Ethics 2020
That aspect of moral philosophy that asks how we should act within any particular situation/dilemma, or concerning any particular controversial political issue.
Applied Ethics.
The best definition of "faith" would be:
Conviction wagering action
This philosopher saw religious conceptions of God as an immoral tyrant who is vengeful, cruel, and malicious
David Hume
Relativism is a sticky topic for many reasons. One of the reasons is that the dialogue is often filled with equivocal language. Even the statement, "morals are relative" is a loaded phrase. To help us to ponder more deeply, beyond the ambiguities, philosophers have distinguished between two theses when approaching language. When someone's assertion moves beyond a simple fact of observation-- that "right" and "wrong" varies from society to society --so as to imply that moral principles derive their validity from cultural acceptance; this is referred to as _______ thesis.
Dependency
"Virtue: (Arete) literally means
Excellence
"Morality" and "ethics" always mean the same thing.
False
For Kant, our ability to seek pleasure or avoid pain is proof of our freedom
False
If it is legal then it is moral.
False
Pojman concludes that even if theism is false, it is still likely that all humans have equal worth
False
Religious Pluralism is able to raise strong arguments against religious exclusivism without falling victim to logical contradiction
False
Zimmerman concludes that a rejection of DCT forces one into a rejection of the notion that there is any connection between God and morality
False
Bentham's Scheme for measuring pleasure
Hedonic Calculator
The general philosophy of value that asserts pleasure to be the only, or at least the highest, good.
Hedonism
For this philosopher, moral law is independent of God, but ethics depends upon religion because (1) immortality of the soul is necessary for achieving moral perfection; and (2) God is necessary for judgement and just recompense.
Immanuel Kant
Morality does not originate with God, and even God must obey the moral law.
Independence Thesis
For this philosopher, the notion of human rights amounts to little more than "nonsense on stilts."
J. Bentham
The most important Utilitarian of the Enlightenment (1700s); the one who formulated the Principle of Utility
Jeremy Bentham
How one should handle the issue of noncombatants and prisoners of war are considerations that fall under this aspect of JWT
Jus in bello
Rights are God- given and therefore inherent, indefeasible, and inalienable
Locke
We form a government in order to protect our natural rights
Locke
While it is true that natural resources belong to everyone, if you mix your labor with nature, then that part of nature becomes your rightful property and no government is necessary to decide this arrangement
Locke
The aspect of philosophy that either digs at the roots of worldview presuppositions or philosophizes about the language of moral philosophy itself, in order to question the very meaning of goodness, the nature of reality, and the structure of ethics as an object of inquiry.
Metaethics
When someone's point simply does not follow from their premises or conclusions.
Non sequitur
That aspect of moral philosophy that deals with theories of actions and our justifications for holding such theories.
Normative Ethics.
There are two general approaches to argumentation. This approach represents an aggressive attack on or refutation of the opinions or principles of another.
Polemic
A presumption made in seeking to understand a point of view in its strongest, most persuasive form before subjecting the view to evaluation and critique.
Principle of Charity
Vice represents either of two extremes: excess and deficiency. If courage is a virtue then the vice of excess might be called
Recklessness
This view holds that moral truth is determined by the culture or individual
Relativism
Concerned with giving a criminal the punishment that he or she is due
Retributive Justice
An act is right if an only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules whose acceptance would lead to greater utility for society than any alternative
Rule-utilitarianism
By giving up some of our liberty and adopting moral rules, we create an atmosphere of peace
Social Contract
If a conclusion follows from the premises, AND the premises ARE actually TRUE, the argument is
Sound
The strong-willed, but loyal horse
Spirit
Misrepresenting someone's view in order to attack it more easily
Straw Man
Highly altruistic acts that exceed what morality requires- going beyond the call of duty -are referred to as:
Supererogatory acts
__________ is an ethical term meaning "above and beyond one's call to duty."
Superogatory
A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises)
Syllogism
One of the most important issues relating to the Good Life is the question of whether there is a human purpose, or
Telos
Utilitarianism consists of two main features: This principle involves the teleological aspects of an action
The Consequentialist Principle
"Do the gods love holiness because it is holy or is it holy because the gods love it?"
