Ethics 2020

That aspect of moral philosophy that asks how we should act within any particular situation/dilemma, or concerning any particular controversial political issue.

Applied Ethics.

The best definition of "faith" would be:

Conviction wagering action

This philosopher saw religious conceptions of God as an immoral tyrant who is vengeful, cruel, and malicious

David Hume

Relativism is a sticky topic for many reasons. One of the reasons is that the dialogue is often filled with equivocal language. Even the statement, "morals are relative" is a loaded phrase. To help us to ponder more deeply, beyond the ambiguities, philosophers have distinguished between two theses when approaching language. When someone's assertion moves beyond a simple fact of observation-- that "right" and "wrong" varies from society to society --so as to imply that moral principles derive their validity from cultural acceptance; this is referred to as _______ thesis.

Dependency

"Virtue: (Arete) literally means

Excellence

"Morality" and "ethics" always mean the same thing.

False

For Kant, our ability to seek pleasure or avoid pain is proof of our freedom

False

If it is legal then it is moral.

False

Pojman concludes that even if theism is false, it is still likely that all humans have equal worth

False

Religious Pluralism is able to raise strong arguments against religious exclusivism without falling victim to logical contradiction

False

Zimmerman concludes that a rejection of DCT forces one into a rejection of the notion that there is any connection between God and morality

False

Bentham's Scheme for measuring pleasure

Hedonic Calculator

The general philosophy of value that asserts pleasure to be the only, or at least the highest, good.

Hedonism

For this philosopher, moral law is independent of God, but ethics depends upon religion because (1) immortality of the soul is necessary for achieving moral perfection; and (2) God is necessary for judgement and just recompense.

Immanuel Kant

Morality does not originate with God, and even God must obey the moral law.

Independence Thesis

For this philosopher, the notion of human rights amounts to little more than "nonsense on stilts."

J. Bentham

The most important Utilitarian of the Enlightenment (1700s); the one who formulated the Principle of Utility

Jeremy Bentham

How one should handle the issue of noncombatants and prisoners of war are considerations that fall under this aspect of JWT

Jus in bello

Rights are God- given and therefore inherent, indefeasible, and inalienable

Locke

We form a government in order to protect our natural rights

Locke

While it is true that natural resources belong to everyone, if you mix your labor with nature, then that part of nature becomes your rightful property and no government is necessary to decide this arrangement

Locke

The aspect of philosophy that either digs at the roots of worldview presuppositions or philosophizes about the language of moral philosophy itself, in order to question the very meaning of goodness, the nature of reality, and the structure of ethics as an object of inquiry.

Metaethics

When someone's point simply does not follow from their premises or conclusions.

Non sequitur

That aspect of moral philosophy that deals with theories of actions and our justifications for holding such theories.

Normative Ethics.

There are two general approaches to argumentation. This approach represents an aggressive attack on or refutation of the opinions or principles of another.

Polemic

A presumption made in seeking to understand a point of view in its strongest, most persuasive form before subjecting the view to evaluation and critique.

Principle of Charity

Vice represents either of two extremes: excess and deficiency. If courage is a virtue then the vice of excess might be called

Recklessness

This view holds that moral truth is determined by the culture or individual

Relativism

Concerned with giving a criminal the punishment that he or she is due

Retributive Justice

An act is right if an only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules whose acceptance would lead to greater utility for society than any alternative

Rule-utilitarianism

By giving up some of our liberty and adopting moral rules, we create an atmosphere of peace

Social Contract

If a conclusion follows from the premises, AND the premises ARE actually TRUE, the argument is

Sound

The strong-willed, but loyal horse

Spirit

Misrepresenting someone's view in order to attack it more easily

Straw Man

Highly altruistic acts that exceed what morality requires- going beyond the call of duty -are referred to as:

Supererogatory acts

__________ is an ethical term meaning "above and beyond one's call to duty."

Superogatory

A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises)

Syllogism

One of the most important issues relating to the Good Life is the question of whether there is a human purpose, or

Telos

Utilitarianism consists of two main features: This principle involves the teleological aspects of an action

The Consequentialist Principle

"Do the gods love holiness because it is holy or is it holy because the gods love it?"

