Everything's An Argument Glossary Terms
Confirmatio
(4th part of classic oration) in which a speaker or writer offers evidence for the claim
Grounds
(Toulimin) the evidence provided to support a claim and reason
Argument
1) a spoken/written/visual text that expresses a point of view 2) the use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct from persuasion
Faulty Causality
A fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that because on e event follows another, the first event causes the second
Cultural Assumption
a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture
Assumption
a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based
Necessary Reason
a cause that must be present for an effect to occur
Operational Definition
a definition that identifies an object by what is does or by the conditions that create it
Formal Definition
a definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it belongs and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class
Definition By Example
a definition that operates by identifying individual examples of what's being defined
False Authority
a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials
Begging the Question
a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or in dispute
Dogmatism
a fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it's the only conclusion acceptable within a given community
Faulty Analogy
a fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or concepts it inaccurate or inconsequential
Either Or Choice
a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other
Bandwagon Appeal
a fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended on the grounds that everyone else is following it
Equivocation
a fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language
Red Herring
a fallacy of argument in which a writer abruptly changes the topic in order to distract readers from potentially objectionable claims
Ad Hominem Argument
a fallacy of argument in which a writer's claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his or her character
Hasty Generalization
a fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data
Non Sequitur
a fallacy or argument in which claims reasons,or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another
Anaphora
a figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the beginning of several clauses
Metaphor
a figure of speech that makes a comparison
Fallacy of Argument
a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect (also known as flashpoint)
Ethnographic Observation
a form of field research involving close and extended observation of a group, event, or phenomenon
Classical Oration
a highly structured form of an argument to defend or refute a thesis, evolved into six parts; exordium, narratio, partitio, condirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio
Patchwriting
a misuse of sources in which a writer's phrase, clause, or sentence stays too close to the original language or syntax of the source
Deductive Reasoning
a process of thought in which general principles are applied to particular cases
Inductive Reasoning
a process of thought in which particular cases lead to general principles
Paraphrase
a restatement of the meaning of a piece of writing using different words from the original
Premise
a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based
Claim
a statement that asserts a belief or truth
Enthymeme
a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason (in rhetoric it is also syllogism with one term understood but not stated)
Appeal Based on Character
a strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative or credible self-image to convince and audience to accept a claim
Emotional Appeal
a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim (also known as appeal to pathos)
Logical Appeal
a strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to make audience members accept a claim
Line of Argument
a strategy or approach used in an argument (include appeals to heart, to character, and to facts)
Invitational Argument
a term used to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but inviting others to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems
Precedents
actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent actions
Rebuttal
an answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge
Propaganda
an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth
Proposal Argument
an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action
Argument of Fact
an argument in which the claim can e proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony
Argument of Evaluation
an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet established criteria
Argument of Definiton
an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition
Quantitative Argument
an argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated objectively
Qualitative argument
an argument of evaluation that relies on nonnumerial criteria supported by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic
Deliberative Argument
an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy
Forensic Argument
an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past
Ceremonial Argument
an argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of praise and blame (also known as epideictic argument)
Casual Argument
an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause
Accidental Condition
an element that helps to explain what's being defined but isn't essential to it Ex: defining a bird might be "able to fly" because most, but not all, birds can fly
Essential Condition
an element that must be part of the definition but isn't enough to define the term
Hypothesis
an expectation for the findings of one's argument
Analogy
an extended comparison between something unfamiliar and something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar
Credibility
an impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a writer in an argument
Firsthand Evidence
data (including surveys, observations, personal interviews, etc) collected and personally examined by the writer
Circumstantial Evidence
evidence from which conclusions cannot be drawn directly but have to be inferred
Experimental Evidence
evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be quantified, crucial to scientific arguments
Conditions of Rebuttals
in Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument
Backing
in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant (the because)
Genus
in a definition, the general class to which an object or concept belongs
Reason
in writing, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it
Evidence
material offered to support an argument
Inverted Word Order
moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual order for special effect
Artistic Appeal
support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence
Inartistic Appeal
support for an argument using evidence the writer finds rather than creates
Hard Evidence
support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other evidence the writer finds
Persuasion
the act of seeking to change someone else's point of view
Plagiarism
the act of using the words, phrases, and expressions of others without proper citation or acknowledgement
Intended Readers
the actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address in a piece of writing
Conviction
the belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable
Immediate Reason
the cause that leads directly to an effect
Context
the entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including writer's purpose(s) for writing
Refutatio
the fifth part of classical oration,in which a speaker or writer acknowledges and refutes opposing claims or evidence
Exordium
the first part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer tries to win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject
Purpose
the goal of an argument
Background
the information a writer provides to create the context for an argument
Kairos
the opportune moment, in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most opportune way to make it
Audience
the person or persons whom an argument is directed
Delivery
the presentation of a spoken argument
Invention
the process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim
Authority
the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his or her subject and confident in that knowledge
Invoked Readers
the readers directly addressed or implied in a text, which may include some that the writer didn't consciously intend to reach
Narrito
the second part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer presents the facts or a case
Ethos
the self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers (also ethical appeal)
Peroratio
the sixth and final part of classical oration, in which a speaker or writer summarizes the case and moves the audience to action
Criterion
the standard by which something is measured to determine its quality or value
Connotation
the suggestions or associations that surround most words and extend beyond their literal meaning, creating associational effects
Partito
the third part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer divides up the subjects and explains what the claim will be
Antithesis
the use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts or opposites Ex: That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind
Irony
use of language that suggests a meaning in contrast to the literal meaning of the words
Hyperbole
use of overstatement for special effect
Parallelism
use of similar grammatical structures or forms for pleasing effect
Antonomasia
use of title, epithet, or description in place of name
Qualifiers
words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim
Academic Argument
writing that is addressed to an audience well informed about the topic, that aims to convey a clear and compelling point