The Euthyphro Dilemma
Virtue is found at an ideal point between two vices
The Golden Mean
The rational mind
The Man
The bodily desires/passions
The Multi headed Serpent
Marx sought to defend
The Proletariat
According to Socrates/Plato, the highest form of knowledge is an understanding of the Good
True
Generally speaking, it seems to be the case that gender differences may play a role in ethics.
True
The distinguishing feature of Communism is the abolishment of bourgeois property
True
The next step in human evolution; the one who rises above the oppression of morality in order to impose meaning in a meaningless universe
Ubermensch/the Overman
This political philosophy holds that a just society is one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Utilitarian Theory
Greg Koukl and Paul Copan both take up the assertion, "atheists can be moral without God." In so many words, their conclusion is:
Yes. But the fact that they can only strengthens theism's case.
the sub-discipline of moral philosophy that critically examines situational dilemmas and controversial issues in light of prominent ethical theories
applied ethics
virtue
aristotle
examples of naturalistic moral realism
aristotle; bentham & mill; gyges
no one else did as much to shape the intellectual climate of the middle ages through the renaissance than:
augustine
the term referring to a rightly-ordered love life
charity
the term referring to a disordered love life
cupidity
philosophical/theological exploration of final things
eschatology
aristotle held that every virtuous ("excellent") habituation lies at an ideally balanced position, located between two vices: _____________ & _____________
excess and deficiency
identify the ancient (and most accurate) understanding of "justice"
give to each one his/her due
the neoplatonic idea--which greatly influenced augustine-- that all existing things take part in a greater or lesser degree of existence, and therefore a greater or lesser degree of value
great chain of being
according to the module, the problem of evil...
is a problem which all worldviews must explain
the principle of verification fails. this is because... three of the following reasons are correct; one is incorrect. which reason does not belong?
it makes morality meaningless
utility
jeremy bentham
eternal, conscious, physical torment (e.g. via fire)
literal view of hell
what does "philosopher" literally mean
lover of wisdom
the aspect of moral philosophy that either digs at the roots of worldview presuppositions, or philosophizes about the very language of moral philosophy itself, in order to question the very meaning of goodness, the nature of morality, and the structure of ethics as an object of inquiry
metaethics
the method of philosophizing about the very terms of ethics and considering the structure of ethics as an object of inquiry
metaethics
a common and powerful form of valid moral argument: If p is true, then q is true. P is true. So q is true
modus ponens
antirealists; those who deny the truth of objective values
non-cognitivists
the term referring to the fact that we were born into our predicament; we are, all of us, born with a bent will and wrong desires
original sin
the government ought to protect us or get involved, distributing justice in a particular way; laws and intervention are necessary
paternalism
the name most famously associated with existentialism is the 20th century philosopher:
sartre
this refers to the issues of determining whether value language in general, and moral statements in particular, can be true or false. at bottom, this represents a worldview struggle wherein one must either accept the inevitable reductionism of nihilism or adopt a worldview that is robust enough to withstand such reductionism. upon accepting nihilism, one's world become fragmented and compartmentalized; the downstairs of scientifically-demonstrable "facts" are crowned as king over truth, while the "upstairs" becomes a dumping ground for non-empirical value ideas--and such romantic dreams are reduced to private opinions
the fact/value problem
pearcey's extension of the fact/value split to the issue of abortion
the person/body divide
schaeffer's analogy of examining worldview biases in which the downstairs of scientifically-demonstrable "facts" are crowned as king over truth, while the "upstairs" becomes a dumping ground for non-empirical value ideals--and such romantic dreams are reduced to private opinions
the two story view
a statement is meaningful if and only if it is either tautalogical or empirically verifiable
the verification principle
According to Aristotle, what is the telos of politics (government)?
to form good citizens and to cultivate good character
according to existentialism, if the world is to have any sense of justice, we will have to define it and put it there ourselves
true
ayer's philosophy was helpful in distinguishing between the cognitive and non-cognitive meaning of statements--that is, statements that have truth value versus those that have no truth value
true
Marx was passionately opposed to
Capitalism
Eudaimonia
Happiness/Human Flourishing
There are objective truths beyond sense experience that can be intuited by the power of the human mind
Rationalism
This specific view holds that objective moral principles are to be applied differently in different contexts.