The Euthyphro Dilemma

Virtue is found at an ideal point between two vices

The Golden Mean

The rational mind

The Man

The bodily desires/passions

The Multi headed Serpent

Marx sought to defend

The Proletariat

According to Socrates/Plato, the highest form of knowledge is an understanding of the Good

True

Generally speaking, it seems to be the case that gender differences may play a role in ethics.

True

The distinguishing feature of Communism is the abolishment of bourgeois property

True

The next step in human evolution; the one who rises above the oppression of morality in order to impose meaning in a meaningless universe

Ubermensch/the Overman

This political philosophy holds that a just society is one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

Utilitarian Theory

Greg Koukl and Paul Copan both take up the assertion, "atheists can be moral without God." In so many words, their conclusion is:

Yes. But the fact that they can only strengthens theism's case.

the sub-discipline of moral philosophy that critically examines situational dilemmas and controversial issues in light of prominent ethical theories

applied ethics

virtue

aristotle

examples of naturalistic moral realism

aristotle; bentham & mill; gyges

no one else did as much to shape the intellectual climate of the middle ages through the renaissance than:

augustine

the term referring to a rightly-ordered love life

charity

the term referring to a disordered love life

cupidity

philosophical/theological exploration of final things

eschatology

aristotle held that every virtuous ("excellent") habituation lies at an ideally balanced position, located between two vices: _____________ & _____________

excess and deficiency

identify the ancient (and most accurate) understanding of "justice"

give to each one his/her due

the neoplatonic idea--which greatly influenced augustine-- that all existing things take part in a greater or lesser degree of existence, and therefore a greater or lesser degree of value

great chain of being

according to the module, the problem of evil...

is a problem which all worldviews must explain

the principle of verification fails. this is because... three of the following reasons are correct; one is incorrect. which reason does not belong?

it makes morality meaningless

utility

jeremy bentham

eternal, conscious, physical torment (e.g. via fire)

literal view of hell

what does "philosopher" literally mean

lover of wisdom

the aspect of moral philosophy that either digs at the roots of worldview presuppositions, or philosophizes about the very language of moral philosophy itself, in order to question the very meaning of goodness, the nature of morality, and the structure of ethics as an object of inquiry

metaethics

the method of philosophizing about the very terms of ethics and considering the structure of ethics as an object of inquiry

metaethics

a common and powerful form of valid moral argument: If p is true, then q is true. P is true. So q is true

modus ponens

antirealists; those who deny the truth of objective values

non-cognitivists

the term referring to the fact that we were born into our predicament; we are, all of us, born with a bent will and wrong desires

original sin

the government ought to protect us or get involved, distributing justice in a particular way; laws and intervention are necessary

paternalism

the name most famously associated with existentialism is the 20th century philosopher:

sartre

this refers to the issues of determining whether value language in general, and moral statements in particular, can be true or false. at bottom, this represents a worldview struggle wherein one must either accept the inevitable reductionism of nihilism or adopt a worldview that is robust enough to withstand such reductionism. upon accepting nihilism, one's world become fragmented and compartmentalized; the downstairs of scientifically-demonstrable "facts" are crowned as king over truth, while the "upstairs" becomes a dumping ground for non-empirical value ideas--and such romantic dreams are reduced to private opinions

the fact/value problem

pearcey's extension of the fact/value split to the issue of abortion

the person/body divide

schaeffer's analogy of examining worldview biases in which the downstairs of scientifically-demonstrable "facts" are crowned as king over truth, while the "upstairs" becomes a dumping ground for non-empirical value ideals--and such romantic dreams are reduced to private opinions

the two story view

a statement is meaningful if and only if it is either tautalogical or empirically verifiable

the verification principle

According to Aristotle, what is the telos of politics (government)?

to form good citizens and to cultivate good character

according to existentialism, if the world is to have any sense of justice, we will have to define it and put it there ourselves

true

ayer's philosophy was helpful in distinguishing between the cognitive and non-cognitive meaning of statements--that is, statements that have truth value versus those that have no truth value

true

Marx was passionately opposed to

Capitalism

Eudaimonia

Happiness/Human Flourishing

There are objective truths beyond sense experience that can be intuited by the power of the human mind

Rationalism

This specific view holds that objective moral principles are to be applied differently in different contexts.

