermal Inversion: Warm air forms over a layer of cold air, creating a boundary between the two layers Pollutants get trapped in the by the boundary • Produced by: o Ozone o Lachrymators (eye irritants): Ethanal reacts with hydroxide free radical, the product reacts with oxygen to form another product that reacts with an oxide to form the final product. o Harmful chemicals released into the air from factories, etc

3.5.4 Discuss the links that exist between social systems and food production systems.

• Shifting cultivation: "Slash and burn", forest is cut down then burned to yield fertile farmland. Once the land is depleted the farmer moves to a new area and does the same thing, clearing more forest. Old land can be reused once fertility returns. o This process is connected to cultures by rituals that are involved in selecting and burning a new plot. o Plot cycles are used as a way to keep track of historical events. o Some cultures blame spirits for bad plots and other associated factors in the harvest. • Agribusiness: When regulation of food production is not to satisfy the community's needs, but to ensure a profitable return for the capital investment. Maximizes productivity to compete in global market.

2.3.5 Apply Simpsons Diversity Index and outline its significance

• Simpson's Index: Measures the probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to the same species. • • Higher number = greater diversity

4.2.4 Describe and explain the factors that may make species more or less prone to extinction.

• Small population size/distribution • Habitat specialization • Poor competitors • Reproductive potential (or lack thereof) • Trophic level location • Large mammals: often hunted for their value

3.4.1 Outline how soil systems integrate aspects of living systems.

• Soil: The outermost layer of the Earth's surface, comprised of Bedrock, organic material (living and dead), air and water. o O: Organic horizon, material may be at top/may be buried o A: Surface horizon, organic and mineral mix o E: Eluvial horizon, where leaching takes place o B: Lluvial horizon or subsoil, contains minerals from E deposit o C: Bedrock, solid rock, with few deposits • Soil forms from the surface downward. o Causes variation in composition, structure, and color o Porosity: How much air is in the soil o Permeability: How fast water can flow through

3.3.1 Outline the range of energy resources available to society.

• Solar: Photovoltaic cells that produce energy • Wind: Turbines that spin and produce electricity • Biofuel: Biomatter burned to produce to steam to power a turbine • Fossil Fuels: Burning of coal, oil, natural gas, etc to power a turbine

5.5.1 Outline the types of solid domestic waste

• Solid domestic waste (SDW): Garbage or trash that has no value to the producer. The amount of rubbish produced by people varies depending on their lifestyle. • People in MEDC's generate more trash than those in LEDC's • Rural residents generate more organic waste than people living in cities • LEDC's tend to have less food waste because people eat most of it or feed it to livestock • Varieties: o Paper (~16%) o Glass (~2%) o Metal (~3%) o Plastics (~18%) o Organic waste (~40%) o Hazardous materials

3.4.5 Evaluate soil management strategies in a named commercial farming system and in a named subsistence farming system.

• United State commercial farming Midwest: methods imposed mostly by the Soil and Conservation Act of 1935. o Contour ploughing o Strip cultivation with an alternation of cultivated and fallow (crop-free) land aligned across the direction of the prevailing wind. o Temporary cover crops such as fast-growing millet o Shallow ploughing to eliminate weeds and conserve crop residues on the surface. o A stubble mulch with a cloddy compacted soil surface. o Use of heavy machinery • Santa Rosa, Mexico Subsistence farming: Sustainable form of agroforestry o Labour-intensive o Polyculture o Maintains soil quality by working with nature

5.8.2 Describe three possible effects of acid deposition on soil, water and living organisms.

• Water: o Lowers pH of body of water o Reduces ability of water to buffer itself o May decrease biodiversity by exiting the normal range of pH of species • Trees and forests: o Breaks down foliage and plant tissues o Sulfur dioxide interferes with photosynthesis o Can deplete needle supplies on a conifer, lowering total needles and putting it at risk of death o Low pH soils can damage root systems

5.8.1 Outline the chemistry leading to the formation of acidified precipitations.

• When coal or fossil fuels are burned the produce sulfur and nitrogen dioxides • The dioxides react with free oxygen atoms and water vapor to form acidic solutions