Situationalism
The First Phase of Communism
Socialism
The spirit/will
The Lion
Attacking a person associated with a view rather than actually dealing with the arguments supporting the view itself.
Ad hominem
Nietzsche admired Christianity's emphasis on pity, sympathy, compassion, and altruistic self-sacrifice
False
We have a right to anything we want, but only as long as we've the physical power to obtain what we want
Hobbes
The most influential philosopher of the 1800s; the one with whom Eudemonistic Utilitarianism is most famously associated
John Stuart Mill
This specific thesis holds that there are non-overridable, exceptionless moral principles.
Moral Absolutism
According to Thomas Hobbes, men live "in that condition which is called a war; and such a war, as is for every man... There is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain... no arts; no literature; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death."
State of Nature
If a conclusion follows from the premises, WHETHER OR NOT the premises are actually true, the argument is
Valid
according to michael sandel, modern political theories of jsutice began to emphasieze
freedom
the philosophy of a group of european intellectuals, in the 1930s, which reduced all meaningful statements to only those which can be demonstrated to be true, either logically or empirically
logical positivism
the issue of determining whether value language in general, and moral statements in particular, can be true or false
the fact-value problem
moral values originate from within god
theistic moral realism
Attempting to win an argument by appealing to the listener's feeling/emotions
Ad Misericordia
There is no conceivable justification for government
Anarchy
The radical critique of foundational doctrines, and a rejection of the authority of reason
Antiphilosophy
For this philosopher, religion is irrelevant; it has made virtually no contribution to civilization, and one can be moral without God.
Bertrand Russell
For Socrates, the most important thing you could do is
Care for your soul
The principle rule in Kantiant ethics; an absolute command concerning our duties toward humanity
Categorical Imperative
Views that subordinate individual freedoms to the greater social need, like Karl Marx's Communistic Theory, are called
Collectivism
There are two main forms of ethical relativism. _________ claims that all moral principles are justified by virtue of their cultural acceptance. This form is expressed well by the saying, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do."
Conventionalism
Everything that begins to exist must have a cause. The world began to exist. Therefore something caused it to begin to exist. We call that cause God.
Cosmological Argument
Largely associated with Immanuel Kant, this view holds that moral standards are grounded in intuitive obligations- or duties. If an action is morally right, you are obligated to perform that action, regardless of the consequences, and regardless of what your private desires are.
Deontological Ethics
The obstinate, disobedient, and deformed horse
Desire
Morality is impossible apart from God's willing it
Divine Command theory
The normative ethical theory that one ought always to do whatever is in his/her best self-interest
Egoism
The term Aristotle used to speak of Happiness and human flourishing, or the 'Good Life'
Eudaimonia
Pojman, the author of your text, recited grading some of his former student's exams. Whenever his students would turn in a well-written exam, vehemently defending subjective relativism, Pojman would allow these students to win their case, and he would therefore adopt their view. Having adapted their subjectivism, he would give these exams of high caliber what appropriate grade?
F
A Libertarian would likely support legislation that makes it mandatory to wear helmet while riding a motorcycle, in order to protect people from harming themselves.
False
As explained by Sandel, in Kantian ethics a misleading truth is exactly the same as a lie
False
Because he believed in objective, universal moral truths, Nietzsche was a zealous critic of subjective relativism
False
Care Ethics focuses on the duty of caring actions; the relationships between people are not so important
False
Classical liberalism is closely associated with today's understanding of a "left-wing" "liberal", and therefore stands in opposition to "right-wing" conservative views.
False
Justice Ought to ensure that individuals are able to choose their own value
Freedom
You believe what you believe because of where you come from
Genetic Fallacy
Ring of invisibility; murder of a king; seduction of the queen
Gyges
A conditional command e.g. "If you want A, then do B," is an example of
Hypothetical Imperative
Views that emphasize freedom, like Classical Liberalism, advocated by John Stuart Mill, are called
Individualism
The analogy of the Conglomerate is meant to be an analogy of:
Inner Justice
In this case something is declared to be "good" because it is an effective means of attaining a desired end
Instrumental good
In this case something is understood to be good because of its nature; its value is not derived from other goods
Intrinsic good
Who said, :It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied"?