Situationalism

The First Phase of Communism

Socialism

The spirit/will

The Lion

Attacking a person associated with a view rather than actually dealing with the arguments supporting the view itself.

Ad hominem

Nietzsche admired Christianity's emphasis on pity, sympathy, compassion, and altruistic self-sacrifice

False

We have a right to anything we want, but only as long as we've the physical power to obtain what we want

Hobbes

The most influential philosopher of the 1800s; the one with whom Eudemonistic Utilitarianism is most famously associated

John Stuart Mill

This specific thesis holds that there are non-overridable, exceptionless moral principles.

Moral Absolutism

According to Thomas Hobbes, men live "in that condition which is called a war; and such a war, as is for every man... There is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain... no arts; no literature; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death."

State of Nature

If a conclusion follows from the premises, WHETHER OR NOT the premises are actually true, the argument is

Valid

according to michael sandel, modern political theories of jsutice began to emphasieze

freedom

the philosophy of a group of european intellectuals, in the 1930s, which reduced all meaningful statements to only those which can be demonstrated to be true, either logically or empirically

logical positivism

the issue of determining whether value language in general, and moral statements in particular, can be true or false

the fact-value problem

moral values originate from within god

theistic moral realism

Attempting to win an argument by appealing to the listener's feeling/emotions

Ad Misericordia

There is no conceivable justification for government

Anarchy

The radical critique of foundational doctrines, and a rejection of the authority of reason

Antiphilosophy

For this philosopher, religion is irrelevant; it has made virtually no contribution to civilization, and one can be moral without God.

Bertrand Russell

For Socrates, the most important thing you could do is

Care for your soul

The principle rule in Kantiant ethics; an absolute command concerning our duties toward humanity

Categorical Imperative

Views that subordinate individual freedoms to the greater social need, like Karl Marx's Communistic Theory, are called

Collectivism

There are two main forms of ethical relativism. _________ claims that all moral principles are justified by virtue of their cultural acceptance. This form is expressed well by the saying, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do."

Conventionalism

Everything that begins to exist must have a cause. The world began to exist. Therefore something caused it to begin to exist. We call that cause God.

Cosmological Argument

Largely associated with Immanuel Kant, this view holds that moral standards are grounded in intuitive obligations- or duties. If an action is morally right, you are obligated to perform that action, regardless of the consequences, and regardless of what your private desires are.

Deontological Ethics

The obstinate, disobedient, and deformed horse

Desire

Morality is impossible apart from God's willing it

Divine Command theory

The normative ethical theory that one ought always to do whatever is in his/her best self-interest

Egoism

The term Aristotle used to speak of Happiness and human flourishing, or the 'Good Life'

Eudaimonia

Pojman, the author of your text, recited grading some of his former student's exams. Whenever his students would turn in a well-written exam, vehemently defending subjective relativism, Pojman would allow these students to win their case, and he would therefore adopt their view. Having adapted their subjectivism, he would give these exams of high caliber what appropriate grade?

F

A Libertarian would likely support legislation that makes it mandatory to wear helmet while riding a motorcycle, in order to protect people from harming themselves.

False

As explained by Sandel, in Kantian ethics a misleading truth is exactly the same as a lie

False

Because he believed in objective, universal moral truths, Nietzsche was a zealous critic of subjective relativism

False

Care Ethics focuses on the duty of caring actions; the relationships between people are not so important

False

Classical liberalism is closely associated with today's understanding of a "left-wing" "liberal", and therefore stands in opposition to "right-wing" conservative views.

False

Justice Ought to ensure that individuals are able to choose their own value

Freedom

You believe what you believe because of where you come from

Genetic Fallacy

Ring of invisibility; murder of a king; seduction of the queen

Gyges

A conditional command e.g. "If you want A, then do B," is an example of

Hypothetical Imperative

Views that emphasize freedom, like Classical Liberalism, advocated by John Stuart Mill, are called

Individualism

The analogy of the Conglomerate is meant to be an analogy of:

Inner Justice

In this case something is declared to be "good" because it is an effective means of attaining a desired end

Instrumental good

In this case something is understood to be good because of its nature; its value is not derived from other goods

Intrinsic good

Who said, :It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied"?