J.S. Mill
What philosopher bases his argument for equality within the contract upon the idea of a Veil of Ignorance
John Rawls
This aspect of JWT would consider questions like whether we are justified in going to war in the first place
Jus ad bellum
This involves the 'tying up of loose ends', such as punishing leaders, compensating victims, establishing peace agreements, etc.
Jus post bellum
This political philosophy associated with John Rawls, entails maximizing political liberty, while improving the condition of the most disadvantaged
Justice as Fairness
Because all people do not contribute equally to society, they should not have political equality.
Justice as Merit
The general form of a moral judgement should contain two primary components; the value judgement or prescription and the
Justification
Who said Religion is an oppiate of the masses
Marx
A subjectivist value system built upon an assertion of the will to become whatever one will become, and to enjoy whomever one finds oneself to be
Master morality
The theory of ____________, articulated in depth by Medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas, is the view that there exists an eternal moral law that can be discovered through reason by looking at the nature of humanity and society. In the words of the Christian apostle Paul, this is proof that God's universal and unchangeable laws are written on the hearts of all men/women.
Natural Law
A government is just if its laws and actions conform to a universal moral law-- a law that exists independently of human preference or convention
Natural Law Theory
According to Louis Pojman "Although there us no universal agreement on the traits a moral principle must have, there is a wide consensus about five features." According to this feature, moral principles have predominant authority over other kinds of principles. If a law requires an immoral act, then civil disobedience (refusing to adhere to that law) may be morally justified.
Overridingness
The name of the charioteer
Reason
One religion has it mostly or completely correct; all other religions go seriously wrong
Religious Exclusivism
Many or all religions are equally valid
Religious Pluralism
A value system based on guilt, fear, and a subversion of the will
Slave Morality
Given his study of a large number of contrasting cultures, C.S. Lewis concluded:
There is such a things as universal, objective values.
A "right" act may include both obligatory acts and permissible (optional, but not obligatory) acts.
True
Blaise Pascal said that theists and atheists both have "faith." It is impossible not to have faith in something as it relates to issues of theism.
True
For Nietzsche, all of Philosophy, science, and religion comes down to mere power-plays
True
Nietzsche's goal was was to destroy conventional morality and replace it with a higher immoral ideal
True
On the basis of subjectivism, Adolph Hitler, Mahatma, Gandhi, Ted Bundy, and Mother Teresa are equally moral; none is morally better or worse than another.
True
On the principle of Utilitarianism, the Roman practice of throwing Christians to the Lions could easily be justified as morally permissible
True
Religion provides a compelling solution to the posterity problem
True
The only way to learn virtue is by finding and imitating virtuous people
True
The problem with DCT is that it makes God's moral commands arbitrary things that can be used to justify seemingly evil acts, and it reduces the term "goodness" to a meaningless redundancy
True
Whereas Deontology and Utilitarianism are both action-based theories, Virtue Ethics is a character-based theory
True
This position holds that individual rights should always be sacrificed for the greater good of society
absolute totalitarianism
one ought always to act so as to fulfill one's duty to the absolute commands of the moral law
deontological ethics
we were born without any predetermined purpose; the world is not imbued with any sense of meaningfulness. we must therefore define our own authentic identities and assert our own meaning in a meaningless world
existentialism
a strong case can be made for viewing universalizability as a sufficient condition: "if a principle applies universally, then it is a moral one"
false
members of the heavenly city are not members of any other city
false
the government ought to play a minimal role; minimal laws and unfettered markets ensure more freedom
libertarianism
the philosophy of a group of european intellectuals, in the 1930s, which reduced all meaningful statements to only those that can be demonstrated to be true, either logically or empirically
logical positivism
moral facts exist and are part of the fabric of the universe
moral realism
this theory grounds morality in the telos of god's natural design
natural law theory
without ascribing to theism, this view holds that moral values similarly exist apart from the scientifically observable nature of the physical world, within unchanging, spirit like entities, such as platonic forms
nonnaturalistic moral realism
a philosophical presupposition, or worldview, which holds that all of reality ultimately reduces to natural explanation
philosophical naturalism
this represents a presuppositional bias, or worldview, which holds that all of reality ultimately reduces to empirical explanation. nothing exists or can be known beyond the material world. concerning ethics specifically, this view (aka materialism) represents an attempt to link moral terms with some kind of natural property. ("good" is equated to pleasure, happiness, self-interests, or human excellence and flourishing)
philosophical naturalism
examples of nonnaturalistic moral realism
plato
eternal, conscious, mental torment
psychological view of hell
"do the gods love holiness because it is holy or is it holy because the gods love it?"