J.S. Mill

What philosopher bases his argument for equality within the contract upon the idea of a Veil of Ignorance

John Rawls

This aspect of JWT would consider questions like whether we are justified in going to war in the first place

Jus ad bellum

This involves the 'tying up of loose ends', such as punishing leaders, compensating victims, establishing peace agreements, etc.

Jus post bellum

This political philosophy associated with John Rawls, entails maximizing political liberty, while improving the condition of the most disadvantaged

Justice as Fairness

Because all people do not contribute equally to society, they should not have political equality.

Justice as Merit

The general form of a moral judgement should contain two primary components; the value judgement or prescription and the

Justification

Who said Religion is an oppiate of the masses

Marx

A subjectivist value system built upon an assertion of the will to become whatever one will become, and to enjoy whomever one finds oneself to be

Master morality

The theory of ____________, articulated in depth by Medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas, is the view that there exists an eternal moral law that can be discovered through reason by looking at the nature of humanity and society. In the words of the Christian apostle Paul, this is proof that God's universal and unchangeable laws are written on the hearts of all men/women.

Natural Law

A government is just if its laws and actions conform to a universal moral law-- a law that exists independently of human preference or convention

Natural Law Theory

According to Louis Pojman "Although there us no universal agreement on the traits a moral principle must have, there is a wide consensus about five features." According to this feature, moral principles have predominant authority over other kinds of principles. If a law requires an immoral act, then civil disobedience (refusing to adhere to that law) may be morally justified.

Overridingness

The name of the charioteer

Reason

One religion has it mostly or completely correct; all other religions go seriously wrong

Religious Exclusivism

Many or all religions are equally valid

Religious Pluralism

A value system based on guilt, fear, and a subversion of the will

Slave Morality

Given his study of a large number of contrasting cultures, C.S. Lewis concluded:

There is such a things as universal, objective values.

A "right" act may include both obligatory acts and permissible (optional, but not obligatory) acts.

True

Blaise Pascal said that theists and atheists both have "faith." It is impossible not to have faith in something as it relates to issues of theism.

True

For Nietzsche, all of Philosophy, science, and religion comes down to mere power-plays

True

Nietzsche's goal was was to destroy conventional morality and replace it with a higher immoral ideal

True

On the basis of subjectivism, Adolph Hitler, Mahatma, Gandhi, Ted Bundy, and Mother Teresa are equally moral; none is morally better or worse than another.

True

On the principle of Utilitarianism, the Roman practice of throwing Christians to the Lions could easily be justified as morally permissible

True

Religion provides a compelling solution to the posterity problem

True

The only way to learn virtue is by finding and imitating virtuous people

True

The problem with DCT is that it makes God's moral commands arbitrary things that can be used to justify seemingly evil acts, and it reduces the term "goodness" to a meaningless redundancy

True

Whereas Deontology and Utilitarianism are both action-based theories, Virtue Ethics is a character-based theory

True

This position holds that individual rights should always be sacrificed for the greater good of society

absolute totalitarianism

one ought always to act so as to fulfill one's duty to the absolute commands of the moral law

deontological ethics

we were born without any predetermined purpose; the world is not imbued with any sense of meaningfulness. we must therefore define our own authentic identities and assert our own meaning in a meaningless world

existentialism

a strong case can be made for viewing universalizability as a sufficient condition: "if a principle applies universally, then it is a moral one"

false

members of the heavenly city are not members of any other city

false

the government ought to play a minimal role; minimal laws and unfettered markets ensure more freedom

libertarianism

the philosophy of a group of european intellectuals, in the 1930s, which reduced all meaningful statements to only those that can be demonstrated to be true, either logically or empirically

logical positivism

moral facts exist and are part of the fabric of the universe

moral realism

this theory grounds morality in the telos of god's natural design

natural law theory

without ascribing to theism, this view holds that moral values similarly exist apart from the scientifically observable nature of the physical world, within unchanging, spirit like entities, such as platonic forms

nonnaturalistic moral realism

a philosophical presupposition, or worldview, which holds that all of reality ultimately reduces to natural explanation

philosophical naturalism

this represents a presuppositional bias, or worldview, which holds that all of reality ultimately reduces to empirical explanation. nothing exists or can be known beyond the material world. concerning ethics specifically, this view (aka materialism) represents an attempt to link moral terms with some kind of natural property. ("good" is equated to pleasure, happiness, self-interests, or human excellence and flourishing)

philosophical naturalism

examples of nonnaturalistic moral realism

plato

eternal, conscious, mental torment

psychological view of hell

"do the gods love holiness because it is holy or is it holy because the gods love it?"