the euthyphro dilemma
the fallacy regarding goodness as though it were a thing in itself.
the fallacy of hypostatization
david hume's critique of the logical problem of deriving moral commands from an observation of facts about the world
the is-ought fallacy
g.e. moores critique of the fallacy in identifying good with any specific natural property, when in actuality the good cannot be defined.
the naturalistic fallacy
according to this philosopher: human beings are, by nature, nasty brutes that tend toward war. in the state of nature, there is no morality; we have no real, intrinsic rights, but we've the freedom to claim whatever we have the power to obtain. in such a state, there is no trust, and therefore no place for society, industry, literature, etc. there is only war and fear. since this is not in our self interest, we give up many freedoms in order to create a system of morality (a contract). we create a government with absolute power in order to enforce this contract strictly and, like a parent, to force us to play nicely together
thomas hobbes
Whether or not he was who he claimed to be, and whether or not his view of the world was the correct view, the ethical teachings of Jesus seem to have been comprehensively inclusive of each of our alternative normative theories.
true
Zimmerman distinguishes between two theses of Divine Command Theory, and holds that we might actually have good reason to accept the weaker form.
true
a strong case can be made for viewing universalizability as a necessary condition: "if a principle is a moral one, then it applies universally."
true
schaeffer's analogy of examining worldview justifications with a critical eye so as to see whether one's worldview is actually able to stand, or whether they've merely asserted a groundless conclusion
"taking the roof off"
Arguing from the appeal of being like others, or fitting in with the majority
Ad populum
Christian ethical theory that emphasizes loving one another because of one's love for God
Agapeism
There are two general approaches to argumentation. This approach represents a defense of one's position or belief.
Apologetic
If I have a deep longing for a meaning and fulfillment, and I find that nothing in the world can satisfy that longing, the most likely explanation is that I was made for a different world.
Argument from Desire
This philosopher formulated the theory of Objectivism and represents the name most associated with ethical egoism
Ayn Rand
This ideology--which initially grew out of Marxism but has since evolved and splintered into several interdisciplinary theories--defines mainstream and traditional perspectives as privileged and "oppressive," and marginalized, minority perspectives as "oppressed." Thus, justice = the marginalization of the mainstream and the liberation of the marginalized.
Critical Theory
Concerned with what is due to citizens in terms of burdens necessary to make society work (such as taxes) and potential benefits to be received (income, medical care, education, political power, etc.)
Distributive Justice
The doctrine of ____________ is a method for determining the right action in every situation by following an exceptionless principle. In any situation S, it is morally permissible to do an action X, even if that action has a negative consequence Y, as long as: X is not a bad action; Y is not intended; Y is an unintended end and never a means of achieving X; and the good of X outweighs the bad of Y.
Double Effect
According to this theory, an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action
Ethical Egoism
One of the strongest arguments against cultural relativism is that it does not allow for intercultural tolerance.
False
Paternalism holds that we need more freedom and less legislation
False
Researcher Carol Gilligan made a revolutionary discovery on the issue of ethics and gender when she found that men tend to emphasize relationships while women emphasize principles
False
Secular ethics is able to account for both overridingness and objectivity
False
Zimmerman concludes that preaching tolerance commits you to the view that ethics is subjective. That is, if there is no moral truth then we ought to be tolerant of all moral views as equal.
False
For this philosopher, a Russellian world is too shallow to be able to answer the question "Why should I be moral."
George Mavrodes
The analogy of the Charioteer is meant to be an analogy of:
Happiness
In the 2000 film. Meet the Parents, which fallacy is highlighted in the following exchange between Dina, Jack, and Greg? Dina: "I had no idea you could milk a cat." Greg: "Oh yeah; you can milk anything with nipples." Jack: "I have nipples Greg. Could you milk me?"