the euthyphro dilemma

the fallacy regarding goodness as though it were a thing in itself.

the fallacy of hypostatization

david hume's critique of the logical problem of deriving moral commands from an observation of facts about the world

the is-ought fallacy

g.e. moores critique of the fallacy in identifying good with any specific natural property, when in actuality the good cannot be defined.

the naturalistic fallacy

according to this philosopher: human beings are, by nature, nasty brutes that tend toward war. in the state of nature, there is no morality; we have no real, intrinsic rights, but we've the freedom to claim whatever we have the power to obtain. in such a state, there is no trust, and therefore no place for society, industry, literature, etc. there is only war and fear. since this is not in our self interest, we give up many freedoms in order to create a system of morality (a contract). we create a government with absolute power in order to enforce this contract strictly and, like a parent, to force us to play nicely together

thomas hobbes

Whether or not he was who he claimed to be, and whether or not his view of the world was the correct view, the ethical teachings of Jesus seem to have been comprehensively inclusive of each of our alternative normative theories.

true

Zimmerman distinguishes between two theses of Divine Command Theory, and holds that we might actually have good reason to accept the weaker form.

true

a strong case can be made for viewing universalizability as a necessary condition: "if a principle is a moral one, then it applies universally."

true

schaeffer's analogy of examining worldview justifications with a critical eye so as to see whether one's worldview is actually able to stand, or whether they've merely asserted a groundless conclusion

"taking the roof off"

Arguing from the appeal of being like others, or fitting in with the majority

Ad populum

Christian ethical theory that emphasizes loving one another because of one's love for God

Agapeism

There are two general approaches to argumentation. This approach represents a defense of one's position or belief.

Apologetic

If I have a deep longing for a meaning and fulfillment, and I find that nothing in the world can satisfy that longing, the most likely explanation is that I was made for a different world.

Argument from Desire

This philosopher formulated the theory of Objectivism and represents the name most associated with ethical egoism

Ayn Rand

This ideology--which initially grew out of Marxism but has since evolved and splintered into several interdisciplinary theories--defines mainstream and traditional perspectives as privileged and "oppressive," and marginalized, minority perspectives as "oppressed." Thus, justice = the marginalization of the mainstream and the liberation of the marginalized.

Critical Theory

Concerned with what is due to citizens in terms of burdens necessary to make society work (such as taxes) and potential benefits to be received (income, medical care, education, political power, etc.)

Distributive Justice

The doctrine of ____________ is a method for determining the right action in every situation by following an exceptionless principle. In any situation S, it is morally permissible to do an action X, even if that action has a negative consequence Y, as long as: X is not a bad action; Y is not intended; Y is an unintended end and never a means of achieving X; and the good of X outweighs the bad of Y.

Double Effect

According to this theory, an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action

Ethical Egoism

One of the strongest arguments against cultural relativism is that it does not allow for intercultural tolerance.

False

Paternalism holds that we need more freedom and less legislation

False

Researcher Carol Gilligan made a revolutionary discovery on the issue of ethics and gender when she found that men tend to emphasize relationships while women emphasize principles

False

Secular ethics is able to account for both overridingness and objectivity

False

Zimmerman concludes that preaching tolerance commits you to the view that ethics is subjective. That is, if there is no moral truth then we ought to be tolerant of all moral views as equal.

False

For this philosopher, a Russellian world is too shallow to be able to answer the question "Why should I be moral."

George Mavrodes

The analogy of the Charioteer is meant to be an analogy of:

Happiness

In the 2000 film. Meet the Parents, which fallacy is highlighted in the following exchange between Dina, Jack, and Greg? Dina: "I had no idea you could milk a cat." Greg: "Oh yeah; you can milk anything with nipples." Jack: "I have nipples Greg. Could you milk me?"