Hasty Generalization
We renounce many rights in order to form a government
Hobbes
Many songs bring the listener to a sobering awareness of ethical issues that need to be addressed. While some artists make more of an emotional appeal, others actually formulate thoughtful arguments. Of the latter, some artists attack an ethical position--e.g. just war theory--in its entirety. Others remain silent on the issue overall; instead, these artists call our attention to a specific problem within the broader ethical issue. This was demonstrated well in the three music videos that you watched in this module. War Pigs by Black Sabbath, Fortunate Son by Creedence Clearwater Revival, and B.Y.O.B. by System of a Down all raise which of the following specific arguments.
It is unjust for the 'Haves' who start wars to send the 'Have-Nots' to do their fighting.
While both philosophers held that pleasure and pain are all that ultimately matter, which of the Classical Utilitarian's believed that there actually exist higher and lower pleasure--to use a contemporary example, that Shakespeare is actually more valuable than The Simpsons?
Mill
Given the premise, "If P is true then Q must be true;' if we argue in a positive direction by proving P in order to prove Q, this popular form of argumentation is called a
Modus Ponens
what presupposition grounds the "inalienable rights" language of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Natural law theory
The universe lacks objective meaning and purpose
Nihilism
This view holds that there are in fact no valid moral principles.
Nihilism
Purpose within the world only makes sense if someone designed the world and imbued it with purpose
Teleological Argument
In mathematics, ignoring your order of operations can cause you to end up with the wrong answer. Similarly, in logic, with arguments that begin with premises such as "If P is the case then Q must also be the case," you must take special care to argue in a purposeful manner or else you run the risk of committing a formal fallacy
True
According to Louis Pojman "Although there us no universal agreement on the traits a moral principle must have, there is a wide consensus about five features." This feature refers to the fact that moral principles must apply to all people, everywhere, who are in a relevantly similar situation.
Universalizability.
The fact that our actions are ultimately meaningless since our life has no pre-determined purpose, and the universe is ultimately meaningless
absurdity
This position claims that no government ever has a right to interfere with human autonomy
anarchism
the souls of the guilty will ultimately cease to exist, while the souls of the saved continue to exist in heaven
annihilationism
this position entails either a denial that moral values are objectively factual, or an assertion that there are no moral facts, truths, or knowledge
antirealism
realists; those who do not deny the truth of objective values (although naturalistic realists ground objectively differently than non-naturalistic realists. )
cognitivists
how can i be certain of whether i am awake or asleep? it is possible that a malicious demon is cunningly deceiving me in to thinking that i see an external world when, in fact, there is none! how can you prove that you are not trapped inside the matrix? only knowledge marked by certainty is genuine knowledge. this enlightenment philosopher doubted all empirical sensations, and through doubting he proved that the one thing which cannot be doubted is immaterial fact: i am a thinking thing. that is, while i cannot know anything with absolutely certainty about my physical body or the empirical world, i can know with absolute certainty that i am an immaterial mind. he showed us that the realist can also play the materialist's game of skepticism--and play it well.
descartes
one ought always to do whatever is in one's own best self-interest
egoism
a.j. ayer's ethical theory which reduced all value language to merely expressive utterances, such as "Charity--hooray" or "murder--boo"
emotivism
a.j. ayers ethical theory which reduced all value language to mere utterances that express our feelings, and nothing more. "murder is wrong!' really means nothing more than "murder--boo!"
emotivism
everything has a core set of properties that make a thing what it is. this determines a thing's (or person's) purpose. you, for example, were born to be a certain kind of thing
essentialism
the verification principle continues to present a formidable challenge; it has yet to be disproved
false
hell is the actualization, in full, of my desire not to be with god. to use platonic language, it is absolute immersion into the world of shadows; i am allowed to dwell forevermore fully within the cave, and all light of the good is completely withdrawn.
free will view of hell
according to this philosopher: human beings are created in the image of god. because of this, they are intrinsically valuable; because of this they have basic inalienable rights (life, liberty, and property). therefore, even in the most primitive state of nature, there exists an objective, universal moral order. not everyone respects the moral law and rights of others, however. we therefore create a government for the primary purpose of protecting our basic natural rights. but we dare not give the government too much power, for it is possible for one to rule contrary to god's moral law--the natural law--and therefore creating social structure that encourages immorality and injustice. government must therefore be quite limited in order to respect our individual, inalienable rights.