Hasty Generalization

We renounce many rights in order to form a government

Hobbes

Many songs bring the listener to a sobering awareness of ethical issues that need to be addressed. While some artists make more of an emotional appeal, others actually formulate thoughtful arguments. Of the latter, some artists attack an ethical position--e.g. just war theory--in its entirety. Others remain silent on the issue overall; instead, these artists call our attention to a specific problem within the broader ethical issue. This was demonstrated well in the three music videos that you watched in this module. War Pigs by Black Sabbath, Fortunate Son by Creedence Clearwater Revival, and B.Y.O.B. by System of a Down all raise which of the following specific arguments.

It is unjust for the 'Haves' who start wars to send the 'Have-Nots' to do their fighting.

While both philosophers held that pleasure and pain are all that ultimately matter, which of the Classical Utilitarian's believed that there actually exist higher and lower pleasure--to use a contemporary example, that Shakespeare is actually more valuable than The Simpsons?

Mill

Given the premise, "If P is true then Q must be true;' if we argue in a positive direction by proving P in order to prove Q, this popular form of argumentation is called a

Modus Ponens

what presupposition grounds the "inalienable rights" language of the U.S. Declaration of Independence

Natural law theory

The universe lacks objective meaning and purpose

Nihilism

This view holds that there are in fact no valid moral principles.

Nihilism

Purpose within the world only makes sense if someone designed the world and imbued it with purpose

Teleological Argument

In mathematics, ignoring your order of operations can cause you to end up with the wrong answer. Similarly, in logic, with arguments that begin with premises such as "If P is the case then Q must also be the case," you must take special care to argue in a purposeful manner or else you run the risk of committing a formal fallacy

True

According to Louis Pojman "Although there us no universal agreement on the traits a moral principle must have, there is a wide consensus about five features." This feature refers to the fact that moral principles must apply to all people, everywhere, who are in a relevantly similar situation.

Universalizability.

The fact that our actions are ultimately meaningless since our life has no pre-determined purpose, and the universe is ultimately meaningless

absurdity

This position claims that no government ever has a right to interfere with human autonomy

anarchism

the souls of the guilty will ultimately cease to exist, while the souls of the saved continue to exist in heaven

annihilationism

this position entails either a denial that moral values are objectively factual, or an assertion that there are no moral facts, truths, or knowledge

antirealism

realists; those who do not deny the truth of objective values (although naturalistic realists ground objectively differently than non-naturalistic realists. )

cognitivists

how can i be certain of whether i am awake or asleep? it is possible that a malicious demon is cunningly deceiving me in to thinking that i see an external world when, in fact, there is none! how can you prove that you are not trapped inside the matrix? only knowledge marked by certainty is genuine knowledge. this enlightenment philosopher doubted all empirical sensations, and through doubting he proved that the one thing which cannot be doubted is immaterial fact: i am a thinking thing. that is, while i cannot know anything with absolutely certainty about my physical body or the empirical world, i can know with absolute certainty that i am an immaterial mind. he showed us that the realist can also play the materialist's game of skepticism--and play it well.

descartes

one ought always to do whatever is in one's own best self-interest

egoism

a.j. ayer's ethical theory which reduced all value language to merely expressive utterances, such as "Charity--hooray" or "murder--boo"

emotivism

a.j. ayers ethical theory which reduced all value language to mere utterances that express our feelings, and nothing more. "murder is wrong!' really means nothing more than "murder--boo!"

emotivism

everything has a core set of properties that make a thing what it is. this determines a thing's (or person's) purpose. you, for example, were born to be a certain kind of thing

essentialism

the verification principle continues to present a formidable challenge; it has yet to be disproved

false

hell is the actualization, in full, of my desire not to be with god. to use platonic language, it is absolute immersion into the world of shadows; i am allowed to dwell forevermore fully within the cave, and all light of the good is completely withdrawn.

free will view of hell

according to this philosopher: human beings are created in the image of god. because of this, they are intrinsically valuable; because of this they have basic inalienable rights (life, liberty, and property). therefore, even in the most primitive state of nature, there exists an objective, universal moral order. not everyone respects the moral law and rights of others, however. we therefore create a government for the primary purpose of protecting our basic natural rights. but we dare not give the government too much power, for it is possible for one to rule contrary to god's moral law--the natural law--and therefore creating social structure that encourages immorality and injustice. government must therefore be quite limited in order to respect our individual, inalienable rights.

john locke

objective, universal moral facts exist and are part of the fabric of the universe

moral realism

there are no real objective moral truths; morality is merely created by each individual or culture

moral relativism

examples of antirealism

moral skepticism

an argument given/against attacking another view

polemic

r.m. hares view that, while moral statements are ultimately neither true nor false, moral utterances do not merely function to express our feelings; they also function to arouse similar feelings in others so as to encourage others to adopt our sentiments

prescriptivism

for augustine, the root of the human condition comes down to

pride

augustine's definition of evil

privation of good

mind is nothing but matter

strong naturalism

this philosophical term connotes a sense of purpose or designated ends

telos

In Plato's analogy, as articulated by Socrates, the line overall is broadly divided into two categories:

the Visible and the Intelligible

act always, only, according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it will become law, without contradiction, so as to treat humanity always as an end in itself and never as a means to an end

the categorical imperative

pearcey's extension of the fact/value split to the issue of physical identity

the gender/biology divide

david hume's critique of the fallacy of derriving moral commands from an observation of facts about the world

the is-ought fallacy

pearcey's extension of the fact/value split to the issue of "hooking up"

the personal/physical divide

if there is great suffering in the world, doesn't this undermine god's greatness, goodness, or knowledge?

the problem of evil

an attempt to answer the problem of evil; a defense of god's nature in light of the alleged problem

theodicy

which scenario best describes ambassadors of the heavenly city

they seek the good of the earthly city, but must dissent whenever its laws contradict those of the heavenly city

While most ancient worldviews were teleological--supposing an ordered harmony and purposes throughout the natural world and cosmos, it was the Judaeo-Christian legacy that influenced our contemporary convictions of intrinsic human rights and the importance of social justice.

true

one ought always to do whatever results in the greatest happiness for the greatest number

utilitarianism

According to Michael Sandel, Winnie the Pooh's justification for climbing the tree to get the honey was essentially that "the only reason for you to make a buzzing noise would be if you were a bee; the only reason for you to be a bee would be for making honey; and the only reason to make honey would be for me to eat it!" Was Pooh here offering a teleological justification or a utilitarian justification (that eating the honey would increase his happiness)?

A Teleological Justification

C.S. Lewis once said, "My argument against God was that the universe seemed so cruel and unjust. But how had I got this idea of just and unjust? A man does not call a line crooked unless he has some idea of a straight line. What was I comparing the universe with when I called it unjust?" To which argument is he implicitly appealing

Argument from Evil

Given his study of a large number of contrasting cultures, the famous ancient Greek historian, Herodotus concluded:

Moral "truths" are nothing more than customs

If there is true moral goodness within the world, then there must be an objective moral standard beyond the world

Moral Argument

The growing distaste for and rejection of ethnocentrism, in the West, has contributed to a general shift in public opinion about morality, and a gradual erosion of belief in ______.

Moral Objectivism

This is the general position that there are in fact moral principles that are universally valid for all people and social environements.

Moral Objectivism

What is James Rachel's argument?

No one deserves the worship of an inherently dignified autonomous being. The notion of God implies being worthy of worship. Therefore, god cannot exist

Given the premise, "If P is true then Q must be true;' if we argue in a negative direction by proving P to be false in order to cast doubt upon Q, this popular form of argumentation is called a

Modus Tollens

Justice ought to be concerned with encouraging economic prosperity and social well-being

Welfare

a back and forth (conversational) pattern in which progress is made; thesis gives birth to antithesis, and together these give way to synthesis

dialectic

a good act that leads to an unintended bad side-effect is morally permissible

double effect

If there's a problem with the argument itself, whether formal or informal, we call this kind of argument

fallacious

Thomas Aquinas was a proponent of Divine Command Theory

false

According to the Sandel reading, it is always and without question unfair to deny equal opportunity in sports, and special accommodations for disabilities.

False

An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative

Act-utilitarianism

To act from one's own intuition of right/wrong, and to be motivated by one's own convictions concerning that intuition; to act according to a law I give myself.