john locke
objective, universal moral facts exist and are part of the fabric of the universe
moral realism
there are no real objective moral truths; morality is merely created by each individual or culture
moral relativism
examples of antirealism
moral skepticism
an argument given/against attacking another view
polemic
r.m. hares view that, while moral statements are ultimately neither true nor false, moral utterances do not merely function to express our feelings; they also function to arouse similar feelings in others so as to encourage others to adopt our sentiments
prescriptivism
for augustine, the root of the human condition comes down to
pride
augustine's definition of evil
privation of good
mind is nothing but matter
strong naturalism
this philosophical term connotes a sense of purpose or designated ends
telos
In Plato's analogy, as articulated by Socrates, the line overall is broadly divided into two categories:
the Visible and the Intelligible
act always, only, according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it will become law, without contradiction, so as to treat humanity always as an end in itself and never as a means to an end
the categorical imperative
pearcey's extension of the fact/value split to the issue of physical identity
the gender/biology divide
david hume's critique of the fallacy of derriving moral commands from an observation of facts about the world
the is-ought fallacy
pearcey's extension of the fact/value split to the issue of "hooking up"
the personal/physical divide
if there is great suffering in the world, doesn't this undermine god's greatness, goodness, or knowledge?
the problem of evil
an attempt to answer the problem of evil; a defense of god's nature in light of the alleged problem
theodicy
which scenario best describes ambassadors of the heavenly city
they seek the good of the earthly city, but must dissent whenever its laws contradict those of the heavenly city
While most ancient worldviews were teleological--supposing an ordered harmony and purposes throughout the natural world and cosmos, it was the Judaeo-Christian legacy that influenced our contemporary convictions of intrinsic human rights and the importance of social justice.
true
one ought always to do whatever results in the greatest happiness for the greatest number
utilitarianism
According to Michael Sandel, Winnie the Pooh's justification for climbing the tree to get the honey was essentially that "the only reason for you to make a buzzing noise would be if you were a bee; the only reason for you to be a bee would be for making honey; and the only reason to make honey would be for me to eat it!" Was Pooh here offering a teleological justification or a utilitarian justification (that eating the honey would increase his happiness)?
A Teleological Justification
C.S. Lewis once said, "My argument against God was that the universe seemed so cruel and unjust. But how had I got this idea of just and unjust? A man does not call a line crooked unless he has some idea of a straight line. What was I comparing the universe with when I called it unjust?" To which argument is he implicitly appealing
Argument from Evil
Given his study of a large number of contrasting cultures, the famous ancient Greek historian, Herodotus concluded:
Moral "truths" are nothing more than customs
If there is true moral goodness within the world, then there must be an objective moral standard beyond the world
Moral Argument
The growing distaste for and rejection of ethnocentrism, in the West, has contributed to a general shift in public opinion about morality, and a gradual erosion of belief in ______.
Moral Objectivism
This is the general position that there are in fact moral principles that are universally valid for all people and social environements.
Moral Objectivism
What is James Rachel's argument?
No one deserves the worship of an inherently dignified autonomous being. The notion of God implies being worthy of worship. Therefore, god cannot exist
Given the premise, "If P is true then Q must be true;' if we argue in a negative direction by proving P to be false in order to cast doubt upon Q, this popular form of argumentation is called a
Modus Tollens
Justice ought to be concerned with encouraging economic prosperity and social well-being
Welfare
a back and forth (conversational) pattern in which progress is made; thesis gives birth to antithesis, and together these give way to synthesis
dialectic
a good act that leads to an unintended bad side-effect is morally permissible
double effect
If there's a problem with the argument itself, whether formal or informal, we call this kind of argument
fallacious
Thomas Aquinas was a proponent of Divine Command Theory
false
According to the Sandel reading, it is always and without question unfair to deny equal opportunity in sports, and special accommodations for disabilities.
False
An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative
Act-utilitarianism
To act from one's own intuition of right/wrong, and to be motivated by one's own convictions concerning that intuition; to act according to a law I give myself.