Autonomous will

Vice represents either of two extremes: excess and deficiency. If courage is a virtue then the vice of deficiency might be called

Cowardice

According to Michael Sandel, Libertarianism maps neatly onto the political spectrum, because it compliments Conservative values so well.

False

A back and forth (conversational) pattern in which progress is made; thesis gives birth to antithesis, and together these give way to synthesis

Dialectic

Relativism is a sticky topic for many reasons. One of the reasons is that the dialogue is often filled with equivocal language. Even the statement, "morals are relative" is a loaded phrase. To help us to ponder more deeply, beyond the ambiguities, philosophers have distinguished between two theses when approaching language. When someone implicitly asserts _____ thesis, they are asserting a simple fact of observation; what is considered "right" and "wrong" varies from society to society.

Diversity

All that can be known of the world is that which we observe and experience directly through the sense; morality is therefore founded upon solely upon feeling.

Empiricism

A 'herd mentality' in which an action is motivated by the authority of others; to act according to a law given to me, so to speak

Heteronomous Will

There can be no property without a government to define property rights

Hobbes

In Plato's analogy of the divided line, the two broad categories further divided. The "lower" realm is divided into:

Images and the Objects Resembled

Louis Pojman builds the case for this view, which does not simply claim that there are moral truths. Some claims to moral truth, e.g. realism or absolutism, will hold that there are moral laws existing beyond the human being. Attempting to argue for a view upon which most people will agree, Pojman claims more specifically that morality is built from a core set of moral principles that are universally valid for meeting the essential human needs and promoting the most significant human interests.

Moderate Objectivism

Sartre's term for our denial of our freedom and our responsibility for who we are

bad faith

There are two main forms of ethical relativism. _________ claims that all moral principles are justified by virtue of their acceptance by an individual agent. "What's true for you is true for you; what's true for me is true for me."

Subjectivism

When you aren't sure how best to respond, ask a question! (E.g. "What do you mean by that?")

The Columbo Tactic

People have a proclivity to breaking rules/agreements, as it often seems to be in their best interest to do so

The Prisoner's Dilemma

Utilitarianism consists of two main features: This principle involves the variable of pleasure, or the hedonic aspects of an action

The Utility Principle

A form of ad hominem which focuses upon someone's hypocrisy rather than actually dealing with the real question of whether said person's belief is correct.

To Quoque

According to this theory, an action is morally right if the consequences result in "the greatest good for the greatest number."

Utilitarianism

A just society ought to cultivate in its certain dispositions to recognize and discourage bad qualities or behaviors

Virtue

According Aristotle, because our moral behavior is directed by our habits, the foundation of morality is the development of good character traits.

Virtue Ethics

The Latin mores and the Greek ethos both translate to the idea of

custom

For this philosopher, God is necessarily the source of moral law, and yet it is not reducible arbitrary commands because he can no more change the moral law than he can change the laws of logic.

William Lane Craig

an argument given in defense of a position/view

apologetic

egoism

ayn rand

deontology

immaunel kant

something is valuable as a means to some other value

instrumental

something is valuable per se (in and of itself)

intrinsic

aristotle held that every virtuous ("excellent") habituation lies at an ideally balanced position, called the

mean

the attempt to link moral terms with some kind of natural property. (utilitarians link moral terms with the natural property of pleasure; egoists with self interests; & virtue ethics, with human flourishing)

naturalism

moral values exist objectively but in connection with specific properties such as pleasure, happiness, or excellence

naturalistic moral realism

the aspect of ethical theory that examines various moral paradigms for decision making- e.g. character; principle/duty; self interest; utility

normative ethics

in the theology of the two cities, because the earthly city deals primarily with instrumental goods, envy and conflict are inevitable and inescapable

true

in the theology of the two cities, the heavenly city and the earthly both want the same thing

true

everyone can make it to heaven, eventually. even if there is some temporary punishment for some, everyone will ultimately be saved--or, at least, continue to have the opportunity for salvation

universalism

according to michael sandel, ancient theories of political justice emphasized

virtue

mind is not the same thing as matter. nevertheless, since nothing exists beyond the material world, mind is ultimately the product of matter

weak naturalism