Autonomous will
Vice represents either of two extremes: excess and deficiency. If courage is a virtue then the vice of deficiency might be called
Cowardice
According to Michael Sandel, Libertarianism maps neatly onto the political spectrum, because it compliments Conservative values so well.
False
A back and forth (conversational) pattern in which progress is made; thesis gives birth to antithesis, and together these give way to synthesis
Dialectic
Relativism is a sticky topic for many reasons. One of the reasons is that the dialogue is often filled with equivocal language. Even the statement, "morals are relative" is a loaded phrase. To help us to ponder more deeply, beyond the ambiguities, philosophers have distinguished between two theses when approaching language. When someone implicitly asserts _____ thesis, they are asserting a simple fact of observation; what is considered "right" and "wrong" varies from society to society.
Diversity
All that can be known of the world is that which we observe and experience directly through the sense; morality is therefore founded upon solely upon feeling.
Empiricism
A 'herd mentality' in which an action is motivated by the authority of others; to act according to a law given to me, so to speak
Heteronomous Will
There can be no property without a government to define property rights
Hobbes
In Plato's analogy of the divided line, the two broad categories further divided. The "lower" realm is divided into:
Images and the Objects Resembled
Louis Pojman builds the case for this view, which does not simply claim that there are moral truths. Some claims to moral truth, e.g. realism or absolutism, will hold that there are moral laws existing beyond the human being. Attempting to argue for a view upon which most people will agree, Pojman claims more specifically that morality is built from a core set of moral principles that are universally valid for meeting the essential human needs and promoting the most significant human interests.
Moderate Objectivism
Sartre's term for our denial of our freedom and our responsibility for who we are
bad faith
There are two main forms of ethical relativism. _________ claims that all moral principles are justified by virtue of their acceptance by an individual agent. "What's true for you is true for you; what's true for me is true for me."
Subjectivism
When you aren't sure how best to respond, ask a question! (E.g. "What do you mean by that?")
The Columbo Tactic
People have a proclivity to breaking rules/agreements, as it often seems to be in their best interest to do so
The Prisoner's Dilemma
Utilitarianism consists of two main features: This principle involves the variable of pleasure, or the hedonic aspects of an action
The Utility Principle
A form of ad hominem which focuses upon someone's hypocrisy rather than actually dealing with the real question of whether said person's belief is correct.
To Quoque
According to this theory, an action is morally right if the consequences result in "the greatest good for the greatest number."
Utilitarianism
A just society ought to cultivate in its certain dispositions to recognize and discourage bad qualities or behaviors
Virtue
According Aristotle, because our moral behavior is directed by our habits, the foundation of morality is the development of good character traits.
Virtue Ethics
The Latin mores and the Greek ethos both translate to the idea of
custom
For this philosopher, God is necessarily the source of moral law, and yet it is not reducible arbitrary commands because he can no more change the moral law than he can change the laws of logic.
William Lane Craig
an argument given in defense of a position/view
apologetic
egoism
ayn rand
deontology
immaunel kant
something is valuable as a means to some other value
instrumental
something is valuable per se (in and of itself)
intrinsic
aristotle held that every virtuous ("excellent") habituation lies at an ideally balanced position, called the
mean
the attempt to link moral terms with some kind of natural property. (utilitarians link moral terms with the natural property of pleasure; egoists with self interests; & virtue ethics, with human flourishing)
naturalism
moral values exist objectively but in connection with specific properties such as pleasure, happiness, or excellence
naturalistic moral realism
the aspect of ethical theory that examines various moral paradigms for decision making- e.g. character; principle/duty; self interest; utility
normative ethics
in the theology of the two cities, because the earthly city deals primarily with instrumental goods, envy and conflict are inevitable and inescapable
true
in the theology of the two cities, the heavenly city and the earthly both want the same thing
true
everyone can make it to heaven, eventually. even if there is some temporary punishment for some, everyone will ultimately be saved--or, at least, continue to have the opportunity for salvation
universalism
according to michael sandel, ancient theories of political justice emphasized
virtue
mind is not the same thing as matter. nevertheless, since nothing exists beyond the material world, mind is ultimately the product of matter
weak naturalism